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Guzmán LB, Vogler RE, Beltramino AA. The mitochondrial genome of the semi-slug Omalonyx unguis (Gastropoda: Succineidae) and the phylogenetic relationships within Stylommatophora. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0253724. [PMID: 34170937 PMCID: PMC8232460 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0253724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Here we report the first complete mitochondrial genome of the semi-slug Omalonyx unguis (d’Orbigny, 1836) (Gastropoda: Succineidae). Sequencing was performed on a specimen from Argentina. Assembly was performed using Sanger data and Illumina next generation sequencing (NGS). The mitogenome was 13,984 bp in length and encoded the 37 typical Metazoan genes. A potential origin for mitochondrial DNA replication was found in a non-coding intergenic spacer (49 bp) located between cox3 and tRNA-Ile genes, and its secondary structure was characterized. Secondary structure models of the tRNA genes of O. unguis largely agreed with those proposed for other mollusks. Secondary structure models for the two rRNA genes were also obtained. To our knowledge, the 12S-rRNA model derived here is the first complete one available for mollusks. Phylogenetic analyses based on the mitogenomes of O. unguis and 37 other species of Stylommatophora were performed using amino acid sequences from the 13 protein-coding genes. Our results located Succineoidea as a sister group of Helicoidea + Urocoptoidea, similar to previous studies based on mitochondrial genomes. The gene arrangement of O. unguis was identical to that reported for another species of Succineoidea. The unique rearrangements observed for this group within Stylommatophora, may constitute synapomorphies for the superfamily.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leila Belén Guzmán
- Grupo de Investigación en Genética de Moluscos (GIGeMol), Instituto de Biología Subtropical (IBS), CONICET–UNaM, Posadas, Misiones, Argentina
- * E-mail: (LBG); (AAB)
| | - Roberto Eugenio Vogler
- Grupo de Investigación en Genética de Moluscos (GIGeMol), Instituto de Biología Subtropical (IBS), CONICET–UNaM, Posadas, Misiones, Argentina
| | - Ariel Aníbal Beltramino
- Grupo de Investigación en Genética de Moluscos (GIGeMol), Instituto de Biología Subtropical (IBS), CONICET–UNaM, Posadas, Misiones, Argentina
- * E-mail: (LBG); (AAB)
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Pereira CADJ, Coaglio AL, Capettini LS, Becattini R, Ferreira APPN, Costa A, Soares LM, Oliveira LL, Lima WDS. New approaches to studying morphological details of intramolluscan stages of Angiostrongylus vasorum. REVISTA BRASILEIRA DE PARASITOLOGIA VETERINARIA = BRAZILIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY PARASITOLOGY : ORGAO OFICIAL DO COLEGIO BRASILEIRO DE PARASITOLOGIA VETERINARIA 2020; 29:e000420. [PMID: 32609238 DOI: 10.1590/s1984-29612020044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2020] [Accepted: 04/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Angiostrongylus vasorum is a pulmonary artery parasite of domestic and wild canid. On molluscs, intermediate host, first stage larvae (L1) are found after the first day of infection, in the 8th L2 and in the 30 th L3. It was evaluated L1, L2 and L3 recovered by Baermann technique from Achatina fulica infected with 1000 L1. Fifty larvae/stage were incubated with antibodies anti-β-tubulin, anti-α-tubulin, anti- α-actin, anti-β-actin and anti-collagen, and then with Alexa 633. Fifty larvae/stage were observed with picrosirius red and Oil Red O. It was also observed in the anterior region of L1 the beginning of the chitinous stems development, in the initial portion of the intestine and genital primordium. In L2 anterior region, the papillae, chitinous canes juxtaposed to the mouth and intestines bigger than L1. The L3 musculature is well defined, next to the chitinous stems, there are two round distally arranged from each other. It was observed the whole extension of the intestine genital primordium and intense cellularity in the L3 distal portion. With the picrosirius red the L1, L2 and L3 musculature could be observed, as the nerve ganglia on L3. Oil Red O revealed that L1, L2 and L3 store energy on lipid droplets.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Aytube Lucas Coaglio
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas - UFMG, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil
| | - Luciano Santos Capettini
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas - UFMG, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil
| | - Raphael Becattini
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas - UFMG, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil
| | - Ana Paula Pereira Neves Ferreira
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas - UFMG, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil
| | - Andreia Costa
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas - UFMG, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil
| | - Lanuze Mozzer Soares
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas - UFMG, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil
| | - Laura Lúcia Oliveira
- Departamento Zootecnia, Universidade Estadual de Montes Claros - UNIMONTES, Janaúba, MG, Brasil
| | - Walter Dos Santos Lima
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas - UFMG, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil
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Coaglio AL, Ferreira MAND, Dos Santos Lima W, de Jesus Pereira CA. Identification of a phenoloxidase- and melanin-dependent defence mechanism in Achatina fulica infected with Angiostrongylus vasorum. Parasit Vectors 2018; 11:113. [PMID: 29482644 PMCID: PMC5828409 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-018-2710-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Accepted: 02/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Angiostrongylus vasorum has different freshwater aquatic and terrestrial gastropod molluscs as an intermediate host, e.g. Arion spp. The mollusc Achatina fulica is a danger to public health, given the large diversity of nematodes utilizing it as an intermediate host, such as the parasites of the genus Angiostrongylus, of importance in human and veterinary medicine. Achatina fulica has been shown to have an excellent capacity for maintaining outbreaks and natural infections with A. cantonensis in Asia. Within the mollusc, the nematode parasites activate haemocytes and/or haemolymph factors and in some invertebrates, phenoloxidase (PO), that induces the release of toxic elements and eliminates the parasites. Despite the importance of A. fulica in the life-cycle of nematodes, little is known regarding the defence mechanisms involving PO in molluscs infected with nematodes. Here, the presence of PO and nitric oxide (NO) in the haemolymph and haemocytes of A. fulica infected with first-stage (L1) larvae of Angiostrongylus vasorum was evaluated, together with the presence of melanin in the cephalopod mollusc tissue. Results An increase in PO at one day post infection (dpi), in comparison with the control using the substrates L-tyrosine (F(4,90) = 6.73, P = 0.00006), L-DOPA (F(4,90) = 22.67, P = 0.02) and p-phenylenediamine (PPD) (F(4,90) = 27.58, P = 0.0019), was observed. PO increase coincided with the presence of melanin in the cephalopodal tissue. At 8 dpi, PO activity, compared to L-DOPA (F(4,90) = 22.67, P = 0.00002) and PPD (F(4,90) = 27.58, P = 0.079) decreased, while melanin increased. At 13 dpi, PO decreased with PPD (F(4,90) = 27.58, P = 0.000015) and also the amount of melanin observed in histology. At 30 dpi, PO increased along with the substrates L-DOPA and PPD, while melanin decreased. NO levels increased until 8 dpi, and decreased after 13 dpi. Conclusions To our knowledge, this is the first study that illustrates PO activity in a helminth-infected A. fulica and provides the first observation of an L-tyrosine dependent PO activity in molluscs infected with A. vasorum. This work suggests that PO pathway may help to control A. vasorum infection in A. fulica.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aytube Lucas Coaglio
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | | | - Walter Dos Santos Lima
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
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Coscarelli D, Montresor LC, Russo P, Melo ALD, Vidigal TH. Predicting the distribution of Omalonyx (Mollusca: Pulmonata: Succineidae) species from literature review, museum databases and new sampling efforts in Brazil. BIOTA NEOTROPICA 2018. [DOI: 10.1590/1676-0611-bn-2017-0409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Abstract Accurate distributional information is crucial for studies on systematics, biodiversity and conservation. To improve the knowledge regarding the geographical distribution of Omalonyx in South America, we present updated information based on data from a literature review, institutional collections and malacological surveys. All this information composed the dataset used to predict species distribution employing the Maximum Entropy Algorithm (MaxEnt). The model was run using data on species distribution, altitude and bioclimatic variables (WorldClim database). The model had consistent performance, and areas presenting similar conditions to areas where the species were recorded were considered areas of occurrence. The predicted occurrence areas included those that were already surveyed and those that are considered potential occurrence areas. The results demonstrate that the genus has widespread distribution in the Neotropical region and occurs in the tropical, temperate and arid regions of South America and Lesser Antilles. Omalonyx spp. were recorded in all South American countries and hydrographic regions. However, in some countries, there were only isolated records (ex: Colombia and Ecuador). Here, we also present the first record of Omalonyx spp. in four Brazilian States (Acre, Rondônia, Piaui, and Amapá). The genus was found in all hydrographic regions within Brazil and among 27 federative unities; it was absent from only two unities (Roraima State and Distrito Federal). This work contributes to the knowledge on Omalonyx spp. distribution and provides an important basis for the work of ecologists and taxonomists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Coscarelli
- Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil; Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil
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Vidigal THDA, Coscarelli D, Paixão H, Bernardes S, Montresor LC, Pepato AR. Integrative taxonomy of the neotropical genusOmalonyx(Elasmognatha: Succineidae). ZOOL SCR 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/zsc.12271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Daniel Coscarelli
- Departamento de Zoologia; Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais; Belo Horizonte Brazil
| | - Hugo Paixão
- Departamento de Zoologia; Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais; Belo Horizonte Brazil
| | - Samuel Bernardes
- Departamento de Zoologia; Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais; Belo Horizonte Brazil
| | - Lângia C. Montresor
- Laboratório de Malacologia; Instituto Oswaldo Cruz; Fundação Oswaldo Cruz; Rio de Janeiro Brazil
| | - Almir R. Pepato
- Departamento de Zoologia; Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais; Belo Horizonte Brazil
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Jang HY, Parent JM, Hagen C, Colwell E, Rist PM, Murphy N, Burton S, Conboy G. Paradoxical vestibular syndrome in a dog from western Newfoundland infected with French heartworm (Angiostrongylus vasorum). THE CANADIAN VETERINARY JOURNAL = LA REVUE VETERINAIRE CANADIENNE 2016; 57:1251-1255. [PMID: 27928171 PMCID: PMC5109626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
A dog from western Newfoundland was presented with paradoxical vestibular syndrome. First-stage larvae of Angiostrongylus vasorum were detected on fecal examination. Treatment with milbemycin oxime resulted in resolution of signs. This is the first report of the spread of this parasite to western Newfoundland and of paradoxical vestibular syndrome in a dog infected with A. vasorum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hye-Yeon Jang
- Address all correspondence to Dr. Hye-Yeon Jang; e-mail:
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The development of Angiostrongylus vasorum (Baillet, 1866) in the freshwater snail Pomacea canaliculata (Lamarck, 1822). J Helminthol 2016; 89:755-9. [PMID: 26442708 DOI: 10.1017/s0022149x14000856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Angiostrongylus vasorum is a parasitic nematode that infects the heart and pulmonary artery and its branches of domestic and wild canids. The parasite can use several species of terrestrial and aquatic molluscs as intermediate hosts, although susceptibility varies. Pomacea canaliculata is a mollusc found in lakes, swamps and rivers in South America. In this study, we evaluated the susceptibility, parasite growth, oviposition and larval development of 282 P. canaliculata infected with 500 A. vasorum first-instar larvae (L1). From day 5 post-infection (pi) to day 30 pi, seven specimens per day were sacrificed to recover the larval instars. We compared 50 egg masses from infected and uninfected molluscs to determine the number of eggs per clutch, the hatching rate and the growth of the molluscs. The percentage of recovered larvae ranged from 39.17% to 67.5%. First-stage larvae (L1) were found until day 19 pi, second-stage larvae (L2) were found from days 11 to 25 pi, and third-stage larvae (L3) were recovered only after day 19 pi. Infected snails exhibited the most eggs during spawning, although the rate of hatching and shell size were lower in the infected snails compared with controls. This is the first report of an experimental infection of P. canaliculata with A. vasorum, and the results confirm the non-specificity of the nematode in relation to the intermediate host and indicate the importance of epidemiological surveys of this parasite and mollusc.
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Arruda JO, Barker GM, Thomé JW. Revaluation of the taxonomic characters and distribution of Omalonyx geayi (Gastropoda, Succineidae). IHERINGIA. SERIE ZOOLOGIA 2016. [DOI: 10.1590/1678-4766e2016019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Omalonyx geayi Tillier, 1980 was originally described on the basis of specimens from Kaw swamp, French Guiana. This species distinguished from other of Omalonyx d'Orbigny, 1837: (i) by hermaphrodite duct twice as long and sacculate, without radial ducts but a funnel-shaped insertion on the ovariotestis, and (ii) by longitudinal wrinkled folds on the phallus inner wall. Two recent collections - from Trinidad and Carauari (Amazonas, Brazil) included specimens with ovariotestis and hermaphrodite duct morphologies similar to that originally described for O. geayi, but with phallus morphology not consistent with identification as O. geayi. A further eight lots, from Suriname, Ecuador, Brazil (Amazonas and Alagoas States), Bolivia and Cayenne-Kourou Road in French Guiana comprised specimens with phallus morphology analogous to O. geayi and ovariotestis and hermaphrodite duct similar to that of other Omalonyx species. Based on histological examination, and earlier phylogenetic analyses of morphological characters, we conclude that the ovariotestis and hermaphrodite duct conditions previously described for O. geayi were based on parasitized specimens. Accordingly, O. geayi is redescribed, and new information presented on the species' wide distribution in South America.
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Larval development of Angiostrongylus vasorum in the land snail Helix aspersa. Parasitol Res 2015; 114:3649-55. [DOI: 10.1007/s00436-015-4592-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2015] [Accepted: 06/16/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Lesage C, Patrelle C, Vrignaud S, Decors A, Ferté H, Jouet D. Intermediate hosts of Protostrongylus pulmonalis (Frölich, 1802) and P. oryctolagi Baboš, 1955 under natural conditions in France. Parasit Vectors 2015; 8:104. [PMID: 25889190 PMCID: PMC4336746 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-015-0717-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2014] [Accepted: 02/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Protostrongylus oryctolagi and P. pulmonalis are causative agents of pulmonary protostrongyliasis in Lagomorphs in France. These nematodes need usually one intermediate host for its life cycle, a terrestrial snail. However, some studies, mainly in experimental conditions, have identified the species of snails acting as intermediate hosts. METHODS In total, 3315 terrestrial snails and 307 slugs were collected in the field in South-Eastern France and analyzed to detect the presence of parasites. Identification of nematode parasites and snails were performed according to morphological and molecular approaches (D2 domain of the 28S rDNA for parasites; 18S and ITS-1 rDNA, COI and 16S mtDNA for snails). RESULTS Eighteen snails were found positive for Protostrongylids larvae. Haplotypes of the larvae corresponding to sequences of P. oryctolagi and P. pulmonalis were detected. Morphological identification of molluscs based on shell characters revealed 4 different morphotypes, and molecular results confirm the membership of these gastropods to the Hygromiidae and revealed 4 different species: Candidula gigaxii, 2 species of Cernuella sp. and Xeropicta derbentina. All infested snails were collected in wine cultures. CONCLUSION This study displays the first description of intermediate hosts of P. oryctolagi and the first report of X. derbentina as natural intermediate host of P. pulmonalis.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Cluster Analysis
- DNA, Helminth/chemistry
- DNA, Helminth/genetics
- DNA, Ribosomal/chemistry
- DNA, Ribosomal/genetics
- DNA, Ribosomal Spacer/chemistry
- DNA, Ribosomal Spacer/genetics
- France
- Gastropoda/parasitology
- Life Cycle Stages
- Metastrongyloidea/growth & development
- Metastrongyloidea/physiology
- Microscopy
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Phylogeny
- RNA, Ribosomal, 16S/genetics
- RNA, Ribosomal, 18S/genetics
- RNA, Ribosomal, 28S/genetics
- Sequence Analysis, DNA
- Snails/classification
- Snails/genetics
- Snails/parasitology
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Affiliation(s)
- Célia Lesage
- EA 4688 (VECPAR), UFR de Pharmacie, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, 51 rue Cognacq-Jay, 51096, Reims, France.
- Office National de la Chasse et de la Faune Sauvage, Direction des études et de la recherche, 5 rue de Saint Thibaud, 78610, Auffargis, France.
| | - Cécile Patrelle
- EA 4688 (VECPAR), UFR de Pharmacie, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, 51 rue Cognacq-Jay, 51096, Reims, France.
| | | | - Anouk Decors
- Office National de la Chasse et de la Faune Sauvage, Direction des études et de la recherche, 5 rue de Saint Thibaud, 78610, Auffargis, France.
| | - Hubert Ferté
- EA 4688 (VECPAR), UFR de Pharmacie, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, 51 rue Cognacq-Jay, 51096, Reims, France.
| | - Damien Jouet
- EA 4688 (VECPAR), UFR de Pharmacie, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, 51 rue Cognacq-Jay, 51096, Reims, France.
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Mozzer L, Lima W. Gallus gallus domesticus: Paratenic host of Angiostrongylus vasorum. Vet Parasitol 2015; 207:81-4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2014.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2014] [Revised: 10/25/2014] [Accepted: 11/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Parasitological and hematological aspects of co-infection with Angiostrongylus vasorum and Ancylostoma caninum in dogs. Vet Parasitol 2014; 200:111-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2013.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2013] [Revised: 11/29/2013] [Accepted: 12/01/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Mozzer LR, Lima WS. Rupture of the thoracic aorta associated with experimental Angiostrongylus vasorum infection in a dog. Parasite 2012; 19:189-91. [PMID: 22550632 PMCID: PMC3671434 DOI: 10.1051/parasite/2012192189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
This note describes the sudden death of a dog by the rupture of the thoracic aorta caused by the presence of Angiostrongylus vasorum. A female mongrel canine with a history of weight loss and exhaustion died two hours after clinical examination. At necropsy, performed one hour after death, showed the presence of clotted blood in the thoracic cavity. Haemothorax was diagnosed. The thoracic aorta wall was thin, congested and an abnormal hole in the wall was detected approximately 0.5 cm from the entrance to the diaphragm. From clotted blood collected from the thoracic cavity, 224 first stage larvae (L1) and 15 adults of Angiostrongylus vasorum were recovered alive. Also, from a blood clot found in the aorta, four adult females and 47 L1 larvae were recovered alive. Possibly, this parasite was responsible for the aortic rupture and death of the animal.
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Affiliation(s)
- L R Mozzer
- Department of Parasitology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Av. Presidente Antônio Carlos 6627, 31270-901, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil.
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Analysis of Circulating Haemocytes from Biomphalaria glabrata following Angiostrongylus vasorum Infection Using Flow Cytometry. J Parasitol Res 2012; 2012:314723. [PMID: 22545202 PMCID: PMC3321552 DOI: 10.1155/2012/314723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2011] [Revised: 01/06/2012] [Accepted: 01/07/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Angiostrongylus vasorum is an emerging parasite of dogs and related to carnivores that have an indirect life cycle, with a wide range of terrestrial and aquatic gastropods as the obligatory intermediate host. Unfortunately, the relationship between A. vasorum and their snail hosts remains poorly understood. Circulating haemocytes are the main line of cellular defence involved in the destruction of helminths in snails. Aiming to further characterize the haemocyte subsets in Biomphalaria snails, we have performed a flow cytometric analysis of whole haemolymph cellular components using a multiparametric dual colour labelling procedure. Our findings demonstrated that B. glabrata infected with A. vasorum have two major circulating haemocyte subsets, referred to as small and large haemocytes. Differences in the cell proportion occurred over time. The development of better invertebrate infection control strategies would certainly result in the better control of human diseases caused by other species of the genus Angiostrongylus. Such knowledge will assist in the establishment of novel control strategies aimed at parasites that use molluscs as intermediate hosts and clarify new aspects of the parasite-host relationship regarding cell recognition and activation mechanisms, which are also found in the innate response of vertebrates.
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