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Chisari CG, Sgarlata E, Arena S, Toscano S, Luca M, Patti F. Rituximab for the treatment of multiple sclerosis: a review. J Neurol 2022; 269:159-183. [PMID: 33416999 PMCID: PMC7790722 DOI: 10.1007/s00415-020-10362-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2020] [Revised: 12/03/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
In the last decades, evidence suggesting the direct or indirect involvement of B cells on multiple sclerosis (MS) pathogenesis has accumulated. The increased amount of data on the efficacy and safety of B-cell-depleting therapies from several studies has suggested the addition of these drugs as treatment options to the current armamentarium of disease modifying therapies (DMTs) for MS. Particularly, rituximab (RTX), a chimeric monoclonal antibody directed at CD20 positive B lymphocytes resulting in cell-mediated apoptosis, has been demonstrated to reduce inflammatory activity, incidence of relapses and new brain lesions on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in patients with relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS). Additional evidence also demonstrated that patients with progressive MS (PMS) may benefit from RTX, which also showed to be well tolerated, with acceptable safety risks and favorable cost-effectiveness profile.Despite these encouraging results, RTX is currently approved for non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, several forms of vasculitis and rheumatoid arthritis, while it can only be administered off-label for MS treatment. Between Northern European countries exist different rules for using not licensed drug for treating MS. The Sweden MS register reports a high rate (53.5%) of off-label RTX prescriptions in relation to other annually started DMTs to treat MS patients, while Danish and Norwegian neurologists have to use other anti-CD20 drugs, as ocrelizumab, in most of the cases.In this paper, we review the pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, clinical efficacy, safety profile and cost effectiveness aspects of RTX for the treatment of MS. Particularly, with the approval of new anti-CD20 DMTs, the recent worldwide COVID-19 emergency and the possible increased risk of infection with this class of drugs, this review sheds light on the use of RTX as an alternative treatment option for MS management, while commenting the gaps of knowledge regarding this drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara Grazia Chisari
- Department “GF Ingrassia”, Section of Neurosciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Eleonora Sgarlata
- Department “GF Ingrassia”, Section of Neurosciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy ,Stroke Unit, Department of Medicine, Umberto I Hospital, Siracusa, Italy
| | - Sebastiano Arena
- Department “GF Ingrassia”, Section of Neurosciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Simona Toscano
- Department “GF Ingrassia”, Section of Neurosciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Maria Luca
- Department “GF Ingrassia”, Section of Neurosciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Francesco Patti
- Department "GF Ingrassia", Section of Neurosciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.
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2
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Tay C, Kanellakis P, Hosseini H, Cao A, Toh BH, Bobik A, Kyaw T. B Cell and CD4 T Cell Interactions Promote Development of Atherosclerosis. Front Immunol 2020; 10:3046. [PMID: 31998318 PMCID: PMC6965321 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.03046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2019] [Accepted: 12/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Interaction between B and CD4 T cells is crucial for their optimal responses in adaptive immunity. Immune responses augmented by their partnership promote chronic inflammation. Here we report that interaction between B and CD4 T cells augments their atherogenicity to promote lipid-induced atherosclerosis. Genetic deletion of the gene encoding immunoglobulin mu (μ) heavy chain (μMT) in ApoE−/− mice resulted in global loss of B cells including those in atherosclerotic plaques, undetectable immunoglobulins and impaired germinal center formation. Despite unaffected numbers in the circulation and peripheral lymph nodes, CD4 T cells were also reduced in spleens as were activated and memory CD4 T cells. In hyperlipidemic μMT−/− ApoE−/− mice, B cell deficiency decreased atherosclerotic lesions, accompanied by absence of immunoglobulins and reduced CD4 T cell accumulation in lesions. Adoptive transfer of B cells deficient in either MHCII or co-stimulatory molecule CD40, molecules required for B and CD4 T cell interaction, into B cell-deficient μMT−/− ApoE−/− mice failed to increase atherosclerosis. In contrast, wildtype B cells transferred into μMT−/− ApoE−/− mice increased atherosclerosis and increased CD4 T cells in lesions including activated and memory CD4 T cells. Transferred B cells also increased their expression of atherogenic cytokines IL-1β, TGF-β, MCP-1, M-CSF, and MIF, with partial restoration of germinal centers and plasma immunoglobulins. Our study demonstrates that interaction between B and CD4 T cells utilizing MHCII and CD40 is essential to augment their function to increase atherosclerosis in hyperlipidemic mice. These findings suggest that targeting B cell and CD4 T cell interaction may be a therapeutic strategy to limit atherosclerosis progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Tay
- Vascular Biology and Atherosclerosis Laboratory, Baker Heart and Diabetes Institute, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Centre for Inflammatory Diseases, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Peter Kanellakis
- Vascular Biology and Atherosclerosis Laboratory, Baker Heart and Diabetes Institute, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Hamid Hosseini
- Vascular Biology and Atherosclerosis Laboratory, Baker Heart and Diabetes Institute, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Centre for Inflammatory Diseases, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Anh Cao
- Vascular Biology and Atherosclerosis Laboratory, Baker Heart and Diabetes Institute, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Ban-Hock Toh
- Centre for Inflammatory Diseases, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Alex Bobik
- Vascular Biology and Atherosclerosis Laboratory, Baker Heart and Diabetes Institute, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Department of Immunology and Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Tin Kyaw
- Vascular Biology and Atherosclerosis Laboratory, Baker Heart and Diabetes Institute, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Centre for Inflammatory Diseases, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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3
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Fattahi M, Eskandari N, Sotoodehnejadnematalahi F, Shaygannejad V, Kazemi M. Comparison of The Expression of miR-326 between Interferon beta Responders and Non-Responders in Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis. CELL JOURNAL 2019; 22:92-95. [PMID: 31606972 PMCID: PMC6791062 DOI: 10.22074/cellj.2020.6486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2018] [Accepted: 01/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Objective Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory disease resulting in demyelination of the central nervous system
(CNS). T helper 17 (Th17) subset protects the human body against pathogens and induces neuroinflammation, which
leads to neurodegeneration. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a specific class of small (~22 nt) non-coding RNAs that act as
post-transcriptional regulators. The expression of the miR-326 is highly associated with the pathogenesis of MS disease
in patients through the promotion of Th17 development. Recently, studies showed that disease-modifying therapies
(DMTs) could balance the dysregulation of miRNAs in the immune cells of patients with relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS).
Interferon-beta (IFN-β) has emerged as one of the most common drugs for the treatment of RR-MS patients. The
purpose of this study was to evaluate the expression of the miR-326 in RRMS patients who were responders and non-
responders to IFN-β treatment.
Materials and Methods In this cross-sectional study, a total of 70 patients (35 responders and 35 non-responders)
were enrolled. We analyzed the expression of the miR-326 in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of RRMS
patients at least one year after the initiation of IFN-β therapy. Real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was
applied to measure the expression of the miR-326.
Results The results showed no substantial change in the expression of the miR-326 between responders and non-
responders concerning the treatment with IFN-β. Although the expression of the miR-326 was slightly reduced in
IFN-β-responders compared with IFN-β-non-responders; however, the reduction of the miR-326 was not statistically
significant.
Conclusion Overall, since IFN-β doesn’t normalize abnormal expression of miR-326, this might suggest that IFN-β
affects Th17 development through epigenetic mechanisms other than miR-326 regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahtab Fattahi
- Department of Biology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Nahid Eskandari
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran.Electronic Address: .,Applied Physiology Research Centre, Isfahan Cardiovascular Research Institute, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | | | - Vahid Shaygannejad
- Department of Neurology, Isfahan Neurosciences Research Center, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Mohammad Kazemi
- Department of Genetic and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
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Lubina-Dąbrowska N, Stepień A, Sulkowski G, Dąbrowska-Bouta B, Langfort J, Chalimoniuk M. Effects of IFN-β1a and IFN-β1b treatment on the expression of cytokines, inducible NOS (NOS type II), and myelin proteins in animal model of multiple sclerosis. Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz) 2017; 65:325-338. [PMID: 28299403 PMCID: PMC5511332 DOI: 10.1007/s00005-017-0458-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2016] [Accepted: 02/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of interferon (IFN)-β1a and IFN-β1b treatment on inflammatory factors and myelin protein levels in the brain cortex of the Lewis rat experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), animal model of multiple sclerosis. To induce EAE, rat were immunized with inoculums containing spinal cord guinea pig homogenized in phosphate-buffered saline and emulsified in Freund's complete adjuvant containing 110 µg of the appropriate antigen in 100 µl of an emulsion and additionally 4-mg/ml Mycobacterium tuberculosis (H37Ra). The rats were treated three times per week with subcutaneous applications of 300,000 units IFN-β1a or IFN-β1b. The treatments were started 8 days prior to immunization and continued until day 14 after immunization. The rats were killed on the 14th day of the experiment. EAE induced dramatic increase in interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-concentrations and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression in the brain, which closely corresponded to the course of neurological symptoms and the loss of weight. Both IFN-β1b and IFN-β1a treatments inhibited the pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α and IFN-γ), decreased the activation of astrocytes, increased the myelin protein level in the brain cortex, and improved the neurological status of EAE rats by different mechanisms; IFN-β1a reduced iNOS expression, at least in part, by the enhancement of IL-10, while IFN-β1b diminished IL-10 concentration and did not decrease EAE-induced iNOS expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Lubina-Dąbrowska
- Neurology Clinic, Military Institute of Medicine, Warsaw, Poland
- Department of Cellular Signalling, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawińskiego 5, 02-106, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Adam Stepień
- Neurology Clinic, Military Institute of Medicine, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Grzegorz Sulkowski
- Laboratory of Pathoneurochemistry, Department of Neurochemistry, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Beata Dąbrowska-Bouta
- Laboratory of Pathoneurochemistry, Department of Neurochemistry, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Józef Langfort
- Department of Experimental Pharmacology, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
- Department of Sports Training, The Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, Katowice, Poland
| | - Małgorzata Chalimoniuk
- Department of Cellular Signalling, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawińskiego 5, 02-106, Warsaw, Poland.
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5
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miRNAs Participate in MS Pathological Processes and Its Therapeutic Response. Mediators Inflamm 2016; 2016:4578230. [PMID: 27073296 PMCID: PMC4814683 DOI: 10.1155/2016/4578230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2015] [Accepted: 02/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis is the most common autoimmune disease of the central nervous system. It is believed that the increased migration of autoreactive lymphocytes across the blood-brain barrier (BBB) may be responsible for axonal demyelination of neurons. In this review, we discuss microRNAs participating in the pathological processes of MS, including periphery inflammation, blood-brain barrier disruption, and CNS lesions, and in its therapeutic response, in order to find biomarkers of disease severity and to predict the response to therapy of the diseases.
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6
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Chen D, Blazek M, Ireland S, Ortega S, Kong X, Meeuwissen A, Stowe A, Carter L, Wang Y, Herbst R, Monson NL. Single dose of glycoengineered anti-CD19 antibody (MEDI551) disrupts experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis by inhibiting pathogenic adaptive immune responses in the bone marrow and spinal cord while preserving peripheral regulatory mechanisms. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 193:4823-32. [PMID: 25281717 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1401478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Plasma cells and the autoreactive Abs they produce are suspected to contribute to the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis, but recent attempts to target these components of humoral immunity have failed. MEDI551, an anti-CD19 Ab that depletes mature B cells including plasma cells may offer a compelling alternative that reduces pathogenic adaptive immune responses while sparing regulatory mechanisms. Indeed, our data demonstrate that a single dose of MEDI551, given before or during ongoing experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, disrupts development of the disease. Leukocyte infiltration into the spinal cord is significantly reduced, as well as short-lived and long-lived autoreactive CD138(+) plasma cells in the spleen and bone marrow, respectively. In addition, potentially protective CD1d(hi)CD5(+) regulatory B cells show resistance to depletion, and myelin-specific Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells are expanded. Taken together, these results demonstrate that MEDI551 disrupts experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis by inhibiting multiple proinflammatory components whereas preserving regulatory populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ding Chen
- Department of Neurology and Neurotherapeutics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390
| | - Monica Blazek
- Department of Neurology and Neurotherapeutics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390
| | - Sara Ireland
- Department of Neurology and Neurotherapeutics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390
| | - Sterling Ortega
- Department of Neurology and Neurotherapeutics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390
| | - Xiangmei Kong
- Department of Neurology and Neurotherapeutics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390
| | - Anouk Meeuwissen
- Department of Neurology and Neurotherapeutics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390
| | - Ann Stowe
- Department of Neurology and Neurotherapeutics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390
| | - Laura Carter
- Department of Respiratory, Inflammation and Autoimmunity Research, MedImmune LLC, Gaithersburg, MD 20878; and
| | - Yue Wang
- Department of Respiratory, Inflammation and Autoimmunity Research, MedImmune LLC, Gaithersburg, MD 20878; and
| | - Ronald Herbst
- Department of Respiratory, Inflammation and Autoimmunity Research, MedImmune LLC, Gaithersburg, MD 20878; and
| | - Nancy L Monson
- Department of Neurology and Neurotherapeutics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390; Department of Immunology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390
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7
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Anthony DC, Dickens AM, Seneca N, Couch Y, Campbell S, Checa B, Kersemans V, Warren EA, Tredwell M, Sibson NR, Gouverneur V, Leppert D. Anti-CD20 inhibits T cell-mediated pathology and microgliosis in the rat brain. Ann Clin Transl Neurol 2014; 1:659-69. [PMID: 25493280 PMCID: PMC4241793 DOI: 10.1002/acn3.94] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2014] [Revised: 07/07/2014] [Accepted: 07/18/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The mechanism of action of anti-B cell therapy in multiple sclerosis (MS) is not fully understood. Here, we compared the effect of anti-CD20 therapy on microglial activation in two distinct focal rat models of MS. METHODS The effect of anti-CD20 therapy on lesion formation and extralesional microglial activation was evaluated in the fDTH-EAE (experimental allergic encephalomyelitis) model, which is a focal demyelinating type-IV delayed-type hypersensitivity lesion. For comparison, effects were also assessed in the focal humoral MOG model induced by intracerebral injection of cytokine in myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein immunized rats. Microglial activation was assessed in situ and in vivo using the TSPO SPECT ligand [(125)I]DPA-713, and by immunostaining for MHCII. The effect of treatment on demyelination and lymphocyte recruitment to the brain were evaluated. RESULTS Anti-CD20 therapy reduced microglial activation, and lesion formation in the humoral model, but it was most effective in the antibody-independent fDTH-EAE. Immunohistochemistry for MHCII also demonstrated a reduced volume of microglial activation in the brains of anti-CD20-treated fDTH-EAE animals, which was accompanied by a reduction in T-cell recruitment and demyelination. The effect anti-CD20 therapy in the latter model was similarly strong as compared to the T-cell targeting MS compound FTY720. INTERPRETATION The suppression of lesion development by anti-CD20 treatment in an antibody-independent model suggests that B-cells play an important role in lesion development, independent of auto-antibody production. Thus, CD20-positive B-cell depletion has the potential to be effective in a wider population of individuals with MS than might have been predicted from our knowledge of the underlying histopathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel C Anthony
- Department of Pharmacology, University of OxfordMansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3QT, United Kingdom
| | - Alex M Dickens
- Department of Pharmacology, University of OxfordMansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3QT, United Kingdom
| | - Nicholas Seneca
- F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd.Building 74/3W.306A, Grenzacherstrasse 183, CH-4070, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Yvonne Couch
- Department of Pharmacology, University of OxfordMansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3QT, United Kingdom
| | - Sandra Campbell
- Department of Pharmacology, University of OxfordMansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3QT, United Kingdom
| | - Begona Checa
- Department of Chemistry, University of OxfordMansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3TA, United Kingdom
| | - Veerle Kersemans
- CR-UK/MRC Gray Institute for Radiation Oncology and Biology, University of OxfordOxford, OX3 7LJ, United Kingdom
| | - Edward A Warren
- Department of Pharmacology, University of OxfordMansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3QT, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew Tredwell
- Department of Chemistry, University of OxfordMansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3TA, United Kingdom
| | - Nicola R Sibson
- CR-UK/MRC Gray Institute for Radiation Oncology and Biology, University of OxfordOxford, OX3 7LJ, United Kingdom
| | - Veronique Gouverneur
- Department of Chemistry, University of OxfordMansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3TA, United Kingdom
| | - David Leppert
- F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd.Building 74/3W.306A, Grenzacherstrasse 183, CH-4070, Basel, Switzerland
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Rituximab in idiopathic nephrotic syndrome: does it make sense? Pediatr Nephrol 2014; 29:1313-9. [PMID: 23793923 PMCID: PMC3856183 DOI: 10.1007/s00467-013-2534-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2013] [Revised: 05/27/2013] [Accepted: 05/31/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Idiopathic nephrotic syndrome (INS) includes three different entities: minimal change disease (MCD), focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS), and mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis. Historically, this condition has been attributed to a T-cell disorder resulting in the secretion of a circulating factor that increases glomerular permeability to plasma proteins. The therapeutic approach to control the proteinuria of INS remains the use of drugs that have been considered to suppress the production of the "circulating factor" secreted by T cells. Recently, rituximab (RTX), a chimeric monoclonal antibody directed against the CD20 cell surface receptor expressed on B cells, has emerged as potential therapeutic agent. The number of publications reporting clinical experience with RTX in the treatment of nephrotic syndrome has greatly increased in the last few years. However, there is currently no good evidence from clinical or experimental studies that support a role of RTX in the treatment of MCD and FSGS proteinuria. In summary, there is the need for a better understanding of the pathogenesis of the proteinuria in INS and the potential role of RTX in this condition.
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9
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Kasper LH, Reder AT. Immunomodulatory activity of interferon-beta. Ann Clin Transl Neurol 2014; 1:622-31. [PMID: 25356432 PMCID: PMC4184564 DOI: 10.1002/acn3.84] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2014] [Revised: 06/19/2014] [Accepted: 06/19/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a complex disorder of the central nervous system that appears to be driven by a shift in immune functioning toward excess inflammation that results in demyelination and axonal loss. Beta interferons were the first class of disease-modifying therapies to be approved for patients with MS after treatment with this type I interferon improved the course of MS on both clinical and radiological measures in clinical trials. The mechanism of action of interferon-beta appears to be driven by influencing the immune system at many levels, including antigen-presenting cells, T cells, and B cells. One effect of these interactions is to shift cytokine networks in favor of an anti-inflammatory effect. The pleiotropic mechanism of action may be a critical factor in determining the efficacy of interferon-beta in MS. This review will focus on select immunological mechanisms that are influenced by this type I cytokine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lloyd H Kasper
- Departments of Microbiology/Immunology and Medicine, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College Hanover, New Hampshire
| | - Anthony T Reder
- Department of Neurology, University of Chicago Chicago, Illinois
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10
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Morris G, Berk M, Galecki P, Maes M. The emerging role of autoimmunity in myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/cfs). Mol Neurobiol 2013; 49:741-56. [PMID: 24068616 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-013-8553-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2013] [Accepted: 09/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The World Health Organization classifies myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/cfs) as a nervous system disease. Together with other diseases under the G93 heading, ME/cfs shares a triad of abnormalities involving elevated oxidative and nitrosative stress (O&NS), activation of immuno-inflammatory pathways, and mitochondrial dysfunctions with depleted levels of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthesis. There is also abundant evidence that many patients with ME/cfs (up to around 60 %) may suffer from autoimmune responses. A wide range of reported abnormalities in ME/cfs are highly pertinent to the generation of autoimmunity. Here we review the potential sources of autoimmunity which are observed in people with ME/cfs. The increased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, e.g., interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor-α, and increased levels of nuclear factor-κB predispose to an autoimmune environment. Many cytokine abnormalities conspire to produce a predominance of effector B cells and autoreactive T cells. The common observation of reduced natural killer cell function in ME/cfs is a source of disrupted homeostasis and prolonged effector T cell survival. B cells may be pathogenic by playing a role in autoimmunity independent of their ability to produce antibodies. The chronic or recurrent viral infections seen in many patients with ME/cfs can induce autoimmunity by mechanisms involving molecular mimicry and bystander activation. Increased bacterial translocation, as observed in ME/cfs, is known to induce chronic inflammation and autoimmunity. Low ATP production and mitochondrial dysfunction is a source of autoimmunity by inhibiting apoptosis and stimulating necrotic cell death. Self-epitopes may be damaged by exposure to prolonged O&NS, altering their immunogenic profile and become a target for the host's immune system. Nitric oxide may induce many faces of autoimmunity stemming from elevated mitochondrial membrane hyperpolarization and blockade of the methionine cycle with subsequent hypomethylation of DNA. Here we also outline options for treatment involving rituximab and endotherapia.
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11
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Morris G, Maes M. Myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome and encephalomyelitis disseminata/multiple sclerosis show remarkable levels of similarity in phenomenology and neuroimmune characteristics. BMC Med 2013; 11:205. [PMID: 24229326 PMCID: PMC3847236 DOI: 10.1186/1741-7015-11-205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2013] [Accepted: 08/15/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND 'Encephalomyelitis disseminata' (multiple sclerosis) and myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) are both classified as diseases of the central nervous system by the World Health Organization. This review aims to compare the phenomenological and neuroimmune characteristics of MS with those of ME/CFS. DISCUSSION There are remarkable phenomenological and neuroimmune overlaps between both disorders. Patients with ME/CFS and MS both experience severe levels of disabling fatigue and a worsening of symptoms following exercise and resort to energy conservation strategies in an attempt to meet the energy demands of day-to-day living. Debilitating autonomic symptoms, diminished cardiac responses to exercise, orthostatic intolerance and postural hypotension are experienced by patients with both illnesses. Both disorders show a relapsing-remitting or progressive course, while infections and psychosocial stress play a large part in worsening of fatigue symptoms. Activated immunoinflammatory, oxidative and nitrosative (O+NS) pathways and autoimmunity occur in both illnesses. The consequences of O+NS damage to self-epitopes is evidenced by the almost bewildering and almost identical array of autoantibodies formed against damaged epitopes seen in both illnesses. Mitochondrial dysfunctions, including lowered levels of ATP, decreased phosphocreatine synthesis and impaired oxidative phosphorylation, are heavily involved in the pathophysiology of both MS and ME/CFS. The findings produced by neuroimaging techniques are quite similar in both illnesses and show decreased cerebral blood flow, atrophy, gray matter reduction, white matter hyperintensities, increased cerebral lactate and choline signaling and lowered acetyl-aspartate levels. SUMMARY This review shows that there are neuroimmune similarities between MS and ME/CFS. This further substantiates the view that ME/CFS is a neuroimmune illness and that patients with MS are immunologically primed to develop symptoms of ME/CFS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerwyn Morris
- Tir Na Nog, Pembrey, Llanelli, UK
- Department of Psychiatry, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Michael Maes
- Department of Psychiatry, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Department of Psychiatry, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia
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12
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Fenoglio C, Ridolfi E, Galimberti D, Scarpini E. MicroRNAs as active players in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis. Int J Mol Sci 2012. [PMID: 23202949 PMCID: PMC3497323 DOI: 10.3390/ijms131013227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a recently discovered group of small noncoding RNAs that regulate gene expression post-transcriptionally. They are highly expressed in cells of the immune system, as well as in the central nervous system, and they are deregulated in various neurological disorders. Emerging evidence underlines an involvement of miRNAs in the pathogenesis of Multiple Sclerosis (MS). A number of miRNAs have been found to be dysregulated in blood cells from MS patients, in brain lesions, as well as in biological fluids such as serum and plasma. Despite miRNA altered expression likely showing a high tissue specificity, some profile similarities could be observed for certain miRNAs such as miR-326-such as upregulation in both active lesions and blood-though not for others such as miR-323, which demonstrated upregulation in whole blood, active brain lesions, and T-reg cells, but not in the serum of MS patients. In this review, the possible role of miRNAs in MS pathogenesis will be discussed according to all the available literature, with a particular emphasis on the possibility of considering extracellular miRNAs as a new source for both biomarker identification and therapeutic target discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Fenoglio
- Department of Pathophysiology and transplantation, "Dino Ferrari" Center, University of Milan, IRCCS Foundation Cà Granda, Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, 20122 Milan, Italy.
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