α-Enolase, a multifunctional protein: its role on pathophysiological situations

Longitudinal analysis of wound healing response post SMILE and LASIK surgery using proteomic profiling of tears

Different types of refractive surgeries often exhibit differences in wound healing responses. The current study investigated post-operative tear protein profiles in subjects who underwent LASIK and SMILE to elucidate global changes to the proteomic profile during the period the patient cornea undergoes healing. In this study, 10 patients underwent LASIK and SMILE surgery with a contralateral paired eye design. Tear samples were collected using Schirmer's strips preoperatively, at 1 month, 3 months and 6 months postoperatively. Quantitative ITRAQ labeled proteomics was performed and the tear protein ratios were normalized to pre-operative protein levels for each subject. Whole proteomics identified 1345 proteins in tears from LASIK and 1584 proteins in SMILE across time points. About 67 proteins were common in LASIK and SMILE tears across all the time points. Wound healing responses were differentially regulated between two refractive surgeries (SMILE and LASIK). The proteins Ceruloplasmin, Clusterin, Serotransferrin were upregulated at 1 month and 3 months and downregulated at 6 months post operatively in LASIK surgery where as in SMILE these were downregulated. Galectin 3 binding protein showed upregulation at 1 month and the levels decreased at 3 months and 6 months postop in LASIK tears whereas the levels increased at 3 months and 6 months post-op in SMILE tears. The levels of proteins that protect from oxidative stress were higher in SMILE as compared to LASIK postoperatively. The extracellular matrix proteins showed an increase in expression at 6 months in SMILE tears and was stabilized at 6 months in LASIK tears post operatively. Different refractive surgeries induce distinct wound healing responses as identified in tears. This study has implications in targeting key proteins for improving the clinical outcome postrefractive surgery.

Moonlighting on the Fasciola hepatica tegument: Enolase, a glycolytic enzyme, interacts with the extracellular matrix and fibrinolytic system of the host

Enolase is a 47 kDa enzyme that functions within the glycolysis and gluconeogenesis pathways involved in the reversible conversion of D-2-phosphoglycerate (2PGA) to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP). However, in the context of host-pathogen interactions, enolase from different species of parasites, fungi and bacteria have been shown to contribute to adhesion processes by binding to proteins of the host extracellular matrix (ECM), such as fibronectin (FN) or laminin (LM). In addition, enolase is a plasminogen (PLG)-binding protein and induces its activation to plasmin, the main protease of the host fibrinolytic system. These secondary 'moonlighting' functions of enolase are suggested to facilitate pathogen migration through host tissues. This study aims to uncover the moonlighting role of enolase from the parasite Fasciola hepatica, shedding light on its relevance to host-parasite interactions in fasciolosis, a global zoonotic disease of increasing concern. A purified recombinant form of F. hepatica enolase (rFhENO), functioning as an active homodimeric glycolytic enzyme of ~94 kDa, was successfully obtained, fulfilling its canonical role. Immunoblotting studies on adult worm extracts showed that the enzyme is present in the tegument and the excretory/secretory products of the parasite, which supports its key role at the host-parasite interface. Confocal immunolocalisation studies of the protein in newly excysted juveniles and adult worms also localised its expression within the parasite tegument. Finally, we showed by ELISA that rFhENO can act as a parasitic adhesin by binding host LM, but not FN. rFhENO also binds PLG and enhances its conversion to plasmin in the presence of the tissue-type and urokinase-type PLG activators (t-PA and u-PA). This moonlighting adhesion-like function of the glycolytic protein enolase could contribute to the mechanisms by which F. hepatica efficiently invades and migrates within its host and encourages further research efforts that are designed to impede this function by vaccination or drug design.

Research progress of neuron-specific enolase in cognitive disorder: a mini review

Numerous studies have demonstrated that neuron-specific enolase (NSE) serves as a distinctive indicator of neuronal injury, with its concentration in blood reflecting the extent and magnitude of nervous system damage, and the expression of serum NSE is correlated with cognitive dysfunction. The assessment of NSE holds significant importance in diagnosing cognitive dysfunction, assessing disease severity, predicting prognosis, and guiding treatment. In this review, the research progress of NSE in cognitive dysfunction was reviewed, and the value of serum NSE level in predicting disease severity and prognosis of patients with cognitive dysfunction was discussed.

Multifunctional roles of γ-enolase in the central nervous system: more than a neuronal marker

Enolase, a multifunctional protein with diverse isoforms, has generally been recognized for its primary roles in glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. The shift in isoform expression from α-enolase to neuron-specific γ-enolase extends beyond its enzymatic role. Enolase is essential for neuronal survival, differentiation, and the maturation of neurons and glial cells in the central nervous system. Neuron-specific γ-enolase is a critical biomarker for neurodegenerative pathologies and neurological conditions, not only indicating disease but also participating in nerve cell formation and neuroprotection and exhibiting neurotrophic-like properties. These properties are precisely regulated by cysteine peptidase cathepsin X and scaffold protein γ1-syntrophin. Our findings suggest that γ-enolase, specifically its C-terminal part, may offer neuroprotective benefits against neurotoxicity seen in Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. Furthermore, although the therapeutic potential of γ-enolase seems promising, the effectiveness of enolase inhibitors is under debate. This paper reviews the research on the roles of γ-enolase in the central nervous system, especially in pathophysiological events and the regulation of neurodegenerative diseases.

Effect of Silencing subolesin and enolase impairs gene expression, engorgement and reproduction in Haemaphysalis longicornis (Acari: Ixodidae) ticks

IMPORTANCE

Haemaphysalis longicornis is an obligate blood-sucking ectoparasite that has gained attention due its role of transmitting medically and veterinary significant pathogens and it is the most common tick species in Republic of Korea. The preferred strategy for controlling ticks is a multi-antigenic vaccination. Testing the efficiency of a combination antigen is a promising method for creating a tick vaccine.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the current research was to analyze the role of subolesin and enolase in feeding and reproduction of H. longicornis by gene silencing.

METHODS

In this study, we used RNA interference to silence salivary enolase and subolesin in H. longicornis. Unfed female ticks injected with double-stranded RNA targeting subolesin and enolase were attached and fed normally on the rabbit's ear. Real-time polymerase chain reaction was used to confirm the extent of knockdown.

RESULTS

Ticks in the subolesin or enolase dsRNA groups showed knockdown rates of 80% and 60% respectively. Ticks in the combination dsRNA (subolesin and enolase) group showed an 80% knockdown. Knockdown of subolesin and enolase resulted in significant depletion in feeding, blood engorgement weight, attachment rate, and egg laying. Silencing of both resulted in a significant (p < 0.05) reduction in tick engorgement, egg laying, egg hatching (15%), and reproduction.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Our results suggest that subolesin and enolase are an exciting target for future tick control strategies.

Molecular cloning, identification, transcriptional analysis, and silencing of enolase on the life cycle of Haemaphysalis longicornis (Acari, Ixodidae) tick

Ticks, blood-sucking ectoparasites, spread diseases to humans and animals. Haemaphysalis longicornis is a significant vector for tick-borne diseases in medical and veterinary contexts. Identifying protective antigens in H. longicornis for an anti-tick vaccine is a key tick control strategy. Enolase, a multifunctional protein, significantly converts D-2-phosphoglycerate and phosphoenolpyruvate in glycolysis and gluconeogenesis in cell cytoplasm. This study cloned a complete open reading frame (ORF) of enolase from the H. longicornis tick and characterized its transcriptional and silencing effect. We amplified the full-length cDNA of the enolase gene using rapid amplification of cDNA ends. The complete cDNA, with an ORF of 1,297 nucleotides, encoded a 432-amino acid polypeptide. Enolase of the Jeju strain H. longicornis exhibited the highest sequence similarity with H. flava (98%), followed by Dermacentor silvarum (82%). The enolase motifs identified included N-terminal and C-terminal regions, magnesium binding sites, and several phosphorylation sites. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis indicated that enolase mRNA transcripts were expressed across all developmental stages of ticks and organs such as salivary gland and midgut. RT-PCR showed higher transcript levels in syn-ganglia, suggesting that synganglion nerves influence enolase,s role in tick salivary glands. We injected enolase double-stranded RNA into adult unfed female ticks, after which they were subsequently fed with normal unfed males until they spontaneously dropped off. RNA interference significantly (P<0.05) reduced feeding and reproduction, along with abnormalities in eggs (no embryos) and hatching. These findings suggest enolase is a promising target for future tick control strategies.

Effect of Trichomonacide 6-Nitro-1H-benzimidazole Derivative Compounds on Expression Level of Metabolic Genes in Trichomonas vaginalis

The parasite Trichomonas vaginalis is the etiologic agent of trichomoniasis, the most common non-viral sexually transmitted disease worldwide. This infection often remains asymptomatic and is related to several health complications. The traditional treatment for trichomoniasis is the use of drugs of the 5-nitroimidazole family, such as metronidazole; however, scientific reports indicate an increasing number of drug-resistant strains. Benzimidazole derivatives could offer an alternative in the search for new anti-trichomonas drugs. In this sense, two attractive candidates are the compounds O2N-BZM7 and O2N-BZM9 (1H-benzimidazole derivatives), since, through in vitro tests, they have shown a higher trichomonacide activity. In this study, we determined the effect on the expression level of metabolic genes in T. vaginalis. The results show that genes involved in redox balance (NADHOX, G6PD::6PGL) are overexpressed, as well as the gene that participates in the first reaction of glycolysis (CK); on the other hand, structural genes such as ACT and TUB are decreased in expression in trophozoites treated with the compound O2N-BZM9, which would probably affect its morphology, motility and virulence. These results align with the trichomonacidal activity of the compounds, with benzimidazole O2N-BZM9 being the most potent, with an IC50 value of 4.8 μM. These results are promising for potential future therapeutic applications.

Targeting Moonlighting Enzymes in Cancer

Moonlighting enzymes are multifunctional proteins that perform multiple functions beyond their primary role as catalytic enzymes. Extensive research and clinical practice have demonstrated their pivotal roles in the development and progression of cancer, making them promising targets for drug development. This article delves into multiple notable moonlighting enzymes, including GSK-3, GAPDH, and ENO1, and with a particular emphasis on an enigmatic phosphatase, PTP4A3. We scrutinize their distinct roles in cancer and the mechanisms that dictate their ability to switch roles. Lastly, we discuss the potential of an innovative approach to develop drugs targeting these moonlighting enzymes: target protein degradation. This strategy holds promise for effectively tackling moonlighting enzymes in the context of cancer therapy.

Cadmium Highlights Common and Specific Responses of Two Freshwater Sentinel Species, Dreissena polymorpha and Dreissena rostriformis bugensis

Zebra mussel (ZM), Dreissena polymorpha, commonly used as a sentinel species in freshwater biomonitoring, is now in competition for habitat with quagga mussel (QM), Dreissena rostriformis bugensis. This raises the question of the quagga mussel's use in environmental survey. To better characterise QM response to stress compared with ZM, both species were exposed to cadmium (100 µg·L-1), a classic pollutant, for 7 days under controlled conditions. The gill proteomes were analysed using two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled with mass spectrometry. For ZM, 81 out of 88 proteoforms of variable abundance were identified using mass spectrometry, and for QM, 105 out of 134. Interestingly, the proteomic response amplitude varied drastically, with 5.6% of proteoforms of variable abundance (DAPs) in ZM versus 9.4% in QM. QM also exhibited greater cadmium accumulation. Only 12 common DAPs were observed. Several short proteoforms were detected, suggesting proteolysis. Functional analysis is consistent with the pleiotropic effects of the toxic metal ion cadmium, with alterations in sulphur and glutathione metabolisms, cellular calcium signalling, cytoskeletal dynamics, energy production, chaperone activation, and membrane events with numerous proteins involved in trafficking and endocytosis/exocytosis processes. Beyond common responses, the sister species display distinct reactions, with cellular response to stress being the main category involved in ZM as opposed to calcium and cytoskeleton alterations in QM. Moreover, QM exhibited greater evidence of proteolysis and cell death. Overall, these results suggest that QM has a weaker stress response capacity than ZM.

Noncoding RNAs in hepatitis: Unraveling the apoptotic pathways

Hepatitis is a worldwide health issue that causes inflammation of the liver and is frequently brought on by viral infections, specifically those caused by the hepatitis B and C viruses. Although the pathophysiological causes of hepatitis are complex, recent research indicates that noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) play a crucial role in regulating apoptosis, an essential process for maintaining liver homeostasis and advancing the illness. Noncoding RNAs have been linked to several biological processes, including apoptosis. These RNAs include microRNAs (miRNAs), long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), and circular RNAs (circRNAs). Distinct expression patterns characterising different stages of the disease have been discovered, indicating dysregulation of these non-coding RNAs in liver tissues infected with hepatitis. The complex interplay that exists between these noncoding RNAs and apoptotic effectors, including caspases and members of the Bcl-2 family, plays a role in the precarious equilibrium that regulates cell survival and death during hepatitis. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of ncRNA-mediated apoptosis in hepatitis, as well as insights into possible therapeutic targets and diagnostic indicators.

Comparison of differentially expressed genes in longissimus dorsi muscle of Diannan small ears, Wujin and landrace pigs using RNA-seq

Introduction

Pig growth is an important economic trait that involves the co-regulation of multiple genes and related signaling pathways. High-throughput sequencing has become a powerful technology for establishing the transcriptome profiles and can be used to screen genome-wide differentially expressed genes (DEGs). In order to elucidate the molecular mechanism underlying muscle growth, this study adopted RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) to identify and compare DEGs at the genetic level in the longissimus dorsi muscle (LDM) between two indigenous Chinese pig breeds (Diannan small ears [DSE] pig and Wujin pig [WJ]) and one introduced pig breed (Landrace pig [LP]).

Methods

Animals under study were from two Chinese indigenous pig breeds (DSE pig, n = 3; WJ pig, n = 3) and one introduced pig breed (LP, n = 3) were used for RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) to identify and compare the expression levels of DEGs in the LDM. Then, functional annotation, Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment analysis, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis, and Protein-Protein Interaction (PPI) network analysis were performed on these DEGs. Then, functional annotation, Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment analysis, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis, and Protein-Protein Interaction (PPI) network analysis were performed on these DEGs.

Results

The results revealed that for the DSE, WJ, and LP libraries, more than 66, 65, and 71 million clean reads were generated by transcriptome sequencing, respectively. A total of 11,213 genes were identified in the LDM tissue of these pig breeds, of which 7,127 were co-expressed in the muscle tissue of the three samples. In total, 441 and 339 DEGs were identified between DSE vs. WJ and LP vs. DSE in the study, with 254, 193 up-regulated genes and 187, 193 down-regulated genes in DSE compared to WJ and LP. GO analysis and KEGG signaling pathway analysis showed that DEGs are significantly related to contractile fiber, sarcolemma, and dystrophin-associated glycoprotein complex, myofibril, sarcolemma, and myosin II complex, Glycolysis/Gluconeogenesis, Propanoate metabolism, and Pyruvate metabolism, etc. In combination with functional annotation of DEGs, key genes such as ENO3 and JUN were identified by PPI network analysis.

Discussion

In conclusion, the present study revealed key genes including DES, FLNC, PSMD1, PSMD6, PSME4, PSMB4, RPL11, RPL13A, ROS23, RPS29, MYH1, MYL9, MYL12B, TPM1, TPM4, ENO3, PGK1, PKM2, GPI, and the unannotated new gene ENSSSCG00000020769 and related signaling pathways that influence the difference in muscle growth and could provide a theoretical basis for improving pig muscle growth traits in the future.

Discovery of Novel Stimulators of Pax7 and/or MyoD: Enhancing the Efficacy of Cultured Meat Production through Culture Media Enrichment

The principles of myogenesis play crucial roles in the production of cultured meat, and identifying protein stimulators associated with myogenesis holds great potential to enhance the efficiency of this process. In this study, we used surface plasmon resonance (SPR)-based screening of a natural product library to discover ligands for Pax7 and MyoD, key regulators of satellite cells (SCs), and performed cell-based assays on Hanwoo SCs (HWSCs) to identify substances that promote cell proliferation and/or differentiation. Through an SPR analysis, we found that six chemicals, including one Pax7+/MyoD- chemical, four Pax7+/MyoD+ chemicals, and one Pax7-/MyoD+ chemical, bound to Pax7 and/or MyoD proteins. Among four Pax7+/MyoD+ chemicals, parthenolide (0.5 and 1 µM) and rutin (100 and 200 µM) stimulated cell proliferation in the medium with 10% FBS similar to the medium with 20% FBS, without affecting differentiation. Adenosine, a Pax7-/MyoD+ chemical, accelerated differentiation. These chemicals could be potential additives to reduce the reliance of FBS required for HWSC proliferation and differentiation in cultured meat production.

Shared and Unique Disease Pathways in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and Parkinson's Disease Unveiled in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells

Recent evidence supports an association between amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and Parkinson's disease (PD). Indeed, prospective population-based studies demonstrated that about one-third of ALS patients develop parkinsonian (PK) signs, even though different neuronal circuitries are involved. In this context, proteomics represents a valuable tool to identify unique and shared pathological pathways. Here, we used two-dimensional electrophoresis to obtain the proteomic profile of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from PD and ALS patients including a small cohort of ALS patients with parkinsonian signs (ALS-PK). After the removal of protein spots correlating with confounding factors, we applied a sparse partial least square discriminant analysis followed by recursive feature elimination to obtain two protein classifiers able to discriminate (i) PD and ALS patients (30 spots) and (ii) ALS-PK patients among all ALS subjects (20 spots). Functionally, the glycolysis pathway was significantly overrepresented in the first signature, while extracellular interactions and intracellular signaling were enriched in the second signature. These results represent molecular evidence at the periphery for the classification of ALS-PK as ALS patients that manifest parkinsonian signs, rather than comorbid patients suffering from both ALS and PD. Moreover, we confirmed that low levels of fibrinogen in PBMCs is a characteristic feature of PD, also when compared with another movement disorder. Collectively, we provide evidence that peripheral protein signatures are a tool to differentially investigate neurodegenerative diseases and highlight altered biochemical pathways.

ENO1 promotes liver carcinogenesis through YAP1-dependent arachidonic acid metabolism

Enolase 1 (ENO1) is a glycolytic enzyme that plays essential roles in various pathological activities including cancer development. However, the mechanisms underlying ENO1-contributed tumorigenesis are not well explained. Here, we uncover that ENO1, as an RNA-binding protein, binds to the cytosine-uracil-guanine-rich elements of YAP1 messenger RNA to promote its translation. ENO1 and YAP1 positively regulate alternative arachidonic acid (AA) metabolism by inverse regulation of PLCB1 and HPGD (15-hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase). The YAP1/PLCB1/HPGD axis-mediated activation of AA metabolism and subsequent accumulation of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) are responsible for ENO1-mediated cancer progression, which can be retarded by aspirin. Finally, aberrant activation of ENO1/YAP1/PLCB1 and decreased HPGD expression in clinical hepatocellular carcinoma samples indicate a potential correlation between ENO1-regulated AA metabolism and cancer development. These findings underline a new function of ENO1 in regulating AA metabolism and tumorigenesis, suggesting a therapeutic potential for aspirin in patients with liver cancer with aberrant expression of ENO1 or YAP1.

Antibody drug conjugates beyond cytotoxic payloads

For many years, antibody drug conjugates (ADC) have teased with the promise of targeted payload delivery to diseased cells, embracing the targeting of the antibody to which a cytotoxic payload is conjugated. During the past decade this promise has started to be realised with the approval of more than a dozen ADCs for the treatment of various cancers. Of these ADCs, brentuximab vedotin really laid the foundations of a template for a successful ADC with lysosomal payload release from a cleavable dipeptide linker, measured DAR by conjugation to the Cys-Cys interchain bonds of the antibody and a cytotoxic payload. Using this ADC design model oncology has now expanded their repertoire of payloads to include non-cytotoxic compounds. These new payload classes have their origins in prior medicinal chemistry programmes aiming to design selective oral small molecule drugs. While this may not have been achieved, the resulting compounds provide excellent starting points for ADC programmes with some compounds amenable to immediate linker attachment while for others extensive SAR and structural information offer invaluable design insights. Many of these new oncology payload classes are of interest to other therapeutic areas facilitating rapid access to drug-linkers for exploration as non-oncology ADCs. Other therapeutic areas have also pursued unique payload classes with glucocorticoid receptor modulators (GRM) being the most clinically advanced in immunology. Here, ADC payloads come full circle, as oncology is now investigating GRM payloads for the treatment of cancer. This chapter aims to cover all these new ADC approaches while describing the medicinal chemistry origins of the new non-cytotoxic payloads.

Monoclonal enolase-1 blocking antibody ameliorates pulmonary inflammation and fibrosis

BACKGROUND

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a chronic fatal disease with limited therapeutic options. The infiltration of monocytes and fibroblasts into the injured lungs is implicated in IPF. Enolase-1 (ENO1) is a cytosolic glycolytic enzyme which could translocate onto the cell surface and act as a plasminogen receptor to facilitate cell migration via plasmin activation. Our proprietary ENO1 antibody, HL217, was screened for its specific binding to ENO1 and significant inhibition of cell migration and plasmin activation (patent: US9382331B2).

METHODS

In this study, effects of HL217 were evaluated in vivo and in vitro for treating lung fibrosis.

RESULTS

Elevated ENO1 expression was found in fibrotic lungs in human and in bleomycin-treated mice. In the mouse model, HL217 reduced bleomycin-induced lung fibrosis, inflammation, body weight loss, lung weight gain, TGF-β upregulation in bronchial alveolar lavage fluid (BALF), and collagen deposition in lung. Moreover, HL217 reduced the migration of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) and the recruitment of myeloid cells into the lungs. In vitro, HL217 significantly reduced cell-associated plasmin activation and cytokines secretion from primary human PBMC and endothelial cells. In primary human lung fibroblasts, HL217 also reduced cell migration and collagen secretion.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest multi-faceted roles of cell surface ENO1 and a potential therapeutic approach for pulmonary fibrosis.

DNA hypomethylation characterizes genes encoding tissue-dominant functional proteins in liver and skeletal muscle

Each tissue has a dominant set of functional proteins required to mediate tissue-specific functions. Epigenetic modifications, transcription, and translational efficiency control tissue-dominant protein production. However, the coordination of these regulatory mechanisms to achieve such tissue-specific protein production remains unclear. Here, we analyzed the DNA methylome, transcriptome, and proteome in mouse liver and skeletal muscle. We found that DNA hypomethylation at promoter regions is globally associated with liver-dominant or skeletal muscle-dominant functional protein production within each tissue, as well as with genes encoding proteins involved in ubiquitous functions in both tissues. Thus, genes encoding liver-dominant proteins, such as those involved in glycolysis or gluconeogenesis, the urea cycle, complement and coagulation systems, enzymes of tryptophan metabolism, and cytochrome P450-related metabolism, were hypomethylated in the liver, whereas those encoding-skeletal muscle-dominant proteins, such as those involved in sarcomere organization, were hypomethylated in the skeletal muscle. Thus, DNA hypomethylation characterizes genes encoding tissue-dominant functional proteins.

Differential Proteome Profiling Analysis under Pesticide Stress by the Use of a Nano-UHPLC-MS/MS Untargeted Proteomic-Based Approach on a 3D-Developed Neurospheroid Model: Identification of Protein Interactions, Prognostic Biomarkers, and Potential Therapeutic Targets in Human IDH Mutant High-Grade Gliomas

High-grade gliomas represent the most common group of infiltrative primary brain tumors in adults associated with high invasiveness, agressivity, and resistance to therapy, which highlights the need to develop potent drugs with novel mechanisms of action. The aim of this study is to reveal changes in proteome profiles under stressful conditions to identify prognostic biomarkers and altered apoptogenic pathways involved in the anticancer action of human isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) mutant high-grade gliomas. Our protocol consists first of a 3D in vitro developing neurospheroid model and then treatment by a pesticide mixture at relevant concentrations. Furthermore, we adopted an untargeted proteomic-based approach with high-resolution mass spectrometry for a comparative analysis of the differentially expressed proteins between treated and nontreated spheroids. Our analysis revealed that the majority of altered proteins were key members in glioma pathogenesis, implicated in the cellular metabolism, biological regulation, binding, and catalytic and structural activity and linked to many cascading regulatory pathways. Our finding revealed that grade-IV astrocytomas promote the downstream of the mitogen-activated-protein-kinases/extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (MAPK1/ERK2) pathway involving massive calcium influx. The gonadotrophin-releasing-hormone signaling enhances MAKP activity and may serve as a negative feedback compensating regulator. Thus, our study can pave the way for effective new therapeutic and diagnostic strategies to improve the overall survival.

Efficacy of recombinant enolase as a candidate vaccine against Haemaphysalis longicornis tick infestation in mice

Tick infestation causes a significant threat to human and animal health, requiring effective immunological control methods. This study aimed to investigate the potential of recombinant Haemaphysalis longicornis enolase protein for tick vaccine development. The exact mechanism of the recently identified enolase protein from the H. longicornis Jeju strain remains poorly understood. Enolase plays a crucial role in glycolysis, the metabolic process that converts glucose into energy, and is essential for the motility, adhesion, invasion, growth, and differentiation of ticks. In this study, mice were immunized with recombinant enolase, and polyclonal antibodies were generated. Western blot analysis confirmed the specific recognition of enolase by the antiserum. The effects of immunization on tick feeding and attachment were assessed. Adult ticks attached to the recombinant enolase-immunized mice demonstrated longer attachment time, increased blood-sucking abilities, and lower engorgement weight than the controls. The nymphs and larvae had a reduced attachment rate and low engorgement rate compared to the controls. Mice immunized with recombinant enolase expressed in Escherichia coli displayed 90% efficacy in preventing tick infestation. The glycolytic nature of enolase and its involvement in crucial physiological processes makes it an attractive target for disrupting tick survival and disease transmission. Polyclonal antibodies recognize enolase and significantly reduce attachment rates, tick feeding, and engorgement. Our findings indicate that recombinant enolase may be a valuable vaccine candidate for H. longicornis infection in experimental murine model.

Enolase 1 of Candida albicans binds human CD4+ T cells and modulates naïve and memory responses

To obtain a better understanding of the biology behind life-threatening fungal infections caused by Candida albicans, we recently conducted an in silico screening for fungal and host protein interaction partners. We report here that the extracellular domain of human CD4 binds to the moonlighting protein enolase 1 (Eno1) of C. albicans as predicted bioinformatically. By using different anti-CD4 monoclonal antibodies, we determined that C. albicans Eno1 (CaEno1) primarily binds to the extracellular domain 3 of CD4. Functionally, we observed that CaEno1 binding to CD4 activated lymphocyte-specific protein tyrosine kinase (LCK), which was also the case for anti-CD4 monoclonal antibodies tested in parallel. CaEno1 binding to naïve human CD4+ T cells skewed cytokine secretion toward a Th2 profile indicative of poor fungal control. Moreover, CaEno1 inhibited human memory CD4+ T-cell recall responses. Therapeutically, CD4+ T cells transduced with a p41/Crf1-specific T-cell receptor developed for adoptive T-cell therapy were not inhibited by CaEno1 in vitro. Together, the interaction of human CD4+ T cells with CaEno1 modulated host CD4+ T-cell responses in favor of the fungus. Thus, CaEno1 mediates not only immune evasion through its interference with complement regulators but also through the direct modulation of CD4+ T-cell responses.

Nephrotic syndrome: pathophysiology and consequences

In patients with kidney disease, nephrotic syndrome can lead to several complications including progressive kidney dysfunction. Proteinuria may lead to the formation of cellular or fibrous crescents with reciprocal development of rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis or focal glomerulosclerosis. Proteinuria may also cause overload and dysfunction of tubular epithelial cells, eventually resulting in tubular atrophy and interstitial fibrosis. Hypoalbuminemia is usually associated with increased risk of mortality and kidney dysfunction. Dyslipidemia may increase the risk of atherosclerotic complications, cause podocyte dysfunction and contribute to vascular thrombosis. Urinary loss of anticoagulants and overproduction of coagulation factors may facilitate a hypercoagulable state. Edema, hypogammaglobulinemia, loss of complement factors, and immunosuppressive therapy can favor infection. Treatment of these complications may reduce their impact on the severity of NS. Nephrotic syndrome is a kidney disorder that can worsen the quality of life and increase the risk of kidney disease progression.

Soluble Enolase 1 of Candida albicans and Aspergillus fumigatus Stimulates Human and Mouse B Cells and Monocytes

Because of the growing numbers of immunocompromised patients, the incidence of life-threatening fungal infections caused by Candida albicans and Aspergillus fumigatus is increasing. We have recently identified enolase 1 (Eno1) from A. fumigatus as an immune evasion protein. Eno1 is a fungal moonlighting protein that mediates adhesion and invasion of human cells and also immune evasion through complement inactivation. We now show that soluble Eno1 has immunostimulatory activity. We observed that Eno1 from both C. albicans and A. fumigatus directly binds to the surface of lymphocytes, preferentially human and mouse B cells. Functionally, Eno1 upregulated CD86 expression on B cells and induced proliferation. Although the receptor for fungal Eno1 on B lymphocytes is still unknown, the comparison of B cells from wild-type and MyD88-deficient mice showed that B cell activation by Eno1 required MyD88 signaling. With respect to infection biology, we noted that mouse B cells stimulated by Eno1 secreted IgM and IgG2b. These Igs bound C. albicans hyphae in vitro, suggesting that Eno1-induced Ab secretion might contribute to protection from invasive fungal disease in vivo. Eno1 also triggered the release of proinflammatory cytokines from monocytes, particularly IL-6, which is a potent activator of B cells. Together, our data shed new light on the role of secreted Eno1 in infections with C. albicans and A. fumigatus. Eno1 secretion by these pathogenic microbes appears to be a double-edged sword by supporting fungal pathogenicity while triggering (antifungal) immunity.

Identification and subsequent validation of transcriptomic signature associated with metabolic status in endometrial cancer

Aberrant metabolism has been identified as a main driver of cancer. Profiling of metabolism-related pathways in cancer furthers the understanding of tumor plasticity and identification of potential metabolic vulnerabilities. In this prospective controlled study, we established transcriptomic profiles of metabolism-related pathways in endometrial cancer (EC) using a novel method, NanoString nCounter Technology. Fifty-seven ECs and 30 normal endometrial specimens were studied using the NanoString Metabolic Panel, further validated by qRT-PCR with a very high similarity. Statistical analyses were by GraphPad PRISM and Weka software. The analysis identified 11 deregulated genes (FDR ≤ 0.05; |FC|≥ 1.5) in EC: SLC7A11; SLC7A5; RUNX1; LAMA4; COL6A3; PDK1; CCNA1; ENO1; PKM; NR2F1; and NAALAD2. Gene ontology showed direct association of these genes with 'central carbon metabolism (CCM) in cancer'. Thus, 'CCM in cancer' appears to create one of the main metabolic axes in EC. Further, transcriptomic data were functionally validated with drug repurposing on three EC cell lines, with several drug candidates suggested. These results lay the foundation for personalized therapeutic strategies in this cancer. Metabolic plasticity represents a promising diagnostic and therapeutic option in EC.

A programmed cell death-related model based on machine learning for predicting prognosis and immunotherapy responses in patients with lung adenocarcinoma

Background

lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) remains one of the most common and lethal malignancies with poor prognosis. Programmed cell death (PCD) is an evolutionarily conserved cell suicide process that regulates tumorigenesis, progression, and metastasis of cancer cells. However, a comprehensive analysis of the role of PCD in LUAD is still unavailable.

Methods

We analyzed multi-omic variations in PCD-related genes (PCDRGs) for LUAD. We used cross-validation of 10 machine learning algorithms (101 combinations) to synthetically develop and validate an optimal prognostic cell death score (CDS) model based on the PCDRGs expression profile. Patients were classified based on their median CDS values into the high and low-CDS groups. Next, we compared the differences in the genomics, biological functions, and tumor microenvironment of patients between both groups. In addition, we assessed the ability of CDS for predicting the response of patients from the immunotherapy cohort to immunotherapy. Finally, functional validation of key genes in CDS was performed.

Results

We constructed CDS based on four PCDRGs, which could effectively and consistently stratify patients with LUAD (patients with high CDS had poor prognoses). The performance of our CDS was superior compared to 77 LUAD signatures that have been previously published. The results revealed significant genetic alterations like mutation count, TMB, and CNV were observed in patients with high CDS. Furthermore, we observed an association of CDS with immune cell infiltration, microsatellite instability, SNV neoantigens. The immune status of patients with low CDS was more active. In addition, CDS could be reliable to predict therapeutic response in multiple immunotherapy cohorts. In vitro experiments revealed that high DNA damage inducible transcript 4 (DDIT4) expression in LUAD cells mediated protumor effects.

Conclusion

CDS was constructed based on PCDRGs using machine learning. This model could accurately predict patients' prognoses and their responses to therapy. These results provide new promising tools for clinical management and aid in designing personalized treatment strategies for patients with LUAD.

DeSUMOylation of a Verticillium dahliae enolase facilitates virulence by derepressing the expression of the effector VdSCP8

The soil-borne fungus Verticillium dahliae, the most notorious plant pathogen of the Verticillium genus, causes vascular wilts in a wide variety of economically important crops. The molecular mechanism of V. dahliae pathogenesis remains largely elusive. Here, we identify a small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO)-specific protease (VdUlpB) from V. dahliae, and find that VdUlpB facilitates V. dahliae virulence by deconjugating SUMO from V. dahliae enolase (VdEno). We identify five lysine residues (K96, K254, K259, K313 and K434) that mediate VdEno SUMOylation, and SUMOylated VdEno preferentially localized in nucleus where it functions as a transcription repressor to inhibit the expression of an effector VdSCP8. Importantly, VdUlpB mediates deSUMOylation of VdEno facilitates its cytoplasmic distribution, which allows it to function as a glycolytic enzyme. Our study reveals a sophisticated pathogenic mechanism of VdUlpB-mediated enolase deSUMOylation, which fortifies glycolytic pathway for growth and contributes to V. dahliae virulence through derepressing the expression of an effector.

Proteomic Changes in Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Exposed to Cannabinoids

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a major human pathogen that causes a wide range of infections. Its resistance to β-lactam antibiotics complicates treatment due to the limited number of antibiotics with activity against MRSA. To investigate development of alternative therapeutics, the mechanisms that mediate antibiotic resistance in MRSA need to be fully understood. In this study, MRSA cells were subjected to antibiotic stress from methicillin in combination with three cannabinoid compounds and analyzed using proteomics to assess the changes in physiology. Subjecting MRSA to nonlethal levels of methicillin resulted in an increased production of penicillin-binding protein 2 (PBP2). Exposure to cannabinoids showed antibiotic activity against MRSA, and differential proteomics revealed reduced levels of proteins involved in the energy production as well as PBP2 when used in combination with methicillin.

Oral administration of procyanidin B2 3,3"-di-O-gallate ameliorates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis through immunosuppressive effects on CD4+ T cells by regulating glycolysis

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a chronic autoimmune disease of the central nervous system caused by the excessive activation of T cells. Procyanidins are polyphenols that exhibit anti-inflammatory activity. Procyanidin B2 (PCB2) gallate [specifically, PCB2 3,3″-di-O-gallate (PCB2DG)] inhibits cytokine production in T cells by suppressing the acceleration of glycolysis. In this study, we determined the effect of PCB2DG on T cell-mediated autoimmune disease in vivo. We examined the immunosuppressive effects of PCB2DG using an experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model, which is a classic animal model for MS. Our results indicated that the clinical score for EAE symptoms improved significantly following the oral administration of PCB2DG. This effect was associated with the suppression of T cell-mediated cytokines (e.g., IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-17) and infiltrating T cells into the spinal cord, which ameliorated spinal cord injury. In addition, spleen cell culture experiments revealed that the increase of T cell-mediated pro-inflammatory cytokines in EAE mice was significantly decreased following PCB2DG treatment. We further analyzed the glycolytic activity of spleen cells to identify the mechanism of the immunosuppressive effects of PCB2DG. The production of lactate and the expression of glycolytic enzymes and transporters were increased following EAE induction, but not in PCB2DG-treated EAE mice. Collectively, our results indicate that a dietary polyphenol, which has a unique structure, improves the onset of EAE symptoms and inhibits the excessive activation of T cells by influencing glycolysis.

Keratin 17 covalently binds to alpha-enolase and exacerbates proliferation of keratinocytes in psoriasis

Dysregulated glucose metabolism is an important characteristic of psoriasis. Cytoskeletal protein keratin 17 (K17) is highly expressed in the psoriatic epidermis and contributes to psoriasis pathogenesis. However, whether K17 is involved in the dysregulated glucose metabolism of keratinocytes (KCs) in psoriasis remains unclear. In the present study, loss- and gain-of-function studies showed that elevated K17 expression was critically involved in glycolytic pathway activation in psoriatic KCs. The level of α-enolase (ENO1), a novel potent interaction partner of K17, was also elevated in psoriatic KCs. Knockdown of ENO1 by siRNA or inhibition of ENO1 activity by the inhibitor ENOBlock remarkably suppressed KCs glycolysis and proliferation. Moreover, ENO1 directly interacted with K17 and maintained K17-Ser⁴⁴ phosphorylation to promote the nuclear translocation of K17, which promoted the transcription of the key glycolysis enzyme lactic dehydrogenase A (LDHA) and resulted in enhanced KCs glycolysis and proliferation in vitro. Finally, either inhibiting the expression and activation of ENO1 or repressing K17-Ser⁴⁴ phosphorylation significantly alleviated the IMQ-induced psoriasis-like phenotype in vivo. These findings provide new insights into the metabolic profile of psoriatic KCs and suggest that modulation of the ENO1-K17-LDHA axis is a potentially innovative therapeutic approach to psoriasis.

Icariin promotes osteogenic differentiation by upregulating alpha-enolase expression

Osteogenic differentiation is a crucial biological process for maintaining bone remodelling. Aerobic glycolysis is the main source of energy for osteogenic differentiation. Alpha-enolase (Eno1), a glycolytic enzyme, is a therapeutic target for numerous diseases. Icariin, a principal active component of the traditional Chinese medicine Epimedium grandiflorum, can stimulate osteogenic differentiation. Here, we aimed to determine if icariin promotes osteogenic differentiation via Eno1. Icariin (1 μM) significantly promoted osteogenic differentiation of MC3T3-E1 cells. Icariin upregulated Eno1 protein and gene expressions during osteogenic differentiation. Moreover, ENOblock, a specific inhibitor of Eno1, markedly inhibited icariin-induced osteogenic differentiation. Futhermore, western blot assay showed that Eno1 might mediate osteogenic differentiation through the BMP/Smad4 signalling pathway. Collectively, Eno1 could be a promising drug target for icariin to regulate osteogenic differentiation.

Regulation of enolase activation to promote neural protection and regeneration in spinal cord injury

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a debilitating condition characterized by damage to the spinal cord resulting in loss of function, mobility, and sensation with no U.S. Food and Drug Administration-approved cure. Enolase, a multifunctional glycolytic enzyme upregulated after SCI, promotes pro- and anti-inflammatory events and regulates functional recovery in SCI. Enolase is normally expressed in the cytosol, but the expression is upregulated at the cell surface following cellular injury, promoting glial cell activation and signal transduction pathway activation. SCI-induced microglia activation triggers pro-inflammatory mediators at the injury site, activating other immune cells and metabolic events, i.e., Rho-associated kinase, contributing to the neuroinflammation found in SCI. Enolase surface expression also activates cathepsin X, resulting in cleavage of the C-terminal end of neuron-specific enolase (NSE) and non-neuronal enolase (NNE). Fully functional enolase is necessary as NSE/NNE C-terminal proteins activate many neurotrophic processes, i.e., the plasminogen activation system, phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase/protein kinase B, and mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase. Studies here suggest an enolase inhibitor, ENOblock, attenuates the activation of Rho-associated kinase, which may decrease glial cell activation and promote functional recovery following SCI. Also, ENOblock inhibits cathepsin X, which may help prevent the cleavage of the neurotrophic C-terminal protein allowing full plasminogen activation and phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase/mitogen-activated protein kinase activity. The combined NSE/cathepsin X inhibition may serve as a potential therapeutic strategy for preventing neuroinflammation/degeneration and promoting neural cell regeneration and recovery following SCI. The role of cell membrane-expressed enolase and associated metabolic events should be investigated to determine if the same strategies can be applied to other neurodegenerative diseases. Hence, this review discusses the importance of enolase activation and inhibition as a potential therapeutic target following SCI to promote neuronal survival and regeneration.

Advancements in understanding the molecular and immune mechanisms of Bartonella pathogenicity

Bartonellae are considered to be emerging opportunistic pathogens. The bacteria are transmitted by blood-sucking arthropods, and their hosts are a wide range of mammals including humans. After a protective barrier breach in mammals, Bartonella colonizes endothelial cells (ECs), enters the bloodstream, and infects erythrocytes. Current research primarily focuses on investigating the interaction between Bartonella and ECs and erythrocytes, with recent attention also paid to immune-related aspects. Various molecules related to Bartonella's pathogenicity have been identified. The present review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the newly described molecular and immune responses associated with Bartonella's pathogenicity.

Generation and characterization of avian single chain variable fragment against human Alpha-Enolase

Overexpression of human alpha-enolase (hEno1)has been reported in a wide range of cancers and is tightly associated with poor prognosis, making it a remarkable biomarker and therapeutic target. In this study, polyclonal yolk-immunoglobulin (IgY) antibodies purified from hEno1-immunized chickens showed a noticeable specific humoral response. Phage display technology was used to construct two antibody libraries of IgY gene-derived single-chain variable fragments (scFvs) containing 7.8 × 10⁷ and 5.4 × 10⁷ transformants, respectively. Phage-based ELISA indicated that specific anti-hEno1 clones were significantly enriched. The nucleotide sequences of scFv-expressing clones were determined and classified into seven groups either in the short linker or the long linker. Moreover, higher mutation rates were revealed in the CDR regions, especially in the CDR3. Three distinguish antigenic epitopes were identified on the hEno1 protein. The binding activities of selected anti-hEno1 scFv on hEno1-positive PE089 lung cancer cells were confirmed using Western blot, flow cytometry, and immunofluorescence assay. In particular, hEnS7 and hEnS8 scFv antibodies significantly suppressed the growth and migration of PE089 cells. Taken together, these chicken-derived anti-hEno1 IgY and scFv antibodies have great potential to develop diagnostic and therapeutic agents for the treatment of lung cancer patients with high expression levels of hEno1 protein.

Impacts of Porphyromonas gingivalis periodontitis on rheumatoid arthritis autoimmunity

In RA patients' synovial sites, citrullinated RA-related antigens such as type II collagens, fibrin (ogen), vimentin, and α-enolase could be targeted by ACCPAs. Since ACCPA production can be initiated a long time before RA sign appearance, primary auto-immunization against these citrullinated proteins can be originated from extra-articular sites. It has been shown that there is a significant association between P. gingivalis periodontitis, anti- P. gingivalis antibodies, and RA. P. gingivalis gingipains (Rgp, Kgp) can degrade proteins such as fibrin and α-enolase into some peptides in the form of Arg in the C-terminal which is converted to citrulline by PPAD. Also, PPAD can citrullinate type II collagen and vimentins (SA antigen). P. gingivalis induces inflammation and chemoattraction of immune cells such as neutrophils and macrophages through the increase of C5a (gingipain C5 convertase-like activity) and SCFA secretion. Besides, this microorganism stimulates anoikis, a special type of apoptosis, and NETosis, an antimicrobial form of neutrophil death, leading to the release of PAD1-4, α-enolase, and vimentin from apoptotic cells into the periodontal site. In addition, gingipains can degrade macrophages CD14 and decrease their ability in apoptotic cell removal. Gingipains also can cleave IgGs in the Fc region and transform them into rheumatoid factor (RF) antigens. In the present study, the effects of P. gingivalis on rheumatoid arthritis autoimmune response have been reviewed, which could attract practical insight both in bench and clinic.

Differential phosphoproteome analysis of rat brain regions after organophosphorus compound sarin intoxication

Introduction

Sarin is a highly toxic organophosphorus nerve agent that irreversibly inhibits neuronal enzyme acetylcholinesterase. In the prevailing scenario, it is of paramount importance to develop early diagnosis and medical countermeasures for sarin exposure. A deeper understanding of the molecular mechanism of sarin intoxication and perturbations in the associated cellular processes is likely to provide valuable clues for the elucidation of diagnostic markers and therapeutic targets for sarin exposure.

Methods

Present study, uncovered the changes in phosphorylation patterns of multiple proteins in different rat brain regions after sarin intoxication using 2-DE/MS approach. It provided a holistic view of the phosphorylation-mediated changes in the cellular proteome and highlighted various signaling and response pathways affected at an early time point of sarin intoxication.

Results

We found total 22 proteins in the cortex, 25 proteins in the corpus striatum, and 17 proteins in the hippocampus, showed ≥1.5 fold changes (hyper- or hypo- phosphorylated) with respect to control, either at 2.5 h or 1 d after sarin exposure. These results indicated the differential expression of phosphoproteins involved in protein folding in the endoplasmic reticulum, carbon metabolism, metabolic function, and energy metabolism.

Conclusion

Four candidates (protein disulfide-isomerase A3, heat shock cognate 71 kDa protein, alpha-enolase, and creatine kinase B-type), hyperphosphorylated in all three brain regions, can be further studied to understand the molecular mechanism behind neurodegenerative changes mediated by sarin exposure. The study sheds light on major pathogenic processes initiated during sarin intoxication and provides putative diagnostic markers/therapeutic targets for further validation.

Association of Enolase-1 with Prognosis and Immune Infiltration in Breast Cancer by Clinical Stage

Purpose

Enolase-1 (ENO1) plays a key role in malignancies. Previous studies on the association between ENO1 expression and breast cancer prognosis had yielded inconsistent results. In the present study, we assessed the prognostic effect of ENO1 in breast cancer using Guangzhou Breast Cancer Study (GZBCS) cohort with full consideration of the potential confounders and the modification effects. The results were further validated in the TCGA-BRCA cohort and explained by tumor immunity.

Methods

ENO1 protein expressions were evaluated by immunohistochemistry in tissue microarrays from 961 patients with primary invasive breast cancer. Chi-square tests were used to assess the association of ENO1 levels with the patient's characteristics. Cox regression models were applied to assess the prognostic effects. The TCGA-BRCA cohort was utilized to validate the results and explore the potential mechanisms. The immune infiltration was determined using the CIBERSORT and ssGSEA algorithms; the correlation between ENO1 expression and the abundance of tumor-infiltrating immune cells (TIICs) and scores of immune-related functions was evaluated by Wilcoxon signed-rank tests and Spearman's rank test.

Results

ENO1 protein expression exerted a protective effect on OS in stage I/II patients (HR=0.58, 95% CI: 0.35-0.96) but not in stage III patients (HR=1.42, 95% CI: 0.81-2.49, P _interaction=0.04) in GZBCS; consistent results were obtained at mRNA levels in TCGA cohort. Immune infiltration analyses revealed that ENO1 was positively correlated with multiple antitumor TIICs (including M1 macrophages, B cells, CD8 T cells, T helper 2 cells, and NK cells) only in stage I/II but not stage III patients.

Conclusion

A higher expression of ENO1 was associated with a better prognosis only in early-stage breast cancer, which may be related to the different effects of ENO1 on immune infiltration, suggesting that ENO1 may be a promising target for precision immunotherapy in breast cancer.

Non-metabolic role of alpha-enolase in virus replication

Viruses are extremely complex and highly evolving microorganisms; thus, it is difficult to analyse them in detail. The virion is believed to contain all the essential components required from its entry to the establishment of a successful infection in a susceptible host cell. Hence, the virion composition is the principal source for its transmissibility and immunogenicity. A virus is completely dependent on a host cell for its replication and progeny production. Occasionally, they recruit and package host proteins into mature virion. These incorporated host proteins are believed to play crucial roles in the subsequent infection, although the significance and the molecular mechanism regulated are poorly understood. One such host protein which is hijacked by several viruses is the glycolytic enzyme, Enolase (Eno-1) and is also packaged into mature virion of several viruses. This enzyme exhibits a highly flexible nature of functions, ranging from metabolic to several non-metabolic activities. All the glycolytic enzymes are known to be moonlighting proteins including enolase. The non-metabolic functions of this moonlighting protein are also highly diverse with respect to its cellular localization. Although very little is known about the virological significance of this enzyme, several of its non-metabolic functions have been observed to influence the virus replication cycle in infected cells. In this review, we have attempted to provide a comprehensive picture of the non-metabolic role of Eno-1, its significance in the virus replication cycle and to stimulate interest around its scope as a therapeutic target for treating viral pathologies.

Identification of Enolase 1 as a Potential Target for Magnaporthe oryzae: Integrated Proteomic and Molecular Dynamics Simulation

Rice blast is an essential factor affecting rice yield and quality, which is caused by Magnaporthe oryzae (M. oryzae). Isobavachalcone (IBC) is a botanical fungicide derived from the seed extract of the Leguminosae plant Psoralea corylifolia L. and has shown an excellent rice blast control effect in field applications. To explore the potential targets of rice blast control, the analysis of the differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) between the liquid culture medium of mycelium treated by 10 mg/L of IBC for 2 h and the control group indicated that Enolase 1 (ENO1) was the most significantly down-regulated DEP with a fold change value of 0.305. In vitro experiments showed that after treating liquid culture mycelium with 10 mg/L of IBC for 0.5, 1, 2, 4, and 8 h, the enzymatic activity of ENO1 in the IBC experimental groups was 0.97, 0.75, 0.52, 0.44, and 0.39 times as much as in the control groups, respectively. To further explore the molecular interaction and binding mode between IBC and ENO1, the three-dimensional structure of ENO1 was established based on homology modeling. Molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation showed that IBC had a pi-pi stacking effect with the residue TYR_365, a hydrogen bond interaction with the residue ARG_393, and hydrophobic interactions with non-polar residues ALA_361, LYS_362, and VAL_371 of ENO1. These findings indicated that ENO1 is a potential target of M. oryzae, which would pave the way for screening novel effective fungicides targeting ENO1.

Role of exosomes in hepatocellular carcinoma and the regulation of traditional Chinese medicine

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) usually occurs on the basis of chronic liver inflammatory diseases and cirrhosis. The liver microenvironment plays a vital role in the tumor initiation and progression. Exosomes, which are nanometer-sized membrane vesicles are secreted by a number of cell types. Exosomes carry multiple proteins, DNAs and various forms of RNA, and are mediators of cell-cell communication and regulate the tumor microenvironment. In the recent decade, many studies have demonstrated that exosomes are involved in the communication between HCC cells and the stromal cells, including endothelial cells, macrophages, hepatic stellate cells and the immune cells, and serve as a regulator in the tumor proliferation and metastasis, immune evasion and immunotherapy. In addition, exosomes can also be used for the diagnosis and treatment HCC. They can potentially serve as specific biomarkers for early diagnosis and drug delivery vehicles of HCC. Chinese herbal medicine, which is widely used in the prevention and treatment of HCC in China, may regulate the release of exosomes and exosomes-mediated intercellular communication. In this review, we summarized the latest progresses on the role of the exosomes in the initiation, progression and treatment of HCC and the potential value of Traditional Chinese medicine in exosomes-mediated biological behaviors of HCC.

Identification of the multiple roles of enolase as an plasminogen receptor and adhesin in Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae

Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae is the etiological agent underlying porcine enzootic pneumonia, a chronic respiratory disease worldwide. The recruitment of plasminogen to the surface and subsequently promotion of plasmin conversion by the surface-located receptor, have been reported to assist the adhesion and invasion of Mycoplasmas. The surface localization and plasminogen-binding ability of M. hyopneumoniae enolase were previously confirmed; however, the biological functions were not be determined, especially the role as a plasminogen receptor. Here, using ELISA and SPR analyses, we confirmed the stable binding of M. hyopneumoniae enolase to plasminogen in a dose-dependent manner. The facilitation of the activation of plasminogen in the presence of tPA and direct activation of plasminogen at low efficiency without tPA addition by M. hyopneumoniae enolase were also determined using a plasmin-specific chromogenic substrate. Notably, the C-terminal and N-terminal regions located in M. hyopneumoniae enolase play an important role in plasminogen binding and activation. Additionally, we demonstrate that M. hyopneumoniae enolase can competitively inhibit the adherence of M. hyopneumoniae to PK15 cells. These results provide insight into the role of enolase in M. hyopneumoniae infection, a mechanism that manipulates the proteolytic system of the host.

Clozapine-induced Myocarditis: Pathophysiologic Mechanisms and Implications for Therapeutic Approaches

Clozapine, a superior treatment for treatment-resistant schizophrenia can cause potentially life-threatening myocarditis and dilated cardiomyopathy. While the occurrence of this condition is well known, its molecular mechanisms are unclear and may be multifactorial. Putative mechanisms warrant an in-depth review not only from the perspective of toxicity but also for understanding the molecular mechanisms of the adverse cardiac effects of clozapine and the development of novel therapeutic approaches. Clozapine-induced cardiac toxicity encompasses a diverse set of pathways, including (i) immune modulation and proinflammatory processes encompassing an IgEmediated (type I hypersensitivity) response and perhaps a cytokine release syndrome (ii) catecholaminergic activation (iii) induction of free radicals and oxidative stress (iv) activation of cardiomyocyte cell death pathways, including apoptosis, ischemia through impairment in coronary blood flow via changes in endothelial production of NO and vasoconstriction induced by norepinephrine as well as other factors released from cardiac mast cells. (v) In addition, an extensive examination of the effects of clozapine on non-cardiac cellular proteins demonstrates that clozapine can impair enzymes involved in cellular metabolism, such as pyruvate kinase, mitochondrial malate dehydrogenase, and other proteins, including α-enolase, triosephosphate isomerase and cofilin, which might explain clozapine-induced reductions in myocardial energy generation for cell viability as well as contractile function. Pharmacologic antagonism of these cellular protein effects may lead to the development of strategies to antagonize the cardiac damage induced by clozapine.

Co-diet supplementation of low density polyethylene and honeybee wax did not influence the core gut bacteria and associated enzymes of Galleria mellonella larvae (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

The current plastic pollution throughout the world is a rising concern that demands the optimization of biodegradation processes. One avenue for this is to identify plastic-degrading bacteria and associated enzymes from the gut bacteria of insect models such as Tenebrio molitor, Plodia interpunctella or Galleria mellonella that have the ability to ingest and rapidly degrade polyethylene. Therefore, this study takes part in understanding the role of the gut bacteria by investigating G. mellonella as a biological model feeding with a diet based on honeybee wax mixed or not with low-density polyethylene. Gut microbiome was analyzed by high throughput 16S rRNA sequencing, and Enterococcaceae and Oxalobacteraceae were found to be the major bacterial families. Compared to the control, the supplementation of low-density polyethylene did not cause significant modification of the bacterial microbiota at community and taxa levels, suggesting bacterial microbiome resilience. The bacterial proteome analysis of gut contents was encouraging for the identification of plastic degrading enzymes such as the phenylacetaldehyde dehydrogenase which participate in styrene degradation. This study allowed a better characterization of the gut bacteria of G. mellonella and provided a basis for the further study of biodegradation of polyethylene based on the bacterial microbiota from insect guts.

A multiomics analysis of direct interkingdom dynamics between influenza A virus and Streptococcus pneumoniae uncovers host-independent changes to bacterial virulence fitness

BACKGROUND

For almost a century, it has been recognized that influenza A virus (IAV) infection can promote the development of secondary bacterial infections (SBI) mainly caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae (Spn). Recent observations have shown that IAV is able to directly bind to the surface of Spn. To gain a foundational understanding of how direct IAV-Spn interaction alters bacterial biological fitness we employed combinatorial multiomic and molecular approaches.

RESULTS

Here we show IAV significantly remodels the global transcriptome, proteome and phosphoproteome profiles of Spn independently of host effectors. We identified Spn surface proteins that interact with IAV proteins (hemagglutinin, nucleoprotein, and neuraminidase). In addition, IAV was found to directly modulate expression of Spn virulence determinants such as pneumococcal surface protein A, pneumolysin, and factors associated with antimicrobial resistance among many others. Metabolic pathways were significantly altered leading to changes in Spn growth rate. IAV was also found to drive Spn capsule shedding and the release of pneumococcal surface proteins. Released proteins were found to be involved in evasion of innate immune responses and actively reduced human complement hemolytic and opsonizing activity. IAV also led to phosphorylation changes in Spn proteins associated with metabolism and bacterial virulence. Validation of proteomic data showed significant changes in Spn galactose and glucose metabolism. Furthermore, supplementation with galactose rescued bacterial growth and promoted bacterial invasion, while glucose supplementation led to enhanced pneumolysin production and lung cell apoptosis.

CONCLUSIONS

Here we demonstrate that IAV can directly modulate Spn biology without the requirement of host effectors and support the notion that inter-kingdom interactions between human viruses and commensal pathobionts can promote bacterial pathogenesis and microbiome dysbiosis.

Identification of crucial salivary proteins/genes and pathways involved in pathogenesis of temporomandibular disorders

Temporomandibular disorder (TMD) is a collective term for a group of conditions that lead to impairment of the function of the temporomandibular joint. The proteins/genes and signaling pathways associated with TMD are still poorly understood. The aim of this study was to identify key differentially expressed salivary proteins/genes (DEGs) associated with TMD progression using LC-MS/MS coupled with a bioinformatics approach. The protein–protein interaction network was obtained from the STRING database and the hub genes were identified using Cytoscape including cytoHubba and MCODE plug-ins. In addition, enrichment of gene ontology functions and the Reactome signaling pathway was performed. A total of 140 proteins/genes were differentially expressed. From cluster analysis, a set of 20 hub genes were significantly modulated: ALB, APOA1, B2M, C3, CAT, CLU, CTSD, ENO1, GSN, HBB, HP, HSPA8, LTF, LYZ, MMP9, S100A9, SERPINA1, TF, TPI1, and TXN. Two enriched signaling pathways, glycolysis and gluconeogenesis, and tryptophan signaling pathway involving the hub genes CAT, ENO1, and TPI1 have been identified. The rest of the hub genes were mainly enriched in the innate immune system and antimicrobial peptides signaling pathways. In summary, hub DEGs and the signaling pathways identified here have elucidated the molecular mechanisms of TMD pathogenesis.

Src: coordinating metabolism in cancer

Metabolism must be tightly regulated to fulfil the dynamic requirements of cancer cells during proliferation, migration, stemness and differentiation. Src is a node of several signals involved in many of these biological processes, and it is also an important regulator of cell metabolism. Glucose uptake, glycolysis, the pentose-phosphate pathway and oxidative phosphorylation are among the metabolic pathways that can be regulated by Src. Therefore, this oncoprotein is in an excellent position to coordinate and finely tune cell metabolism to fuel the different cancer cell activities. Here, we provide an up-to-date summary of recent progress made in determining the role of Src in glucose metabolism as well as the link of this role with cancer cell metabolic plasticity and tumour progression. We also discuss the opportunities and challenges facing this field.

Proteomic analysis of the liver regulating lipid metabolism in Chaohu ducks using two-dimensional electrophoresis

In this study, we aimed to characterize the liver protein profile of Chaohu ducks using two-dimensional electrophoresis and proteomics. The livers were quickly collected from 120 healthy, 84-day-old Chaohu ducks. The intramuscular fat (IMF) content of the left pectoralis muscle was determined using the Soxhlet extraction method. The total protein of liver tissues from the high and low IMF groups was extracted for proteomics. Functional enrichment analysis of the differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) was conducted using gene ontology (GO) and kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG). In total, 43 DEPs were identified. Functional enrichment analysis indicated that these DEPs were significantly related to four lipid metabolic processes: carboxylic acid metabolic process, ATP metabolic process, oxoacid metabolic process, and organic acid metabolic process. Three pathways correlated with lipid metabolism were identified using KEGG analysis: glycolysis/gluconeogenesis, pentose phosphate pathway, fructose, and mannose metabolism. Eight key proteins associated with lipid metabolism were identified: ALDOB, GAPDH, ENO1, RGN, TPI1, HSPA9, PRDX1, and GPX1. Protein–protein interaction analysis revealed that the glycolysis/gluconeogenesis pathway mediated the interaction relationship. Key proteins and metabolic pathways were closely related to lipid metabolism and showed a strong interaction in Chaohu ducks.

The Sarcoplasmic Protein Profile of Breast Muscle in Turkeys in Response to Different Dietary Ratios of Limiting Amino Acids and Clostridium perfringens-Induced Inflammation

In this study, the effects of the Arginine/Lysine (Arg/Lys) ratio in low- and high-methionine (Met) diets on the sarcoplasmic protein profile of breast muscles from turkeys reared under optimal or challenge (Clostridium perfringens infection) conditions were determined. One-day-old Hybrid Converter female turkey poults (216 in total) obtained from a commercial hatchery on hatching day, and on the basis of their average initial body weight were randomly allocated to 12 pens (4 m² each; 2.0 m × 2.0 m) containing litter bedding and were reared over a 42-day experimental period. Diets with high levels of Lys contained approximately 1.80% and 1.65% Lys and were offered in two successive feeding periods (days 1–28 and days 29–42). The supplemental levels of Lys were consistent with the nutritional specifications for birds at their respective ages as established in the Management Guidelines for Raising Commercial Turkeys. The experiment was based on a completely randomized 3 × 2 × 2 factorial design with three levels of Arg (90%, 100% and 110%) relative to the content of dietary Met (30 or 45%) and without (−) or with (+) C. perfringens challenge at 34, 36, or 37 d of age. Meat samples were investigated in terms of pH, color, and sarcoplasmic protein profile. The experimental factors did not influence meat quality but the dietary Arg content affected meat color. The sarcoplasmic protein profile was influenced by all studied factors, and glycolytic enzymes were the most abundant. This study evidenced strong association between the challenge conditions and the involvement of glycolytic enzymes in cell metabolism, particularly in inflammatory processes, and DNA replication and maintenance in turkeys. The results showed an effect of C. perfringens infection and feeding with different doses of Arg and Met may lead to significant consequences in cell metabolism.

Molecular docking and dynamics studies of cigarette smoke carcinogens interacting with acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase enzymes of the central nervous system

The free radicals produced by cigarette smoking are responsible for tissue damage, heart and lung diseases, and carcinogenesis. The effect of tobacco on the central nervous system (CNS) has received increased attention nowadays in research. Therefore, to explore the molecular interaction of cigarette smoke carcinogens (CSC) 4-(methylnitrosamine)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol (NNAL), 4-(methylnitrosamine)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK), and N'-nitrosonornicotine (NNN) with well-known targets of CNS-related disorders, acetylcholinesterase (AChE), and butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) enzymes, a cascade of the computational study was conducted including molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations (MDS). The investigated results of NNAL+AChEcomplex, NNK+AChEcomplex, and NNK+BuChEcomplex based on intermolecular energies (∆G) were found to -8.57 kcal/mol, -8.21 kcal/mol, and -8.08 kcal/mol, respectively. MDS deviation and fluctuation plots of the NNAL and NNK interaction with AChE and BuChE have shown significant results. Further, Molecular Mechanics Poisson-Boltzmann Surface Area (MM-PBSA) results shown the best total binding energy (Binding∆G) -87.381 (+/-13.119) kJ/mol during NNK interaction with AChE. Our study suggests that CSC is well capable of altering the normal biomolecular mechanism of CNS; thus, obtained data could be useful to design extensive wet laboratory experimentation to know the effects of CSC on human CNS.

α-Enolase inhibits apoptosis and promotes cell invasion and proliferation of skin cutaneous melanoma

BACKGROUND

The glycolytic enzyme, α-Enolase (ENO1), catalyzes the production of phosphoenolpyruvate from 2-phosphoglycerate, thereby enhancing glycolysis and contributing to tumor progression. In the present study, we aimed to determine the role of ENO1 in skin cutaneous melanoma (SKCM) and the potential underlying mechanism.

METHODS

The Sangerbox database was used to analyze the mRNA expression of ENO1 in SKCM. Western blotting was used to assess the levels of ENO1, c-Myc, β-catenin, MMP-9, PGAM1, and MMP-13 in SKCM-derived cell lines or tumor tissues from patients with SKCM. The pCMV-SPORT6-ENO1 and pET-28a-ENO1siRNA plasmids were used to overexpress and knockdown ENO1 in SKCM cells, respectively. To determine the function of ENO1 in the malignant behavior of SKCM cells, we performed a wound-healing assay, cell counting kit 8 assay, and transwell chamber analyses. The production of pyruvate and lactic acid in tumor cells was evaluated using their respective kits.

RESULTS

Compared with non-tumor tissues, ENO1 was found to be overexpressed in SKCM tissues. In SKCM cells, ENO1 overexpression promoted invasion, migration, and proliferation of tumor cells; increased pyruvate and lactate production; and increased β-catenin, MMP-9, MMP-13, and c-Myc levels. The opposite effects were observed in SKCM cells silenced for ENO1.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that ENO1 is involved in SKCM progression by enhancing the invasion and proliferation of tumor cells. In addition, ENO1 might have an important function in tumor cell glycolysis. Therefore, ENO1 represents a potential therapeutic target for treatment of SKCM.

A Novel Enolase-1 Antibody Targets Multiple Interacting Players in the Tumor Microenvironment of Advanced Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer is one of the most common causes of cancer death in men worldwide, and the treatment options are limited for patients with advanced stages of prostate cancer. Upon oncogenic or inflammatory stimulation, tumor cells or immune cells express cell surface enolase-1 (ENO1) as plasminogen receptor to facilitate their migration via plasmin activation. Little is known about the roles of ENO1 in prostate cancer, especially in the tumor microenvironment (TME). We hypothesized that targeting surface ENO1 with specific mAbs would exert multifactorial therapeutic potentials against prostate cancer. In vivo, we showed ENO1 mAb (HuL227) reduced the growth of subcutaneous PC-3 xenograft, monocytes recruitment, and intratumoral angiogenesis. In a PC-3 intratibial implantation model, HuL227 reduced tumor growth and osteoclast activation in the bone. To investigate the antitumor mechanism of ENO1 mAb, we found that blocking surface ENO1 significantly reduced VEGF-A-induced tube formation of endothelial cells in vitro. Furthermore, HuL227 inhibited inflammation-enhanced osteoclasts activity and the secretion of invasion-related cytokines CCL2 and TGFβ from osteoclasts. In addition, inflammation-induced migration and chemotaxis of androgen-independent prostate cancer cells were dose-dependently inhibited by HuL227. In summary, we showed that, ENO1 mAb targets multiple TME niches involved in prostate cancer progression and bone metastasis via a plasmin-related mechanism, which may provide a novel immunotherapy approach for men with advanced prostate cancer.

Assessment of Specific Tumoral Markers, Inflammatory Status, and Vitamin D Metabolism before and after the First Chemotherapy Cycle in Patients with Lung Cancer

Background: We aimed to investigate the changes of inflammatory status reflected by serum levels of chitotriosidase (CHT) and neopterin, and how specific tumor markers such as neuron-specific enolase (NSE) and squamous cell carcinoma antigen (SCCA), as well as vitamin D metabolism assessed by vitamin D receptor (VDR) and 25-hydroxy vitamin D3 (25OHD3), were modified after the first cycle of chemotherapy in patients with lung cancer. Methods: We performed this first pilot study on twenty patients diagnosed with lung cancer by investigating the serum concentrations of CHT, neopterin, NSE, SCCA, VDR and 25OHD3 before and after the first cycle of chemotherapy. Results: The post-treatment values of NSE were significantly lower compared to the pre-treatment levels (14.37 vs. 17.10 ng/mL, p = 0.031). We noticed a similar trend in neopterin levels, but the difference was only marginally significant (1.44 vs. 1.17 ng/mL, p = 0.069). On the contrary, the variations of circulating SCCA, CHT, neopterin, VDR and 25OHD3, before and after treatment, did not reach statistical significance. Conclusion: Only circulating NSE was treatment responsive to the first chemotherapy cycle in patients with lung cancer, while inflammatory markers and vitamin D status were not significantly modified.