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Roberts MD, McCarthy JJ, Hornberger TA, Phillips SM, Mackey AL, Nader GA, Boppart MD, Kavazis AN, Reidy PT, Ogasawara R, Libardi CA, Ugrinowitsch C, Booth FW, Esser KA. Mechanisms of mechanical overload-induced skeletal muscle hypertrophy: current understanding and future directions. Physiol Rev 2023; 103:2679-2757. [PMID: 37382939 PMCID: PMC10625844 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00039.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Revised: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Mechanisms underlying mechanical overload-induced skeletal muscle hypertrophy have been extensively researched since the landmark report by Morpurgo (1897) of "work-induced hypertrophy" in dogs that were treadmill trained. Much of the preclinical rodent and human resistance training research to date supports that involved mechanisms include enhanced mammalian/mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) signaling, an expansion in translational capacity through ribosome biogenesis, increased satellite cell abundance and myonuclear accretion, and postexercise elevations in muscle protein synthesis rates. However, several lines of past and emerging evidence suggest that additional mechanisms that feed into or are independent of these processes are also involved. This review first provides a historical account of how mechanistic research into skeletal muscle hypertrophy has progressed. A comprehensive list of mechanisms associated with skeletal muscle hypertrophy is then outlined, and areas of disagreement involving these mechanisms are presented. Finally, future research directions involving many of the discussed mechanisms are proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael D Roberts
- School of Kinesiology, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, United States
| | - John J McCarthy
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States
| | - Troy A Hornberger
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States
| | - Stuart M Phillips
- Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Abigail L Mackey
- Institute of Sports Medicine Copenhagen, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Copenhagen University Hospital-Bispebjerg and Frederiksberg, and Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Gustavo A Nader
- Department of Kinesiology and Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States
| | - Marni D Boppart
- Department of Kinesiology and Community Health, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States
| | - Andreas N Kavazis
- School of Kinesiology, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, United States
| | - Paul T Reidy
- Department of Kinesiology, Nutrition and Health, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, United States
| | - Riki Ogasawara
- Healthy Food Science Research Group, Cellular and Molecular Biotechnology Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Cleiton A Libardi
- MUSCULAB-Laboratory of Neuromuscular Adaptations to Resistance Training, Department of Physical Education, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Carlos Ugrinowitsch
- School of Physical Education and Sport, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Frank W Booth
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, United States
| | - Karyn A Esser
- Department of Physiology and Aging, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States
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Venckunas T, Degens H. Genetic polymorphisms of muscular fitness in young healthy men. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0275179. [PMID: 36166425 PMCID: PMC9514622 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0275179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The effects of genetic polymorphisms on muscle structure and function remain elusive. The present study tested for possible associations of 16 polymorphisms (across ten candidate genes) with fittness and skeletal muscle phenotypes in 17- to 37-year-old healthy Caucasian male endurance (n = 86), power/strength (n = 75) and team athletes (n = 60), and non-athletes (n = 218). Skeletal muscle function was measured with eight performance tests covering multiple aspects of muscular fitness. Along with body mass and height, the upper arm and limb girths, and maximal oxygen uptake were measured. Genotyping was conducted on DNA extracted from blood. Of the 16 polymorphisms studied, nine (spanning seven candidate genes and four gene families/signalling pathways) were independently associated with at least one skeletal muscle fitness measure (size or function, or both) measure and explained up to 4.1% of its variation. Five of the studied polymorphisms (activin- and adreno-receptors, as well as myosine light chain kinase 1) in a group of one to three combined with body height, age and/or group explained up to 20.4% of the variation of muscle function. ACVR1B (rs2854464) contributed 2.0–3.6% to explain up to 14.6% of limb proximal girths. The G allele (genotypes AG and GG) of the ACVR1B (rs2854464) polymorphism was significantly overrepresented among team (60.4%) and power (62.0%) athletes compared to controls (52.3%) and endurance athletes (39.2%), and G allele was also most consistently/frequently associated with muscle size and power. Overall, the investigated polymorphisms determined up to 4.1% of the variability of muscular fitness in healthy young humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomas Venckunas
- Institute of Sport Science and Innovations, Lithuanian Sports University, Kaunas, Lithuania
- * E-mail:
| | - Hans Degens
- Institute of Sport Science and Innovations, Lithuanian Sports University, Kaunas, Lithuania
- Department of Life Sciences, Musculoskeletal Science and Sports Medicine Research Centre, Institute of Sport, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
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Vann CG, Morton RW, Mobley CB, Vechetti IJ, Ferguson BK, Haun CT, Osburn SC, Sexton CL, Fox CD, Romero MA, Roberson PA, Oikawa SY, McGlory C, Young KC, McCarthy JJ, Phillips SM, Roberts MD. An intron variant of the GLI family zinc finger 3 (GLI3) gene differentiates resistance training-induced muscle fiber hypertrophy in younger men. FASEB J 2021; 35:e21587. [PMID: 33891350 PMCID: PMC8234740 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202100113rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2021] [Revised: 03/17/2021] [Accepted: 03/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
We examined the association between genotype and resistance training-induced changes (12 wk) in dual x-ray energy absorptiometry (DXA)-derived lean soft tissue mass (LSTM) as well as muscle fiber cross-sectional area (fCSA; vastus lateralis; n = 109; age = 22 ± 2 y, BMI = 24.7 ± 3.1 kg/m2 ). Over 315 000 genetic polymorphisms were interrogated from muscle using DNA microarrays. First, a targeted investigation was performed where single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) identified from a systematic literature review were related to changes in LSTM and fCSA. Next, genome-wide association (GWA) studies were performed to reveal associations between novel SNP targets with pre- to post-training change scores in mean fCSA and LSTM. Our targeted investigation revealed no genotype-by-time interactions for 12 common polymorphisms regarding the change in mean fCSA or change in LSTM. Our first GWA study indicated no SNP were associated with the change in LSTM. However, the second GWA study indicated two SNP exceeded the significance level with the change in mean fCSA (P = 6.9 × 10-7 for rs4675569, 1.7 × 10-6 for rs10263647). While the former target is not annotated (chr2:205936846 (GRCh38.p12)), the latter target (chr7:41971865 (GRCh38.p12)) is an intron variant of the GLI Family Zinc Finger 3 (GLI3) gene. Follow-up analyses indicated fCSA increases were greater in the T/C and C/C GLI3 genotypes than the T/T GLI3 genotype (P < .05). Data from the Auburn cohort also revealed participants with the T/C and C/C genotypes exhibited increases in satellite cell number with training (P < .05), whereas T/T participants did not. Additionally, those with the T/C and C/C genotypes achieved myonuclear addition in response to training (P < .05), whereas the T/T participants did not. In summary, this is the first GWA study to examine how polymorphisms associate with the change in hypertrophy measures following resistance training. Future studies are needed to determine if the GLI3 variant differentiates hypertrophic responses to resistance training given the potential link between this gene and satellite cell physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher G Vann
- School of Kinesiology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA.,Duke Molecular Physiology Institute, Duke University School of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Robert W Morton
- Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Christopher B Mobley
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA.,The Center for Muscle Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Ivan J Vechetti
- Department of Nutrition and Health Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA
| | | | | | | | - Casey L Sexton
- School of Kinesiology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Carlton D Fox
- School of Kinesiology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | | | | | - Sara Y Oikawa
- Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Chris McGlory
- Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Kaelin C Young
- School of Kinesiology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA.,Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - John J McCarthy
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA.,The Center for Muscle Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Stuart M Phillips
- Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Michael D Roberts
- School of Kinesiology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA.,Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine, Auburn, AL, USA
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Kemp PR, Paul R, Hinken AC, Neil D, Russell A, Griffiths MJ. Metabolic profiling shows pre-existing mitochondrial dysfunction contributes to muscle loss in a model of ICU-acquired weakness. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle 2020; 11:1321-1335. [PMID: 32677363 PMCID: PMC7567140 DOI: 10.1002/jcsm.12597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Revised: 05/01/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Surgery can lead to significant muscle loss, which increases recovery time and associates with increased mortality. Muscle loss is not uniform, with some patients losing significant muscle mass and others losing relatively little, and is likely to be accompanied by marked changes in circulating metabolites and proteins. Determining these changes may help understand the variability and identify novel therapeutic approaches or markers of muscle wasting. METHODS To determine the association between muscle loss and circulating metabolites, we studied 20 male patients (median age, 70.5, interquartile range, 62.5-75) undergoing aortic surgery. Muscle mass was determined before and 7 days after surgery and blood samples were taken before surgery, and 1, 3, and 7 days after surgery. The circulating metabolome and proteome were determined using commercial services (Metabolon and SomaLogic). RESULTS Ten patients lost more than 10% of the cross-sectional area of the rectus femoris (RFCSA ) and were defined as wasting. Metabolomic analysis showed that 557 circulating metabolites were altered following surgery (q < 0.05) in the whole cohort and 104 differed between wasting and non-wasting patients (q < 0.05). Weighted genome co-expression network analysis, identified clusters of metabolites, both before and after surgery, that associated with muscle mass and function (r = -0.72, p = 6 × 10-4 with RFCSA on Day 0, P = 3 × 10-4 with RFCSA on Day 7 and r = -0.73, P = 5 × 10-4 with hand-grip strength on Day 7). These clusters were mainly composed of acyl carnitines and dicarboxylates indicating that pre-existing mitochondrial dysfunction contributes to muscle loss following surgery. Surgery elevated cortisol to the same extent in wasting and non-wasting patients, but the cortisol:cortisone ratio was higher in the wasting patients (Day 3 P = 0.043 and Day 7 P = 0.016). Wasting patients also showed a greater increase in circulating nucleotides 3 days after surgery. Comparison of the metabolome with inflammatory markers identified by SOMAscan® showed that pre-surgical mitochondrial dysfunction was associated with growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF-15) (r = 0.79, P = 2 × 10-4 ) and that GDF-15, interleukin (IL)-8), C-C motif chemokine 23 (CCL-23), and IL-15 receptor subunit alpha (IL-15RA) contributed to metabolic changes in response to surgery. CONCLUSIONS We show that pre-existing mitochondrial dysfunction and reduced cortisol inactivation contribute to muscle loss following surgery. The data also implicate GDF-15 and IL-15RA in mitochondrial dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul R Kemp
- Cardiovascular and Respiratory Interface Section, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London, UK
| | - Richard Paul
- Cardiovascular and Respiratory Interface Section, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London, UK.,Department of Intensive Care, Guy's and St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Aaron C Hinken
- Muscle Metabolism Discovery Performance Unit, GlaxoSmithKline, Inc, Collegeville, PA, USA
| | - David Neil
- Muscle Metabolism Discovery Performance Unit, GlaxoSmithKline, Inc, Collegeville, PA, USA
| | - Alan Russell
- Muscle Metabolism Discovery Performance Unit, GlaxoSmithKline, Inc, Collegeville, PA, USA.,Edgewise Therapeutics, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Mark J Griffiths
- Cardiovascular and Respiratory Interface Section, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London, UK
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Melouane A, Ghanemi A, Yoshioka M, St-Amand J. Functional genomics applications and therapeutic implications in sarcopenia. MUTATION RESEARCH-REVIEWS IN MUTATION RESEARCH 2019; 781:175-185. [PMID: 31416575 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrrev.2019.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2018] [Revised: 03/14/2019] [Accepted: 04/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The human genome contains around 20,000-25,000 genes coding for 30,000 proteins. Some proteins and genes represent therapeutic targets for human diseases. RNA and protein expression profiling tools allow the study of the molecular basis of aging and drug discovery validation. Throughout the life, there is an age-related and disease-related muscle decline. Sarcopenia is defined as a loss of muscle mass and a decrease in functional properties such as muscle strength and physical performance. Yet, there is still no consensus on the evaluation methods of sarcopenia prognosis. The main challenge of this complex biological phenomena is its multifactorial etiology. Thus, functional genomics methods attempt to shape the related scientific approaches via an innovative in-depth view on sarcopenia. Gene and drug high throughput screening combined with functional genomics allow the generation and the interpretation of a large amount of data related to sarcopenia and therapeutic progress. This review focuses on the application of selected functional genomics techniques such as RNA interference, RNA silencing, proteomics, transgenic mice, metabolomics, genomics, and epigenomics to better understand sarcopenia mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aicha Melouane
- CREMI, CHU de Québec Research Center, Quebec, Quebec, G1V 4G2, Canada; Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Laval University, Quebec, Quebec, G1V 4G2, Canada
| | - Abdelaziz Ghanemi
- CREMI, CHU de Québec Research Center, Quebec, Quebec, G1V 4G2, Canada; Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Laval University, Quebec, Quebec, G1V 4G2, Canada
| | - Mayumi Yoshioka
- CREMI, CHU de Québec Research Center, Quebec, Quebec, G1V 4G2, Canada
| | - Jonny St-Amand
- CREMI, CHU de Québec Research Center, Quebec, Quebec, G1V 4G2, Canada; Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Laval University, Quebec, Quebec, G1V 4G2, Canada.
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Single-Nucleotide-Polymorphism-Panel Population-Genetics Approach Based on the 1000 Genomes Database and Elite Soccer Players. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2019; 14:711-717. [PMID: 30427247 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2018-0715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Purpose: Soccer is one of the most popular sports worldwide, a physical activity of great physiological demand and complexity. Currently, numerous trials involving physiological responses such as hypertrophy, energy expenditure, vasodilation, cardiac output, VO2max, and recovery have supported the possibility of genomic predictors' affecting performance. In a complementary way to association studies with single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), the objective was to evaluate if the use of population genetics data from human-genomics databases can provide information for a better understanding of the relationship between heritability and sport performance. Methods: The study included 25 healthy male professional soccer players (25.5 [4.3] y, 177.4 [6.4] cm, 76.4 [6.4] kg, body fat 10.5% [4.3%]) from the Brazilian first-division soccer club. Anthropometric measurements and field and isokinetic tests were performed to evaluate performance and physiologic parameters of subjects. Moreover, 10 genetic polymorphisms previously related to performance were genotyped. The genotypes of the same polymorphisms were obtained for 2504 individuals from the populations deposited in the 1000 Genomes database. A principal-component analysis and matrix genetic-distances approach (Fst) were evaluated. Results: As expected, the admixture Brazilian population has numerous genetic similarities with the European and American populations from genomic databases. Although the African component is absolutely recognized in genomes from the Brazilian population, using the specific performance-related SNPs, surprisingly the African population was one of the most genetically distant of the players (P < .00001). Conclusions: The early results suggest a selective pressure on genes of elite soccer players, possibly related simultaneously to physical-performance, environmental, cognitive, and sociocultural aspects.
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Pescatello LS, Parducci P, Livingston J, Taylor BA. A Systematically Assembled Signature of Genes to be Deep-Sequenced for Their Associations with the Blood Pressure Response to Exercise. Genes (Basel) 2019; 10:genes10040295. [PMID: 30979034 PMCID: PMC6523684 DOI: 10.3390/genes10040295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2019] [Revised: 04/04/2019] [Accepted: 04/04/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
: Background: Exercise is one of the best nonpharmacologic therapies to treat hypertension. The blood pressure (BP) response to exercise is heritable. Yet, the genetic basis for the antihypertensive effects of exercise remains elusive. Methods: To assemble a prioritized gene signature, we performed a systematic review with a series of Boolean searches in PubMed (including Medline) from earliest coverage. The inclusion criteria were human genes in major BP regulatory pathways reported to be associated with: (1) the BP response to exercise; (2) hypertension in genome-wide association studies (GWAS); (3) the BP response to pharmacotherapy; (4a) physical activity and/or obesity in GWAS; and (4b) BP, physical activity, and/or obesity in non-GWAS. Included GWAS reports disclosed the statistically significant thresholds used for multiple testing. Results: The search yielded 1422 reports. Of these, 57 trials qualified from which we extracted 11 genes under criteria 1, 18 genes under criteria 2, 28 genes under criteria 3, 27 genes under criteria 4a, and 29 genes under criteria 4b. We also included 41 genes identified from our previous work. Conclusions: Deep-sequencing the exons of this systematically assembled signature of genes represents a cost and time efficient approach to investigate the genomic basis for the antihypertensive effects of exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda S Pescatello
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA.
- Institute for Systems Genomics, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA.
| | - Paul Parducci
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA.
| | - Jill Livingston
- Homer Babbidge Library, Health Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA.
| | - Beth A Taylor
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA.
- Institute for Systems Genomics, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA.
- Preventive Cardiology, Hartford Hospital, Hartford, CT 06269, USA.
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HANDAYANI MARIADARANOVI, SADEWA AHMADHAMIM, FARMAWATI ARTA, ROCHMAH WASILAH. Deletion Polymorphism of Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Gene Is Associated with Low Muscle Mass in Elderly People in Jakarta, Indonesia. THE KOBE JOURNAL OF MEDICAL SCIENCES 2018; 64:E119-E125. [PMID: 30666042 PMCID: PMC6347048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2018] [Accepted: 05/31/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Decline in muscle mass due to aging is a growing public health problem as it contributes to a decreased capacity for independent living among elderly people. A clear understanding of genetic factors is important, as it is known that angiotensin-converting enzyme insertion/deletion (ACE I/D) polymorphism affects muscle mass, although the findings are frequently heterogeneous. This study was conducted to determine the association between ACE I/D polymorphism and muscle mass in elderly people. A total of 130 elderly people were recruited from nursing homes in Jakarta. Anthropometric components affecting the muscle mass were examined. Cross-sectional analyses were performed to compare data using t-test, ANOVA and ANCOVA, and linear regression. Genotyping of the ACE I/D polymorphisms was performed by PCR methods, and muscle mass was evaluated by BIA. Genotype distribution counts II 65.38%, ID 13.85%, and DD 20.77% were not consistent with the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (χ² = 22.2, df = 2; p < 0.01). Individuals with the DD genotype showed lower muscle mass that was significantly different compared to the muscle mass in individuals with the II/ID genotype (II 16.14 ± 0.38, ID 15.71 ± 0.59; DD 13.95 ± 0.61 kg), after adjusting for % fat as a covariate. The linear regression analysis showed that age, gender, weight, height, nutritional status, protein content, and waist, hip, and calf circumference were significant contributors to muscle mass. In the multivariate analysis, adjusted age and gender significantly correlated with muscle mass, with r² = 0.98, by the likelihood ratio test (p < 0.01). The genotype variability accounted for 2.65% of the DD genotype. This study showed that in an elderly population in Jakarta, the DD genotype was associated with low muscle mass. This result suggests the role of nutritional status as a potential mediator in the association between ACE gene and muscle mass.
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Affiliation(s)
- MARIA DARA NOVI HANDAYANI
- Doctorate Program on Medical and Health Science, Faculty of Medicine Universitas Gadjah Mada,Yogyakarta, Indonesia
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine Atma Jaya University, Jakarta, Indonesia
| | - AHMAD HAMIM SADEWA
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
| | - ARTA FARMAWATI
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
| | - WASILAH ROCHMAH
- Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine Universitas Gadjah Mada Yogyakarta, Indonesia
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Exercise in cirrhosis: Translating evidence and experience to practice. J Hepatol 2018; 69:1164-1177. [PMID: 29964066 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2018.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2018] [Revised: 06/21/2018] [Accepted: 06/22/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Physical inactivity, sarcopenia, and frailty are highly prevalent, independent predictors of morbidity and mortality in patients with cirrhosis. Across a range of chronic diseases, exercise training is a key recommendation supported by guidelines and, for some conditions, even by governmental funding of exercise programmes. Consistent with the broader chronic disease literature, the evidence for a benefit of exercise in cirrhosis is promising. Several small trials have reported significant improvements in muscle health (mass, strength, functional capacity), quality of life, fatigue, and reductions in the hepatic venous pressure gradient, without adverse events. With strong emerging evidence surrounding the substantial risks of sarcopenia/frailty and our first-hand experiences with liver pre-transplant exercise programmes, we contend that routine patient care in cirrhosis should include an exercise prescription. Some clinicians may lack the resources and necessary background to translate the existing evidence into a practicable intervention. Our team, comprised of physiotherapists, exercise physiologists, hepatologists, transplant specialists, and knowledge translation experts from six North American centres, has distilled the essential background information, tools, and practices into a set of information ready for immediate implementation into clinics ranging from a family practice setting to specialty cirrhosis clinics. Augmenting the rationale and evidence are supplementary materials including video and downloadable materials for both patients and the physician. Supporting the exercising patient is a section regarding information about nutrition, providing practical tips suitable for all patients with cirrhosis.
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Bruneau M, Walsh S, Selinsky E, Ash G, Angelopoulos TJ, Clarkson P, Gordon P, Moyna N, Visich P, Zoeller R, Thompson P, Gordish‐Dressman H, Hoffman E, Devaney J, Pescatello LS. A genetic variant in IL-15Rα correlates with physical activity among European-American adults. Mol Genet Genomic Med 2018; 6:401-408. [PMID: 29624921 PMCID: PMC6014439 DOI: 10.1002/mgg3.368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2017] [Revised: 12/08/2017] [Accepted: 12/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Interleukin-15 (IL-15) is a myokine associated with muscle strength, possibly by attenuating protein breakdown. A variant in the alpha-receptor (IL-15Rα 1775 A>C, rs2228059) partially modulates the muscle strength and size response to resistance training. We examined if this polymorphism associated with habitual physical activity among European-American adults. METHODS Men (n = 240, 23.7 ± 0.3 year, body mass index [BMI] 25.3 ± 0.3 kg/m2 ) and women (n = 292, 23.2 ± 0.3 year, 24.0 ± 0.3 kg/m2 ) were genotyped. Physical activity phenotypes were derived from the Paffenbarger Physical Activity Questionnaire. Analysis of covariance (ancova) tested log-transformed differences between the IL-15Rα genotype and physical activity phenotypes by gender with age and BMI as covariates. RESULTS Men with the IL-15Rα 1775AA genotype spent more time in light intensity physical activity (39.4 ± 2.4 hr/week) than men with the CC genotype (28.6 ± 2.3 hr/week, (p = .009). CONCLUSION Further research is needed to confirm our finding and determine the possible mechanisms by which the IL-15Rα variant modulates light intensity physical activity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sean Walsh
- Central Connecticut State UniversityNew BritainCTUSA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Eric Hoffman
- Cooperative International Neuromuscular Research GroupWashingtonDCUSA
| | | | - Linda S. Pescatello
- University of ConnecticutStorrsCTUSA
- University of Connecticut Institute for Systems GenomicsStorrsCTUSA
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11
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Booth FW, Roberts CK, Thyfault JP, Ruegsegger GN, Toedebusch RG. Role of Inactivity in Chronic Diseases: Evolutionary Insight and Pathophysiological Mechanisms. Physiol Rev 2017; 97:1351-1402. [PMID: 28814614 PMCID: PMC6347102 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00019.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 341] [Impact Index Per Article: 48.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2016] [Revised: 03/06/2017] [Accepted: 03/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This review proposes that physical inactivity could be considered a behavior selected by evolution for resting, and also selected to be reinforcing in life-threatening situations in which exercise would be dangerous. Underlying the notion are human twin studies and animal selective breeding studies, both of which provide indirect evidence for the existence of genes for physical inactivity. Approximately 86% of the 325 million in the United States (U.S.) population achieve less than the U.S. Government and World Health Organization guidelines for daily physical activity for health. Although underappreciated, physical inactivity is an actual contributing cause to at least 35 unhealthy conditions, including the majority of the 10 leading causes of death in the U.S. First, we introduce nine physical inactivity-related themes. Next, characteristics and models of physical inactivity are presented. Following next are individual examples of phenotypes, organ systems, and diseases that are impacted by physical inactivity, including behavior, central nervous system, cardiorespiratory fitness, metabolism, adipose tissue, skeletal muscle, bone, immunity, digestion, and cancer. Importantly, physical inactivity, itself, often plays an independent role as a direct cause of speeding the losses of cardiovascular and strength fitness, shortening of healthspan, and lowering of the age for the onset of the first chronic disease, which in turn decreases quality of life, increases health care costs, and accelerates mortality risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank W Booth
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri; Department of Medical Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri; Department of Nutrition and Exercise Physiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri; Dalton Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri; Geriatrics, Research, Education and Clinical Center (GRECC), VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, California; Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas; and Cardiovascular Division, Department of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri
| | - Christian K Roberts
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri; Department of Medical Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri; Department of Nutrition and Exercise Physiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri; Dalton Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri; Geriatrics, Research, Education and Clinical Center (GRECC), VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, California; Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas; and Cardiovascular Division, Department of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri
| | - John P Thyfault
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri; Department of Medical Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri; Department of Nutrition and Exercise Physiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri; Dalton Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri; Geriatrics, Research, Education and Clinical Center (GRECC), VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, California; Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas; and Cardiovascular Division, Department of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri
| | - Gregory N Ruegsegger
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri; Department of Medical Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri; Department of Nutrition and Exercise Physiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri; Dalton Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri; Geriatrics, Research, Education and Clinical Center (GRECC), VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, California; Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas; and Cardiovascular Division, Department of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri
| | - Ryan G Toedebusch
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri; Department of Medical Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri; Department of Nutrition and Exercise Physiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri; Dalton Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri; Geriatrics, Research, Education and Clinical Center (GRECC), VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, California; Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas; and Cardiovascular Division, Department of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri
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12
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Ramírez-Vélez R, Martínez M, Correa-Bautista JE, Lobelo F, Izquierdo M, Rodríguez-Rodríguez F, Cristi-Montero C. Normative Reference of Standing Long Jump for Colombian Schoolchildren Aged 9–17.9 Years: The FUPRECOL Study. J Strength Cond Res 2017; 31:2083-2090. [DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000001633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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13
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Bruneau M, Angelopoulos TJ, Gordon P, Moyna N, Visich P, Zoeller R, Seip R, Bilbie S, Thompson P, Devaney J, Gordish-Dressman H, Hoffman E, Pescatello LS. The angiotensin-converting enzyme insertion/deletion polymorphism rs4340 associates with habitual physical activity among European American adults. Mol Genet Genomic Med 2017; 5:524-530. [PMID: 28944236 PMCID: PMC5606874 DOI: 10.1002/mgg3.308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2017] [Revised: 05/13/2017] [Accepted: 05/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) insertion/deletion (I/D) polymorphism (rs4340) (ACE DIP) accounts for half of the variability in plasma ACE concentrations. ACE has been widely studied for its influence on sports performance; however, research on its influence in physical activity is limited and inconsistent. We examined the influence of the ACE DIP on physical activity among 461 European Americans. METHODS Subjects completed the Paffenbarger Physical Activity Questionnaire for weekly walking distance. Multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) tested log-transformed differences in weekly walking distance among ACE DIP genotypes (II, ID, DD) with gender as a fixed factor, and age and body mass index (BMI) as covariates. Because we found a significant ACE DIPxBMI interaction (P = 0.03), we categorized the sample by normal weight (NW: BMI<25.0 kg/m2) and overweight (OW: BMI ≥25.0 kg/m2) and repeated the MANCOVA with multiple comparison adjustments. RESULTS NW adults with ACE II walked 15.8 ± 11.1 km/week, ID 13.2 ± 10.6 km/week, and DD 17.9 ± 13.0 km/week, with ID walking less than II (P = 0.03) and DD (P = 0.01). OW adults with ACE II walked 16.7 ± 12.6 km/week, ID 13.8 ± 11.6 km/week, and DD 9.7 ± 9.0 km/week, with DD walking less than II (P = 0.02). Weekly walking distance was 8.2 ± 2.4 km/week less among OW adults with ACE DD than NW (P = 0.02). CONCLUSION BMI interacted with ACE DD such that OW walked ~8.2 km/week less than NW, potentially equating to a body weight differential of ~3.5 kg annually.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Rick Seip
- Hartford HealthcareHartfordConnecticut
| | | | | | - Joseph Devaney
- Children's National Medical CenterWashingtonDistrict of Columbia
| | | | - Eric Hoffman
- Cooperative International Neuromuscular Research GroupWashingtonDistrict of Columbia
| | - Linda S Pescatello
- University of ConnecticutStorrsConnecticut.,University of Connecticut Institute for Systems GenomicsStorrsConnecticut
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14
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Letter to the editor: Are the doors opened to a genetic-based algorithm for personalized resistance training? Biol Sport 2016; 34:27-29. [PMID: 28416893 PMCID: PMC5377556 DOI: 10.5114/biolsport.2017.63384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2016] [Revised: 09/09/2016] [Accepted: 10/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
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15
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Böhm A, Weigert C, Staiger H, Häring HU. Exercise and diabetes: relevance and causes for response variability. Endocrine 2016; 51:390-401. [PMID: 26643313 PMCID: PMC4762932 DOI: 10.1007/s12020-015-0792-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2015] [Accepted: 10/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Exercise as a key prevention strategy for diabetes and obesity is commonly accepted and recommended throughout the world. Unfortunately, not all individuals profit to the same extent, some exhibit exercise resistance. This phenomenon of non-response to exercise is found for several endpoints, including glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity. Since these non-responders are of notable quantity, there is the need to understand the underlying mechanisms and to identify predictors of response. This displays the basis to develop personalized training intervention regimes. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on response variability, with focus on human studies and improvement of glucose homeostasis as outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja Böhm
- Department of Internal Medicine IV, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetology, Angiology, Nephrology, and Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Tübingen, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
- Institute for Diabetes Research and Metabolic Diseases of the Helmholtz Center Munich at the Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), 85764, München-Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Cora Weigert
- Department of Internal Medicine IV, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetology, Angiology, Nephrology, and Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Tübingen, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
- Institute for Diabetes Research and Metabolic Diseases of the Helmholtz Center Munich at the Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), 85764, München-Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Harald Staiger
- Department of Internal Medicine IV, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetology, Angiology, Nephrology, and Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Tübingen, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
- Institute for Diabetes Research and Metabolic Diseases of the Helmholtz Center Munich at the Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), 85764, München-Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Hans-Ulrich Häring
- Department of Internal Medicine IV, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetology, Angiology, Nephrology, and Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Tübingen, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, 72076, Tübingen, Germany.
- Institute for Diabetes Research and Metabolic Diseases of the Helmholtz Center Munich at the Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
- German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), 85764, München-Neuherberg, Germany.
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16
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Ash GI, Kostek MA, Lee H, Angelopoulos TJ, Clarkson PM, Gordon PM, Moyna NM, Visich PS, Zoeller RF, Price TB, Devaney JM, Gordish-Dressman H, Thompson PD, Hoffman EP, Pescatello LS. Glucocorticoid Receptor (NR3C1) Variants Associate with the Muscle Strength and Size Response to Resistance Training. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0148112. [PMID: 26821164 PMCID: PMC4731199 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0148112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2014] [Accepted: 01/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Glucocorticoid receptor (NR3C1) polymorphisms associate with obesity, muscle strength, and cortisol sensitivity. We examined associations among four NR3C1 polymorphisms and the muscle response to resistance training (RT). European-American adults (n = 602, 23.8±0.4yr) completed a 12 week unilateral arm RT program. Maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) assessed isometric strength (kg) and MRI assessed biceps size (cm2) pre- and post-resistance training. Subjects were genotyped for NR3C1 -2722G>A, -1887G>A, -1017T>C, and +363A>G. Men carrying the -2722G allele gained less relative MVC (17.3±1.2vs33.5±6.1%) (p = 0.010) than AA homozygotes; men with -1887GG gained greater relative MVC than A allele carriers (19.6±1.4vs13.2±2.3%) (p = 0.016). Women carrying the -1017T allele gained greater relative size (18.7±0.5vs16.1±0.9%) (p = 0.016) than CC homozygotes. We found sex-specific NR3C1 associations with the muscle strength and size response to RT. Future studies should investigate whether these associations are partially explained by cortisol's actions in muscle tissue as they interact with sex differences in cortisol production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garrett I. Ash
- Department of Kinesiology and Human Performance Laboratory, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Matthew A. Kostek
- Department of Kinesiology and Human Performance Laboratory, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Harold Lee
- Department of Behavioral and Social Sciences, Brown University School of Public Health, Providence, Rhode Island, United States of America
| | | | - Priscilla M. Clarkson
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Paul M. Gordon
- Department of Health, Human Performance and Recreation, Baylor University, Waco, Texas, United States of America
| | - Niall M. Moyna
- School of Health and Human Performance, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Paul S. Visich
- Exercise and Sport Performance Department, University of New England, Biddeford, Maine, United States of America
| | - Robert F. Zoeller
- Department of Exercise Science and Health Promotion, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida, United States of America
| | - Thomas B. Price
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Bridgeport, Bridgeport, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Joseph M. Devaney
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, District of Columbia, United States of America
| | - Heather Gordish-Dressman
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, District of Columbia, United States of America
| | - Paul D. Thompson
- Division of Cardiology, Henry Low Heart Center, Hartford Hospital, Hartford, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Eric P. Hoffman
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, District of Columbia, United States of America
| | - Linda S. Pescatello
- Department of Kinesiology and Human Performance Laboratory, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, United States of America
- Institute for Systems Genomics, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, United States of America
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17
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Santos CGM, Pimentel-Coelho PM, Budowle B, de Moura-Neto RS, Dornelas-Ribeiro M, Pompeu FAMS, Silva R. The heritable path of human physical performance: from single polymorphisms to the "next generation". Scand J Med Sci Sports 2015; 26:600-12. [PMID: 26147924 DOI: 10.1111/sms.12503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Human physical performance is a complex multifactorial trait. Historically, environmental factors (e.g., diet, training) alone have been unable to explain the basis of all prominent phenotypes for physical performance. Therefore, there has been an interest in the study of the contribution of genetic factors to the development of these phenotypes. Support for a genetic component is found with studies that shown that monozygotic twins were more similar than were dizygotic twins for many physiological traits. The evolution of molecular techniques and the ability to scan the entire human genome enabled association of several genetic polymorphisms with performance. However, some biases related to the selection of cohorts and inadequate definition of the study variables have complicated the already difficult task of studying such a large and polymorphic genome, often resulting in inconsistent results about the influence of candidate genes. This review aims to provide a critical overview of heritable genetic aspects. Novel molecular technologies, such as next-generation sequencing, are discussed and how they can contribute to improving understanding of the molecular basis for athletic performance. It is important to ensure that the large amount of data that can be generated using these tools will be used effectively by ensuring well-designed studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- C G M Santos
- Instituto de Biologia do Exército, Brazillian Army Biologic Institute, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - P M Pimentel-Coelho
- Instituto de Biologia do Exército, Brazillian Army Biologic Institute, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - B Budowle
- Molecular and Medical Genetics, University of North Texas - Health and Science Center, Fort Worth, Texas, USA.,Center of Excellence in Genomic Medicine Research (CEGMR), King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - R S de Moura-Neto
- Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - M Dornelas-Ribeiro
- Instituto de Biologia do Exército, Brazillian Army Biologic Institute, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - F A M S Pompeu
- Escola de Educação Física e Desportos, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - R Silva
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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18
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Abstract
Studies on the determinants of physical activity have traditionally focused on social factors and environmental barriers, but recent research has shown the additional importance of biological factors, including genetic variation. Here we review the major tenets of this research to arrive at three major conclusions: First, individual differences in physical activity traits are significantly influenced by genetic factors, but genetic contribution varies strongly over age, with heritability of leisure time exercise behavior ranging from 27% to 84% and heritability of sedentary behaviors ranging from 9% to 48%. Second, candidate gene approaches based on animal or human QTLs or on biological relevance (e.g., dopaminergic or cannabinoid activity in the brain, or exercise performance influencing muscle physiology) have not yet yielded the necessary evidence to specify the genetic mechanisms underlying the heritability of physical activity traits. Third, there is significant genetic modulation of the beneficial effects of daily physical activity patterns on strength and endurance improvements and on health-related parameters like body mass index. Further increases in our understanding of the genetic determinants of sedentary and exercise behaviors as well as the genetic modulation of their effects on fitness and health will be key to meaningful future intervention on these behaviors.
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