Heparan sulfate and heparanase as modulators of breast cancer progression

Traditional Clinicopathological Biomarkers Still Determine Disease-Free and Overall Survival in Invasive Breast Cancer Patients: A Pilot Study

Background: Molecular classification, tumor diameter, Ki67 expression, and brachytherapy administration still act as the most potent potential predictors of breast cancer recurrence and overall survival. Methods: Over the period of 23 months, we included in the study 92 invasive breast cancer (IBrC) patients initially diagnosed at the Clinical Ward of Breast Cancer and Reconstructive Surgery, Oncology Center in Bydgoszcz, Poland. The probability of disease-free survival (DFS) and overall survival (OS) in relation to potential prognostic factors for the patients were determined using a Kaplan-Meier analysis, and univariate and multivariate Cox regression analyses evaluated the predictive factors of IBrC patients. The investigation of the potential prognostic model's accuracy was analyzed using the ROC curve. Results: Patients with tumor size < 2 cm, Ki67 expression < 20%, luminal-A molecular subtype, and extra-dose brachytherapy boost administration displayed the most favorable prognosis according to breast cancer disease-free survival and overall survival. The estimated 5 year probability of DFS and OS rates in women with tumor diameter < 2 cm were 89% and 90%, respectively. In tumor diameter > 2 cm, the estimated 5 year probability of DFS was 73% and OS was 76%. Interestingly, the tumor diameter of 1.6 cm with a specificity of 60.5% and a sensitivity of 75% occurred as the best threshold point to differentiate patients with cancer recurrence from those without cancer progression. Conclusions: Our study provides essential information on the clinicopathological profile and future outcomes of early stage IBrC patients. Furthermore, the tumor diameter cut-off value of 1.6 cm discriminating between disease recurrence and those without disease progression patients represents an innovative direction for further research.

The role of heparan sulfate in enhancing the chemotherapeutic response in triple-negative breast cancer

Background

Among women worldwide, breast cancer has the highest incidence and is the leading cause of cancer-related death. Patients with the triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) subtype have an inferior prognosis in comparison to other breast cancers because current therapies do not facilitate long-lasting responses. Thus, there is a demand for more innovative therapies that induce durable responses.In our previous research, we discovered that augmenting the concentration of extracellular ATP (eATP) greatly enhances the chemotherapeutic response of TNBC cell lines by activating purinergic receptors (P2RXs), leading to cell death through the induction of non-selective membrane permeability. However, eATP levels are limited by several classes of extracellular ATPases. One endogenous molecule of interest that can inhibit multiple classes of extracellular ATPases is heparan sulfate. Polysulfated polysaccharide heparan sulfate itself is degraded by heparanase, an enzyme that is known to be highly expressed in various cancers, including breast cancer. Heparan sulfate has previously been shown to regulate several cancer-related processes such as fibroblast growth factor signaling, neoangiogenesis by sequestering vascular endothelial growth factors in the extracellular matrix, hedgehog signaling and cell adhesion. In this project, we identified an additional mechanism for a tumor suppressor role of heparan sulfate: inhibition of extracellular ATPases, leading to augmented levels of eATP.Several heparanase inhibitors have been previously identified, including OGT 2115, suramin, PI-88, and PG 545. We hypothesized that heparanase inhibitors would augment eATP concentrations in TNBC by increasing heparan sulfate in the tumor microenvironment, resulting in enhanced cell death in response to chemotherapy.

Methods

We treated TNBC cell lines MDA-MB 231, Hs 578t, and MDA-MB 468 and non-tumorigenic immortal mammary epithelial MCF-10A cells with increasing concentrations of the chemotherapeutic agent paclitaxel in the presence of heparan sulfate and/or the heparanase inhibitor OGT 2115 while analyzing eATP release and cell viability. Moreover, to verify that the effects of OGT 2115 are mediated through eATP, we applied specific antagonists to the purinergic receptors P2RX4 and P2RX7. In addition, the protein expression of heparanase was compared in the cell lines by Western blot analysis. We also evaluated the consequences of this therapeutic strategy on the breast cancer-initiating cell population in the treated cells using flow cytometry and tumorsphere formation efficiency assays.

Results

Heparanase was found to be highly expressed in immortal mammary epithelial cells in comparison to TNBC cell lines. The heparanase inhibitor OGT 2115 augmented chemotherapy-induced TNBC cell death and eATP release.

Conclusion

These results demonstrate that inhibiting the degradation of heparan sulfate in the tumor microenvironment augments the susceptibility of TNBC cell lines to chemotherapy by increasing extracellular ATP concentrations. This strategy could potentially be applied to induce more enhanced and enduring responses in TNBC patients.

Targeting Breast Cancer: The Familiar, the Emerging, and the Uncharted Territories

Breast cancer became the most diagnosed cancer in the world in 2020. Chemotherapy is still the leading clinical strategy in breast cancer treatment, followed by hormone therapy (mostly used in hormone receptor-positive types). However, with our ever-expanding knowledge of signaling pathways in cancer biology, new molecular targets are identified for potential novel molecularly targeted drugs in breast cancer treatment. While this has resulted in the approval of a few molecularly targeted drugs by the FDA (including drugs targeting immune checkpoints), a wide array of signaling pathways seem to be still underexplored. Also, while combinatorial treatments have become common practice in clinics, the majority of these approaches seem to combine molecularly targeted drugs with chemotherapeutic agents. In this manuscript, we start by analyzing the list of FDA-approved molecularly targeted drugs for breast cancer to evaluate where molecular targeting stands in breast cancer treatment today. We will then provide an overview of other options currently under clinical trial or being investigated in pre-clinical studies.

HS6ST1 overexpressed in cancer-associated fibroblast and inhibited cholangiocarcinoma progression

BACKGROUD

Fibroblasts turn into cancer associated fibroblasts (CAFs) in the tumor microenvironment, which play an important role in tumor progression. However, the mechanism is unclear.

AIMS

To investigate the role of CAFs with HS6ST1-overexpression in cell migration and invasion effects.

METHODS

Human primary CAFs were isolated and identified from intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma. mRNA profiles differences between CAFs and NFs were examined by using transcriptome sequencing. Using Transwell® migration assays, ICCA cells (RBE and HUCCT1) with NF-CM, CAF-CM, CAFsNC-CM, and CAFsHS6ST1-CM were analyzed. Immunohistochemical staining were used to analyze the expression of HS6ST1 in CAF in 152 patients with ICCA. Overall survival (OS) was compared based on CAF HS6ST1 expression were analysed. The relationship between clinicopathological parameters and survival was also examined.

RESULTS

Successfully isolated CAFs is positive staining with αSMA, FSP-1, FAP, and PDGFR-β. Transcriptome sequencing showed that differently expressed genes were enriched in the function of the extracellular matrix and chemokine signaling pathway. HS6ST1 is differentially expressed between CAFs and NFs, and associated with the migration and invasion of ICCA cells. Moreover, HS6ST1 positive expression of CAFs predicted unfavorable prognosis in patients with intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma and showed correlation with the presence of lymph node metastasis.

CONCLUSION

HS6ST1 is new possibilities for targeting the CAFs to reduce cholangiocarcinoma growth and metastasis.

HS, an Ancient Molecular Recognition and Information Storage Glycosaminoglycan, Equips HS-Proteoglycans with Diverse Matrix and Cell-Interactive Properties Operative in Tissue Development and Tissue Function in Health and Disease

Heparan sulfate is a ubiquitous, variably sulfated interactive glycosaminoglycan that consists of repeating disaccharides of glucuronic acid and glucosamine that are subject to a number of modifications (acetylation, de-acetylation, epimerization, sulfation). Variable heparan sulfate chain lengths and sequences within the heparan sulfate chains provide structural diversity generating interactive oligosaccharide binding motifs with a diverse range of extracellular ligands and cellular receptors providing instructional cues over cellular behaviour and tissue homeostasis through the regulation of essential physiological processes in development, health, and disease. heparan sulfate and heparan sulfate-PGs are integral components of the specialized glycocalyx surrounding cells. Heparan sulfate is the most heterogeneous glycosaminoglycan, in terms of its sequence and biosynthetic modifications making it a difficult molecule to fully characterize, multiple ligands also make an elucidation of heparan sulfate functional properties complicated. Spatio-temporal presentation of heparan sulfate sulfate groups is an important functional determinant in tissue development and in cellular control of wound healing and extracellular remodelling in pathological tissues. The regulatory properties of heparan sulfate are mediated via interactions with chemokines, chemokine receptors, growth factors and morphogens in cell proliferation, differentiation, development, tissue remodelling, wound healing, immune regulation, inflammation, and tumour development. A greater understanding of these HS interactive processes will improve therapeutic procedures and prognoses. Advances in glycosaminoglycan synthesis and sequencing, computational analytical carbohydrate algorithms and advanced software for the evaluation of molecular docking of heparan sulfate with its molecular partners are now available. These advanced analytic techniques and artificial intelligence offer predictive capability in the elucidation of heparan sulfate conformational effects on heparan sulfate-ligand interactions significantly aiding heparan sulfate therapeutics development.

Setting the stage for universal pharmacological targeting of the glycocalyx

All cells in the human body are covered by a complex meshwork of sugars as well as proteins and lipids to which these sugars are attached, collectively termed the glycocalyx. Over the past few decades, the glycocalyx has been implicated in a range of vital cellular processes in health and disease. Therefore, it has attracted considerable interest as a therapeutic target. Considering its omnipresence and its relevance for various areas of cell biology, the glycocalyx should be a versatile platform for therapeutic intervention, however, the full potential of the glycocalyx as therapeutic target is yet to unfold. This might be attributable to the fact that glycocalyx alterations are currently discussed mainly in the context of specific diseases. In this perspective review, we shift the attention away from a disease-centered view of the glycocalyx, focusing on changes in glycocalyx state. Furthermore, we survey important glycocalyx-targeted drugs currently available and finally discuss future steps. We hope that this approach will inspire a unified, holistic view of the glycocalyx in disease, helping to stimulate novel glycocalyx-targeted therapy strategies.

Enzymatic Digestion of Cell-surface Heparan Sulfate Alters the Radiation Response in Triple-negative Breast Cancer Cells

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Radiation resistance represents a major challenge in the treatment of breast cancer. As heparan sulfate (HS) chains are known to contribute to tumorigenesis, we aimed to investigate the interplay between HS degradation and radiation response in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) cells.

METHODS

HS chains were degraded in vitro as TNBC cells MDA-MB-231 and HCC1806 were treated with heparinase I and III. Subsequently, radioresistance was determined via colony formation assay after doses of 2, 4 and 6 Gy. Cell cycle profile, stem cell characteristics, expression of HS, activation of beta integrins, and apoptosis were determined by flow cytometry. Additionally, cell motility was analyzed via wound-healing assays, and expression and activation of FAK, CDK-6, Src, and Erk1/2 were quantified by western blot pre- and post-irradiation. Finally, the expression of cytokines was analyzed using a cytokine array.

RESULTS

Radiation promoted cell cycle changes, while heparinase treatment induced apoptosis in both cell lines. Colony formation assays showed significantly increased radio-resistance for both cell lines after degradation of HS. Cell migration was similarly upregulated after degradation of HS compared to controls. This effect was even more prominent after irradiation. Interestingly, FAK, a marker of radioresistance, was significantly activated in the heparinase-treated group. Additionally, we found Src to be dysregulated in MDA-MB-231 cells. Finally, we observed differential secretion of GRO, CXCL1, IGFBP1, IL8, Angiogenin, and Osteoprotegerin after HS degradation and radiotherapy.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest an influence of HS chains on the development of radioresistance in TNBC.

Regulation of FGF-2, FGF-18 and Transcription Factor Activity by Perlecan in the Maturational Development of Transitional Rudiment and Growth Plate Cartilages and in the Maintenance of Permanent Cartilage Homeostasis

The aim of this study was to highlight the roles of perlecan in the regulation of the development of the rudiment developmental cartilages and growth plate cartilages, and also to show how perlecan maintains permanent articular cartilage homeostasis. Cartilage rudiments are transient developmental templates containing chondroprogenitor cells that undergo proliferation, matrix deposition, and hypertrophic differentiation. Growth plate cartilage also undergoes similar changes leading to endochondral bone formation, whereas permanent cartilage is maintained as an articular structure and does not undergo maturational changes. Pericellular and extracellular perlecan-HS chains interact with growth factors, morphogens, structural matrix glycoproteins, proteases, and inhibitors to promote matrix stabilization and cellular proliferation, ECM remodelling, and tissue expansion. Perlecan has mechanotransductive roles in cartilage that modulate chondrocyte responses in weight-bearing environments. Nuclear perlecan may modulate chromatin structure and transcription factor access to DNA and gene regulation. Snail-1, a mesenchymal marker and transcription factor, signals through FGFR-3 to promote chondrogenesis and maintain Acan and type II collagen levels in articular cartilage, but prevents further tissue expansion. Pre-hypertrophic growth plate chondrocytes also express high Snail-1 levels, leading to cessation of Acan and CoI2A1 synthesis and appearance of type X collagen. Perlecan differentially regulates FGF-2 and FGF-18 to maintain articular cartilage homeostasis, rudiment and growth plate cartilage growth, and maturational changes including mineralization, contributing to skeletal growth.

Informatics Ecosystems to Advance the Biology of Glycans

Glycomics researchers have identified the need for integrated database systems for collecting glycomics information in a consistent format. The goal is to create a resource for knowledge discovery and dissemination to wider research communities. This has the potential and has exhibited initial success, to extend the research community to include biologists, clinicians, chemists, and computer scientists. This chapter discusses the technology and approach needed to create integrated data resources and informatics ecosystems to empower the broader community to leverage extant glycomics data. The focus is on glycosaminoglycan (GAGs) and proteoglycan research, but the approach can be generalized. The methods described span the development of glycomics standards from CarbBank to Glyco Connection Tables. Integrated data sets provide a foundation for novel methods of analysis such as machine learning and deep learning for knowledge discovery. The implications of predictive analysis are examined in relation to disease biomarker to expand the target audience of GAG and proteoglycan research.

Heparanase is a novel biomarker for immune infiltration and prognosis in breast cancer

Heparanase (HPSE), an endoglycosidase that cleaves heparan sulfate, regulates a variety of biological processes that promote tumor progression. In this study, we analyzed the correlation between HPSE expression and prognosis in cancer patients, using multiple databases (Oncomine, TIMER, PrognoScan, GEPIA, Kaplan-Meier plotter, miner v4.1, DAVID). HPSE expression was significantly increased in bladder, breast, lung, and stomach cancer compared to matched normal tissues. The increased HPSE expression correlated with poor prognosis and increased immune infiltration levels of B cells, CD8+ and CD4+ T cells, macrophages, neutrophils and dendritic cells in bladder and breast cancer. In breast cancer, the high HPSE expression was associated with basal-like subtypes, younger age (0-40), advanced Scarff-Bloom-Richardson grade, Nottingham Prognostic Index and p53 mutation status. In addition, using a mouse model of breast cancer, our data showed that HPSE upregulated IL-10 expression and promoted macrophage M2 polarization and T cell exhaustion. Together, our data provide a novel immunological perspective on the mechanisms underlying breast cancer progression, and indicate that HPSE may serve as a biomarker for immune infiltration and prognosis in breast cancer.

Selective Inhibition of Heparan Sulphate and Not Chondroitin Sulphate Biosynthesis by a Small, Soluble Competitive Inhibitor

The glycosaminoglycan, heparan sulphate (HS), orchestrates many developmental processes. Yet its biological role has not yet fully been elucidated. Small molecule chemical inhibitors can be used to perturb HS function and these compounds provide cheap alternatives to genetic manipulation methods. However, existing chemical inhibition methods for HS also interfere with chondroitin sulphate (CS), complicating data interpretation of HS function. Herein, a simple method for the selective inhibition of HS biosynthesis is described. Using endogenous metabolic sugar pathways, Ac₄GalNAz produces UDP-GlcNAz, which can target HS synthesis. Cell treatment with Ac₄GalNAz resulted in defective chain elongation of the polymer and decreased HS expression. Conversely, no adverse effect on CS production was observed. The inhibition was transient and dose-dependent, affording rescue of HS expression after removal of the unnatural azido sugar. The utility of inhibition is demonstrated in cell culture and in whole organisms, demonstrating that this small molecule can be used as a tool for HS inhibition in biological systems.

Impact of Adjuvant Treatment on Heparanase Concentration in Invasive, Unilateral Breast Cancer Patients: Results of a Prospective Single-Centre Cohort Study

Background: In recent years, great progress has been made in the treatment of breast cancer, but it is still one of the ten leading causes of death in women. The aim of the study was to evaluate the heparanase concentration of invasive breast cancer (IBrC) patients, before and after cancer adjuvant treatment. Methods: Eighty patients with stage IA to IIB IBrC receiving adjuvant treatment were included prospectively in this study. The heparanase concentrations were determined by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. A univariate analysis was used to estimate the factors influencing the low or high pre-treatment concentration of heparanase and the low or high numerical decrease in heparanase concentration after completion of adjuvant treatment. Results: Treatment reduced the concentration of heparanase by almost four times in the general IBrC cohort. Higher levels of pre- and post-treatment heparanase were noted in oestrogen receptor-negative cancers than in positive ones. A higher post-treatment concentration of heparanase was found in patients with a triple-negative tumour compared to patients with a luminal B HER2 negative type of IBrC. Overweight IBrC subjects and those with a tumour diameter of ≥2 cm demonstrated a lower chance of a lower pre-treatment heparanase concentration. Interestingly, a pre-treatment heparanase concentration is the main predictor of the changes in heparanase concentration after adjuvant treatment. Follow-up revealed significantly lower progression-free survival (PFS) rates in IBrC patients with a pre-treatment concentration of heparanase higher than 181.46 pg/mL (PFS = 80%). Conclusions: Our findings provide supporting evidence that IBrC therapy reduced the heparanase levels, regardless of treatment patterns and a pre-treatment concentration of heparanase may serve as a prognostic indicator for future outcomes.

Antiproliferative Properties of Scandium Exopolysaccharide Complexes on Several Cancer Cell Lines

Antimetastatic properties on both murine and human osteosarcoma cell lines (POS-1 and KHOS) have been evidenced using exopolysaccharide (EPS) derivatives, produced by Alteromonas infernus bacterium. These derivatives had no significant effect on the cell cycle neither a pro-apoptotic effect on osteosarcoma cells. Based on this observation, these EPSs could be employed as new drug delivery systems for therapeutic uses. A theranostic approach, i.e., combination of a predictive biomarker with a therapeutic agent, has been developed notably by combining with true pair of theranostic radionuclides, such as scandium ⁴⁷Sc/⁴⁴Sc. However, it is crucial to ensure that, once complexation is done, the biological properties of the vector remain intact, allowing the molecular tropism of the ligand to recognize its molecular target. It is important to assess if the biological properties of EPS evidenced on osteosarcoma cell lines remain when scandium is complexed to the polymers and can be extended to other cancer cell types. Scandium-EPS complexes were thus tested in vitro on human cell lines: MNNG/HOS osteosarcoma, A375 melanoma, A549 lung adenocarcinoma, U251 glioma, MDA231 breast cancer, and Caco2 colon cancer cells. An xCELLigence Real Cell Time Analysis (RTCA) technology assay was used to monitor for 160 h, the proliferation kinetics of the different cell lines. The tested complexes exhibited an anti-proliferative effect, this effect was more effective compared to EPS alone. This increase of the antiproliferative properties was explained by a change in conformation of EPS complexes due to their polyelectrolyte nature that was induced by complexation. Alterations of both growth factor-receptor signaling, and transmembrane protein interactions could be the principal cause of the antiproliferative effect. These results are very promising and reveal that EPS can be coupled to scandium for improving its biological effects and also suggesting that no major structural modification occurs on the ligand.

Emerging Role of Syndecans in Extracellular Matrix Remodeling in Cancer

The extracellular matrix (ECM) offers a structural basis for regulating cell functions while also acting as a collection point for bioactive molecules and connective tissue cells. To perform pathological functions under a pathological condition, the involved cells need to regulate the ECM to support their altered functions. This is particularly common in the development of cancer. The ECM has been recognized as a key driver of cancer development and progression, and ECM remodeling occurs at all stages of cancer progression. Thus, cancer cells need to change the ECM to support relevant cell surface adhesion receptor-mediated cell functions. In this context, it is interesting to examine how cancer cells regulate ECM remodeling, which is critical to tumor malignancy and metastatic progression. Here, we review how the cell surface adhesion receptor, syndecan, regulates ECM remodeling as cancer progresses, and explore how this can help us better understand ECM remodeling under these pathological conditions.

Heparanase and the hallmarks of cancer

Heparanase is the only mammalian enzyme that cleaves heparan sulphate, an important component of the extracellular matrix. This leads to the remodelling of the extracellular matrix, whilst liberating growth factors and cytokines bound to heparan sulphate. This in turn promotes both physiological and pathological processes such as angiogenesis, immune cell migration, inflammation, wound healing and metastasis. Furthermore, heparanase exhibits non-enzymatic actions in cell signalling and in regulating gene expression. Cancer is underpinned by key characteristic features that promote malignant growth and disease progression, collectively termed the 'hallmarks of cancer'. Essentially, all cancers examined to date have been reported to overexpress heparanase, leading to enhanced tumour growth and metastasis with concomitant poor patient survival. With its multiple roles within the tumour microenvironment, heparanase has been demonstrated to regulate each of these hallmark features, in turn highlighting the need for heparanase-targeted therapies. However, recent discoveries which demonstrated that heparanase can also regulate vital anti-tumour mechanisms have cast doubt on this approach. This review will explore the myriad ways by which heparanase functions as a key regulator of the hallmarks of cancer and will highlight its role as a major component within the tumour microenvironment. The dual role of heparanase within the tumour microenvironment, however, emphasises the need for further investigation into defining its precise mechanism of action in different cancer settings.

Heparanase from triple‑negative breast cancer and platelets acts as an enhancer of metastasis

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), which is characterized by inherently aggressive behavior and lack of recognized molecular targets for therapy, poses a serious threat to women's health worldwide. However, targeted treatments have yet to be made available. A crosstalk between tumor cells and platelets (PLT) contributing to growth, angiogenesis and metastasis has been reported in numerous cancers. Heparanase (Hpa), the only mammalian endoglycosidase that cleaves heparan sulfate, has been demonstrated to contribute to the growth, angiogenesis and metastasis of numerous cancers. Hypoxia affects the growth, angiogenesis and metastasis of nearly all solid tumors, and the ability of Hpa to promote invasion is enhanced in hypoxia. However, whether Hpa can strengthen the crosstalk between tumor cells and PLT, and whether enhancing the biological function of Hpa in TNBC promotes malignant progression, have yet to be fully elucidated. The present study, based on bioinformatics analysis and experimental studies in vivo and in vitro, demonstrated that Hpa enhanced the crosstalk between TNBC cells and PLT to increase the supply of oxygen and nutrients, while also conferring tolerance of TNBC cells to oxygen and nutrient shortage, both of which are important for overcoming the stress of hypoxia and nutritional deprivation in the tumor microenvironment, thereby promoting malignant progression, including growth, angiogenesis and metastasis in TNBC. In addition, the hypoxia-inducible factor-1a (HIF-1a)/vascular endothelial growth factor-a (VEGF- a)/phosphorylated protein kinase B (p-)Akt axis may be the key pathway involved in the effects of Hpa on the biological processes mentioned above. Therefore, improving local hypoxia, anti-Hpa treatment and inhibiting PLT activation may improve the prognosis of TNBC.

Non-Anticoagulant Heparan Sulfate from the Ascidian Phallusia nigra Prevents Colon Carcinoma Metastasis in Mice by Disrupting Platelet-Tumor Cell Interaction

Although metastasis is the primary cause of death in patients with malignant solid tumors, efficient anti-metastatic therapies are not clinically available currently. Sulfated glycosaminoglycans from marine sources have shown promising pharmacological effects, acting on different steps of the metastatic process. Oversulfated dermatan sulfates from ascidians are effective in preventing metastasis by inhibition of P-selectin, a platelet surface protein involved in the platelet-tumor cell emboli formation. We report in this work that the heparan sulfate isolated from the viscera of the ascidian Phallusia nigra drastically attenuates metastases of colon carcinoma cells in mice. Our in vitro and in vivo assessments demonstrate that the P. nigra glycan has very low anticoagulant and antithrombotic activities and a reduced hypotension potential, although it efficiently prevented metastasis. Therefore, it may be a promising candidate for the development of a novel anti-metastatic drug.

Role of extra cellular proteins in gastric cancer progression and metastasis: an update

Background

Gastric cancer (GC) is one of the most common cancers in the world with a high ratio of mortality. Regarding the late diagnosis, there is a high ratio of distant metastasis among GC cases. Despite the recent progresses in therapeutic modalities, there is not still an efficient therapeutic method to increase survival rate of metastatic GC cases.

Main body

Apart from the various intracellular signaling pathways which are involved in tumor cell migration and metastasis, the local microenvironment is also a critical regulator of tumor cell migration. Indeed, the intracellular signaling pathways also exert their final metastatic roles through regulation of extra cellular matrix (ECM). Therefore, it is required to assess the role of extra cellular components in biology of GC.

Conclusion

In the present review, we summarize 48 of the significant ECM components including 17 ECM modifying enzymes, seven extracellular angiogenic factors, 13 cell adhesion and cytoskeletal organizers, seven matricellular proteins and growth factors, and four proteoglycans and extra cellular glycoproteins. This review paves the way of determination of a specific extra cellular diagnostic and prognostic panel marker for the GC patients.

Heparan sulfate maintains adult midgut homeostasis in Drosophila

Tissue homeostasis is controlled by the differentiated progeny of residential progenitors (stem cells). Adult stem cells constantly adjust their proliferation/differentiation rates to respond to tissue damage and stresses. However, how differentiated cells maintain tissue homeostasis remains unclear. Here, we find that heparan sulfate (HS), a class of glycosaminoglycan (GAG) chains, protects differentiated cells from loss to maintain intestinal homeostasis. HS depletion in enterocytes (ECs) leads to intestinal homeostasis disruption, with accumulation of intestinal stem cell (ISC)-like cells and mis-differentiated progeny. HS-deficient ECs are prone to cell death/stress and induced cytokine and epidermal growth factor (EGF) expression, which, in turn, promote ISC proliferation and differentiation. Interestingly, HS depletion in ECs results in the inactivation of decapentaplegic (Dpp) signaling. Moreover, ectopic Dpp signaling completely rescued the defects caused by HS depletion. Together, our data demonstrate that HS is required for Dpp signal activation in ECs, thereby protecting ECs from ablation to maintain midgut homeostasis. Our data shed light into the regulatory mechanisms of how differentiated cells contribute to tissue homeostasis maintenance.

Heparan sulfate negatively regulates intestinal stem cell proliferation in Drosophila adult midgut

Tissue homeostasis is maintained by differentiated progeny of residential stem cells. Both extrinsic signals and intrinsic factors play critical roles in the proliferation and differentiation of adult intestinal stem cells (ISCs). However, how extrinsic signals are transduced into ISCs still remains unclear. Here, we find that heparan sulfate (HS), a class of glycosaminoglycan (GAG) chains, negatively regulates progenitor proliferation and differentiation to maintain midgut homeostasis under physiological conditions. Interestingly, HS depletion in progenitors results in inactivation of Decapentaplegic (Dpp) signaling. Dpp signal inactivation in progenitors resembles HS-deficient intestines. Ectopic Dpp signaling completely rescued the defects caused by HS depletion. Taken together, these data demonstrate that HS is required for Dpp signaling to maintain midgut homeostasis. Our results provide insight into the regulatory mechanisms of how extrinsic signals are transduced into stem cells to regulate their proliferation and differentiation.

Discovery of HSPG2 (Perlecan) as a Therapeutic Target in Triple Negative Breast Cancer

In recent years, there have been significant advances in the treatment of breast cancer resulting in remarkably high survival rates. However, treatment options for metastatic triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) are quite limited due to a lack of identifiable, unique markers. Using a phage display-based whole cell biopanning procedure, we developed two human antibodies that bind to tumor cells with a metastatic TNBC phenotype. Our studies further identified domain 1 of HSPG2 (perlecan) protein as the cognate cell surface antigen bound by the antibody. Immunohistochemistry studies utilizing patient tissue samples revealed significant cell surface expression of HSPG2 in both primary tumors and metastatic lesions. Further, higher HSPG2 expression correlated with poor survival in TNBC. The affinity-matured antibody inhibited the growth of triple negative MDA-MB-231 tumors to a greater extent in nude mice than in NSG mice, pointing to the potential role of natural killer cell-mediated antibody-dependent cell cytotoxicity. This mechanism of action was confirmed through in vitro assays using mouse splenocytes and human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). These results suggest that HSPG2 is a promising target in metastatic TNBC and HSPG2-targeted antibodies could represent a potentially novel class of targeted therapeutics for TNBC.

Heparanase overexpression down-regulates syndecan-1 expression in a gallbladder carcinoma cell line

Objective

To discuss the relevance of heparanase and syndecan-1 and regulation of the heparanase-syndecan1 axis in the invasiveness of gallbladder carcinoma cells.

Methods

1. Generation of a gallbladder cancer cell line overexpressing a heparanase (GBD-SD) transgene. 2. Western blot analysis of syndecan-1 levels of GBD-SD and control gallbladder carcinoma (GBC-SD) cells. 3. RT-PCR analysis of syndecan-1 mRNA levels of GBD-SD and GBC-SD. 4. Evaluation of invasion and migration of GBD-SD and GBC-SD cells.

Results

1. Heparanase expression in GBD-SD cells was significantly increased. 2. The syndecan-1 mRNA level of GBD-SD cells was significantly lower compared with that of GBC-SD cells. 3. The syndecan-1 DNA copy number in GBD-SD cells was significantly lower compared with that of GBC-SD. 4. The invasiveness and migration of GBD-SD cells were significantly higher compared with GBC-SD cells.

Conclusions

1. The expression of heparanase negatively correlated with that of syndecan-1 in a gallbladder carcinoma cell line. 2. The expression of heparanase and syndecan-1 in gallbladder carcinomas negatively correlated, similar to other tumours. 3. The heparanase/syndecan1 axis in gallbladder carcinoma plays an important role in the invasion and metastasis, thus providing a new therapeutic target. 4. Further research is required to identify the detailed mechanisms.

Development of efficient adeno-associated virus (AAV)-mediated gene delivery system with a phytoactive material for targeting human melanoma cells

We exploited the emerging potential of gene therapy strategies to design a powerful therapeutic system that combines two key components-AAV vector and [6]-gingerol. In this study, we created an AAV2 construct expressing the proapoptotic protein BIM, which uses HSPG as its primary receptor, to target HSPG-overexpressing melanoma cells. This combination treatment showed promising results in vitro, inducing apoptosis in human melanoma cells. This new platform technology will make a significant contribution to numerous therapeutic applications, most notably for melanoma, including overcoming resistance to conventional anticancer therapies.

MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell viability, motility and matrix adhesion are regulated by a complex interplay of heparan sulfate, chondroitin-/dermatan sulfate and hyaluronan biosynthesis

Proteoglycans and glycosaminoglycans modulate numerous cellular processes relevant to tumour progression, including cell proliferation, cell-matrix interactions, cell motility and invasive growth. Among the glycosaminoglycans with a well-documented role in tumour progression are heparan sulphate, chondroitin/dermatan sulphate and hyaluronic acid/hyaluronan. While the mode of biosynthesis differs for sulphated glycosaminoglycans, which are synthesised in the ER and Golgi compartments, and hyaluronan, which is synthesized at the plasma membrane, these polysaccharides partially compete for common substrates. In this study, we employed a siRNA knockdown approach for heparan sulphate (EXT1) and heparan/chondroitin/dermatan sulphate-biosynthetic enzymes (β4GalT7) in the aggressive human breast cancer cell line MDA-MB-231 to study the impact on cell behaviour and hyaluronan biosynthesis. Knockdown of β4GalT7 expression resulted in a decrease in cell viability, motility and adhesion to fibronectin, while these parameters were unchanged in EXT1-silenced cells. Importantly, these changes were associated with a decreased expression of syndecan-1, decreased signalling response to HGF and an increase in the synthesis of hyaluronan, due to an upregulation of the hyaluronan synthases HAS2 and HAS3. Interestingly, EXT1-depleted cells showed a downregulation of the UDP-sugar transporter SLC35D1, whereas SLC35D2 was downregulated in β4GalT7-depleted cells, indicating an intricate regulatory network that connects all glycosaminoglycans synthesis. The results of our in vitro study suggest that a modulation of breast cancer cell behaviour via interference with heparan sulphate biosynthesis may result in a compensatory upregulation of hyaluronan biosynthesis. These findings have important implications for the development of glycosaminoglycan-targeted therapeutic approaches for malignant diseases.

Insights into the role of sulfated glycans in cancer cell adhesion and migration through use of branched peptide probe

The tetra-branched peptide NT4 selectively binds to different human cancer cells and tissues. NT4 specifically binds to sulfated glycosaminoglycans on cancer cell membranes. Since sulfated glycosaminoglycans are involved in cancer cell interaction with the extracellular matrix, we evaluated the effect of NT4 on cancer cell adhesion and migration. We demonstrated here that the branched peptide NT4 binds sulfated glycosaminoglycans with high affinity and with preferential binding to heparan sulfate. NT4 inhibits cancer cell adhesion and migration on different proteins, without modifying cancer cell morphology or their ability to produce protrusions, but dramatically affecting the directionality and polarity of cell movement. Results obtained by taking advantage of the selective targeting of glycosaminoglycans chains by NT4, provide insights into the role of heparan sulfate proteoglycans in cancer cell adhesion and migration and suggest a determinant role of sulfated glycosaminoglycans in the control of cancer cell directional migration.

The extracellular matrix in breast cancer

The extracellular matrix (ECM) is increasingly recognized as an important regulator in breast cancer. ECM in breast cancer development features numerous changes in composition and organization when compared to the mammary gland under homeostasis. Matrix proteins that are induced in breast cancer include fibrillar collagens, fibronectin, specific laminins and proteoglycans as well as matricellular proteins. Growing evidence suggests that many of these induced ECM proteins play a major functional role in breast cancer progression and metastasis. A number of the induced ECM proteins have moreover been shown to be essential components of metastatic niches, promoting stem/progenitor signaling pathways and metastatic growth. ECM remodeling enzymes are also markedly increased, leading to major changes in the matrix structure and biomechanical properties. Importantly, several ECM components and ECM remodeling enzymes are specifically induced in breast cancer or during tissue regeneration while healthy tissues under homeostasis express exceedingly low levels. This may indicate that ECM and ECM-associated functions may represent promising drug targets against breast cancer, providing important specificity that could be utilized when developing therapies.

Proteoglycans: Potential Agents in Mammographic Density and the Associated Breast Cancer Risk

Although increased mammographic density (MD) has been well established as a marker for increased breast cancer (BC) risk, its pathobiology is far from understood. Altered proteoglycan (PG) composition may underpin the physical properties of MD, and may contribute to the associated increase in BC risk. Numerous studies have investigated PGs, which are a major stromal matrix component, in relation to MD and BC and reported results that are sometimes discordant. Our review summarises these results and highlights discrepancies between PG associations with BC and MD, thus serving as a guide for identifying PGs that warrant further research towards developing chemo-preventive or therapeutic agents targeting preinvasive or invasive breast lesions, respectively.

An Omics Perspective on Molecular Biomarkers for Diagnosis, Prognosis, and Therapeutics of Cholangiocarcinoma

Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is an aggressive biliary tract malignancy arising from the epithelial bile duct. The lack of early diagnostic biomarkers as well as therapeutic measures results in severe outcomes and poor prognosis. Thus, effective early diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic biomarkers are required to improve the prognosis and prolong survival rates in CCA patients. Recent advancement in omics technologies combined with the integrative experimental and clinical validations has provided an insight into the underlying mechanism of CCA initiation and progression as well as clues towards novel biomarkers. This work highlights the discovery and validation of molecular markers in CCA identified through omics approaches. The possible roles of these molecules in various cellular pathways, which render CCA carcinogenesis and progression, will also be discussed. This paper can serve as a reference point for further investigations to yield deeper understanding in the complex feature of this disease, potentially leading to better approaches for diagnosis, prognosis, and therapeutics.

Insights into the key roles of proteoglycans in breast cancer biology and translational medicine

Proteoglycans control numerous normal and pathological processes, among which are morphogenesis, tissue repair, inflammation, vascularization and cancer metastasis. During tumor development and growth, proteoglycan expression is markedly modified in the tumor microenvironment. Altered expression of proteoglycans on tumor and stromal cell membranes affects cancer cell signaling, growth and survival, cell adhesion, migration and angiogenesis. Despite the high complexity and heterogeneity of breast cancer, the rapid evolution in our knowledge that proteoglycans are among the key players in the breast tumor microenvironment suggests their potential as pharmacological targets in this type of cancer. It has been recently suggested that pharmacological treatment may target proteoglycan metabolism, their utilization as targets for immunotherapy or their direct use as therapeutic agents. The diversity inherent in the proteoglycans that will be presented herein provides the potential for multiple layers of regulation of breast tumor behavior. This review summarizes recent developments concerning the biology of selected proteoglycans in breast cancer, and presents potential targeted therapeutic approaches based on their novel key roles in breast cancer.

Is expression of rat breast matrix components influenced by estrogen, progestins and tibolone?

AIM

To study the effects of estrogen therapy, alone or combined with progestogens, and of tibolone on the expression of heparanase (HSPE), extracellular matrix metalloproteinases 2 and 9 (MMP-2 and MMP-9), perlecan and proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) in normal breast tissue.

METHODS

Thirty 250-day-old Wistar rats were castrated and 3 weeks later received one of the following treatments by gavage for 5 weeks: (1) estradiol benzoate; (2) estradiol benzoate + medroxyprogesterone acetate; (3) estradiol benzoate + norethisterone acetate; (4) estradiol benzoate + dydrogesterone; (5) tibolone; (6) placebo. Following treatment, the expressions of mRNA for HSPE, MMP-2 and MMP-9 were analyzed by real-time PCR and the protein expressions of HSPE, MMP-2, MMP-9, perlecan and PCNA were quantified by immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

There was a statistically significant difference among the groups for the expression of HSPE mRNA due to high levels in the tibolone group. The groups differed in terms of PCNA, with lower levels found in the tibolone group followed by the estradiol benzoate + dydrogesterone group. A statistically significant positive correlation was observed for PCNA versus perlecan and MMP-9.

CONCLUSIONS

There was no difference in the effects of combinations of estradiol and different progestogens on extracellular matrix components, and breast cell proliferation was associated with increases in perlecan and MMP-9.

Complementing the Sugar Code: Role of GAGs and Sialic Acid in Complement Regulation

Sugar molecules play a vital role on both microbial and mammalian cells, where they are involved in cellular communication, govern microbial virulence, and modulate host immunity and inflammatory responses. The complement cascade, as part of a host's innate immune system, is a potent weapon against invading bacteria but has to be tightly regulated to prevent inappropriate attack and damage to host tissues. A number of complement regulators, such as factor H and properdin, interact with sugar molecules, such as glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) and sialic acid, on host and pathogen membranes and direct the appropriate complement response by either promoting the binding of complement activators or inhibitors. The binding of these complement regulators to sugar molecules can vary from location to location, due to their different specificities and because distinct structural and functional subpopulations of sugars are found in different human organs, such as the brain, kidney, and eye. This review will cover recent studies that have provided important new insights into the role of GAGs and sialic acid in complement regulation and how sugar recognition may be compromised in disease.

Informatics tools to advance the biology of glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans

Glycomics researchers have identified the need for integrated database systems for collecting glycomics information in a consistent format. The goal is to create a resource for knowledge discovery and dissemination to wider research communities. This has the potential to extend the research community to include biologists, clinicians, chemists, and computer scientists. This chapter discusses the technology and approach needed to create integrated data resources to empower the broader community to leverage extant glycomics data. The focus is on glycosaminoglycan (GAGs) and proteoglycan research, but the approach can be generalized. The methods described span the development of glycomics standards from CarbBank to Glyco Connection Tables. The existence of integrated data sets provides a foundation for novel methods of analysis such as machine learning for knowledge discovery. The implications of predictive analysis are examined in relation to disease biomarker to expand the target audience of GAG and proteoglycan research.

The Role of Heparanase and Sulfatases in the Modification of Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans within the Tumor Microenvironment and Opportunities for Novel Cancer Therapeutics

Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) are an integral and dynamic part of normal tissue architecture at the cell surface and within the extracellular matrix. The modification of HSPGs in the tumor microenvironment is known to result not just in structural but also functional consequences, which significantly impact cancer progression. As substrates for the key enzymes sulfatases and heparanase, the modification of HSPGs is typically characterized by the degradation of heparan sulfate (HS) chains/sulfation patterns via the endo-6-O-sulfatases (Sulf1 and Sulf2) or by heparanase, an endo-glycosidase that cleaves the HS polymers releasing smaller fragments from HSPG complexes. Numerous studies have demonstrated how these enzymes actively influence cancer cell proliferation, signaling, invasion, and metastasis. The activity or expression of these enzymes has been reported to be modified in a variety of cancers. Such observations are consistent with the degradation of normal architecture and basement membranes, which are typically compromised in metastatic disease. Moreover, recent studies elucidating the requirements for these proteins in tumor initiation and progression exemplify their importance in the development and progression of cancer. Thus, as the influence of the tumor microenvironment in cancer progression becomes more apparent, the focus on targeting enzymes that degrade HSPGs highlights one approach to maintain normal tissue architecture, inhibit tumor progression, and block metastasis. This review discusses the role of these enzymes in the context of the tumor microenvironment and their promise as therapeutic targets for the treatment of cancer.

Hs3st-A and Hs3st-B regulate intestinal homeostasis in Drosophila adult midgut

Intrinsic and extrinsic signals as well as the extracellular matrix (ECM) tightly regulate stem cells for tissue homeostasis and regenerative capacity. Little is known about the regulation of tissue homeostasis by the ECM. Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs), important components of the ECM, are involved in a variety of biological events. Two heparin sulfate 3-O sulfotransferase (Hs3st) genes, Hs3st-A and Hs3st-B, encode the modification enzymes in heparan sulfate (HS) biosynthesis. Here we demonstrate that Hs3st-A and Hs3st-B are required for adult midgut homeostasis. Depletion of Hs3st-A in enterocytes (ECs) results in increased intestinal stem cell (ISC) proliferation and tissue homeostasis loss. Moreover, increased ISC proliferation is also observed in Hs3st-B null mutant alone, or in combination with Hs3st-A RNAi. Hs3st-A depletion-induced ISC proliferation is effectively suppressed by simultaneous inhibition of the EGFR signaling pathway, suggesting that tissue homeostasis loss in Hs3st-A-deficient intestines is due to increased EGFR signaling. Furthermore, we find that Hs3st-A-depleted ECs are unhealthy and prone to death, while ectopic expression of the antiapoptotic p35 is able to greatly suppress tissue homeostasis loss in these intestines. Together, our data suggest that Drosophila Hs3st-A and Hs3st-B are involved in the regulation of ISC proliferation and midgut homeostasis maintenance.

Expression and correlation of matrix metalloproteinase-9 and heparanase in patients with breast cancer

Matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) and heparanase (HPSE) are thought to be involved in tumor progression and metastasis. However, up to now, there are no studies that simultaneously investigated the expression levels of MMP-9 and HPSE in tumor tissue and serum of breast cancer patients. Their correlation in breast cancer pathological processes is unknown. The purpose of this study was to investigate the expression profile of MMP-9 and HPSE in breast cancer and to assess their clinicopathological significance. We measured serum MMP-9 and HPSE by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in healthy women, and in patients with benign and malignant breast disease. We also evaluated the expression of MMP-9 and HPSE protein in paraffin-embedded tumor tissues by immunohistochemistry. We then correlated serum and tissue levels of MMP-9 and HPSE in breast cancer samples and their expression with patients' clinicopathologic characteristics. We found that serum levels of MMP-9 and HPSE were significantly higher in breast cancer patients than in benign breast disease and in healthy controls (P = 0.001). There was positive correlation between MMP-9 and HPSE in breast cancer patients. The tissue and serum levels of MMP-9 were associated with histology grade, lymph node status, pathological stage, and lymphovascular invasion (all P < 0.05). The tissue levels of MMP-9 were also associated with ER (P = 0.038) and Ki-67 (P = 0.032). The tissue and serum levels of HPSE expression were associated with tumor size, histology grade, lymph node status, and pathological stage (all P < 0.05). Our findings suggested that MMP-9 and HPSE might further be evaluated as biomarkers for predicting progression and prognosis of breast cancer.

Cancer biomarker discovery for cholangiocarcinoma: the high-throughput approaches

Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is difficult to diagnose at an early stage and most tumors are detected at late stage where surgery or other therapy is ineffective. Many advanced techniques are applied to diagnose CCA; however, most are expensive and have varying degrees of accuracy. A less invasive and simpler procedure such as serum markers would be of substantial clinical benefit for diagnosis, monitoring, and predicting outcome for CCA patients. Recent advances in "Omics" technologies offer remarkable opportunities for establishment of biomarker-related to diseases. In this review, the potential biomarkers obtained from proteomics and glycomic studies are evaluated. Several protein markers were discovered from patient specimen, using two dimensional-differential gel electrophoresis couple with liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (2D-DIGE/LC-MS-MS), matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS), surface enhanced laser desorption/ionization (SELDI)-TOF-MS and capillary electrophoresis (CE)-MS, etc. Newly reported CCA-associated glyco-biomarkers were identified using lectin-assisted, monoclonal antibody-assisted or specific-target strategies. The combination between carbohydrate binding-lectin and core protein-binding mAb significantly increased the values for detection of the glyco-biomarkers for CCA. Searching for specific and sensitive molecular markers to be used for population screening is worth being evaluated. This could lead to earlier diagnosis and improve outcome. Further investigation of those biomarker functions is also of value in order to better understand the tumor biology and use them as targets for future therapeutic agents.