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Glattke TJ, Chacón-Patiño ML, Hoque SS, Ennis TE, Greason S, Marshall AG, Rodgers RP. Complex Mixture Analysis of Emerging Contaminants Generated from Coal Tar- and Petroleum-Derived Pavement Sealants: Molecular Compositions and Correlations with Toxicity Revealed by Fourier Transform Ion Cyclotron Resonance Mass Spectrometry. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:12988-12998. [PMID: 36041117 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c00582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Pavement sealants are of environmental concern because of their complex petroleum-based chemistry and potential toxicity. Specifically, coal tar-derived sealants contain high concentrations of toxic/carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) that, when weathered, can be transferred into the surrounding environment. Previous studies have demonstrated the effects of coal tar sealants on PAH concentration in nearby waterways and their harmful effects in aquatic ecosystems. Here, we investigate and compare the molecular composition of two different pavement sealants, petroleum asphalt- and coal tar-derived, and their photoproducts, by positive-ion (+) atmospheric pressure photoionization (APPI) and negative-ion (-) electrospray ionization (ESI) coupled with ultrahigh-resolution Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry to address species (high-boiling and/or high oxygen content) that lie outside the analytical window of other techniques due to ultra-high molecular complexity. In addition, we evaluate the toxicity of the water-soluble photoproducts by use of Microtox bioassay. The results demonstrate that the coal tar sealant contains higher amounts of PAHs and produces abundant water-soluble compounds, relative to unweathered materials, with a high abundance of PAH-like molecules of high toxicity. By comparison, the asphalt sealant produces fewer toxic water-soluble species, with molecular compositions that are consistent with natural dissolved organic matter. These results capture the mass, chemical diversity, toxicity, and source/photoproduct relationship of these compositionally complex emerging contaminants from the built environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taylor J Glattke
- Ion Cyclotron Resonance Program, National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32310, United States
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32308, United States
| | - Martha L Chacón-Patiño
- Ion Cyclotron Resonance Program, National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32310, United States
| | - Sarajeen Saima Hoque
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, FAMU-FSU College of Engineering, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32310, United States
| | - Thomas E Ennis
- Watershed Protection Department, City of Austin, Austin Texas 78767, United States
| | - Steve Greason
- Sitelab Corporation, West Newbury, Massachusetts 01985, United States
| | - Alan G Marshall
- Ion Cyclotron Resonance Program, National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32310, United States
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32308, United States
| | - Ryan P Rodgers
- Ion Cyclotron Resonance Program, National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32310, United States
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32308, United States
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Hassan H, Eltarahony M, Abu-Elreesh G, Abd-Elnaby HM, Sabry S, Ghozlan H. Toxicity monitoring of solvents, hydrocarbons, and heavy metals using statistically optimized model of luminous Vibrio sp. 6HFE. J Genet Eng Biotechnol 2022; 20:91. [PMID: 35776216 PMCID: PMC9249957 DOI: 10.1186/s43141-022-00360-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 05/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Background The utilization of bioluminescent bacteria in environmental monitoring of water contaminates considers being a vital and powerful approach. This study aimed to isolate, optimize, and apply luminescent bacteria for toxicity monitoring of various toxicants in wastewater. Results On the basis of light intensity, strain Vibrio sp. 6HFE was initially selected, physiologically/morphologically characterized, and identified using the 16SrDNA gene. The luminescence production was further optimized by employing statistical approaches (Plackett-Burman design and central composite design). The maximum bioluminescence intensity recorded 1.53 × 106 CPS using optimized medium containing (g/L), yeast extract (0.2g), CaCl2 (4.0), MgSO4 (0.1), and K2HPO4 (0.1) by 2.3-fold increase within 1h. The harnessing of Vibrio sp. 6HFE as a bioluminescent reporter for toxicity of organic solvents was examined using a bioluminescence inhibition assay. According to IC50 results, the toxicity order of such pollutants was chloroform > isoamyl > acetic acid > formamide > ethyl acetate > acetonitrile > DMSO > acetone > methanol. However, among eight heavy metals tested, the bioluminescence was most sensitive to Ag+ and Hg+ and least sensitive to Co2+ and Ni2+. Additionally, the bioluminescence was inhibited by benzene, catechol, phenol, and penta-chlorophenol at 443.1, 500, 535.1, and 537.4 ppm. Conclusion Vibrio sp. 6HFE succeeded in pollution detection at four different environmental and wastewater samples revealing its efficiency in ecotoxicity monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Howaida Hassan
- National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries (NIOF), Marine Environment Division, Marine Microbiology Lab., Kayet Bay, El-Anfushy, Alexandria, Egypt.
| | - Marwa Eltarahony
- City of Scientific Research and Technology Applications (SRTA-City), Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Research Institute (GEBRI), Environmental Biotechnology Department, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Gadallah Abu-Elreesh
- City of Scientific Research and Technology Applications (SRTA-City), Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Research Institute (GEBRI), Environmental Biotechnology Department, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Hanan M Abd-Elnaby
- National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries (NIOF), Marine Environment Division, Marine Microbiology Lab., Kayet Bay, El-Anfushy, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Soraya Sabry
- Botany and Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Hanan Ghozlan
- Botany and Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
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Adnan NA, Halmi MIE, Abd Gani SS, Zaidan UH, Abd Shukor MY. Comparison of Joint Effect of Acute and Chronic Toxicity for Combined Assessment of Heavy Metals on Photobacterium sp.NAA-MIE. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18126644. [PMID: 34205553 PMCID: PMC8296520 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18126644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2021] [Revised: 06/07/2021] [Accepted: 06/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Predicting the crucial effect of single metal pollutants against the aquatic ecosystem has been highly debatable for decades. However, dealing with complex metal mixtures management in toxicological studies creates a challenge, as heavy metals may evoke greater toxicity on interactions with other constituents rather than individually low acting concentrations. Moreover, the toxicity mechanisms are different between short term and long term exposure of the metal toxicant. In this study, acute and chronic toxicity based on luminescence inhibition assay using newly isolated Photobacterium sp.NAA-MIE as the indicator are presented. Photobacterium sp.NAA-MIE was exposed to the mixture at a predetermined ratio of 1:1. TU (Toxicity Unit) and MTI (Mixture Toxic Index) approach presented the mixture toxicity of Hg2+ + Ag+, Hg2+ + Cu2+, Ag+ + Cu2+, Hg2+ + Ag+ + Cu2+, and Cd2+ + Cu2+ showed antagonistic effect over acute and chronic test. Binary mixture of Cu2+ + Zn2+ was observed to show additive effect at acute test and antagonistic effect at chronic test while mixture of Ni2+ + Zn2+ showing antagonistic effect during acute test and synergistic effect during chronic test. Thus, the strain is suitable and their use as bioassay to predict the risk assessment of heavy metal under acute toxicity without abandoning the advantage of chronic toxicity extrapolation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nur Adila Adnan
- Department of Land Management, Faculty of Agriculture, University Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia;
| | - Mohd Izuan Effendi Halmi
- Department of Land Management, Faculty of Agriculture, University Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia;
- Correspondence:
| | - Siti Salwa Abd Gani
- Department of Agricultural Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, University Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia;
| | - Uswatun Hasanah Zaidan
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia; (U.H.Z.); (M.Y.A.S.)
| | - Mohd Yunus Abd Shukor
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia; (U.H.Z.); (M.Y.A.S.)
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Muneeswaran T, Kalyanaraman N, Vennila T, Rajesh Kannan M, Ramakritinan CM. Rapid assessment of heavy metal toxicity using bioluminescent bacteria Photobacterium leiognathi strain GoMGm1. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2021; 193:109. [PMID: 33537887 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-021-08860-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Several commercial test kits such as Microtox, LUMIStox, ToxAlert, Aboatox, and ToxScreen have been widely used for toxicity screening. Though this time saving assays offer excellent sensitivity, cost-effectiveness, and accuracy, these commercial assays are limited in terms of real-time monitoring in Indian coastal environment due to warmer temperatures. This necessitates the need to develop a rapid and accurate assay that can be effectively employed for real time monitoring with respect to heavy metals in the Indian coastal waters. With this objective, the present study was conducted by isolating an indigenous luminescent bacterium from the light organs of chordates Gazza minuta which showed higher luminescence in a wide range of temperatures. The isolate could grow well in the temperature of 30 ± 2 °C and withstand temperature up to 35 ± 2 °C. The isolated bacterium was identified as Photobacterium leiognathi GoMGm1 based on 16S rDNA and luxA gene sequences. The suitable growing medium was optimized using central composite rotational design (CCRD) method to obtain optimal growth and luminescence. The optimized medium exemplified the maximal growth and luminescence of P. leiognathi at OD600 nm of 5.78 ± 0.12 and RLU of 12.49 ± 0.43. The isolate was used to assess the toxicity of several heavy metals. The IC50 values of 0.0051, 1.13, 1.37, 3.1, and 6.68 mg L-1 were observed for the Hg, Cr, Cu, Ni, and Zn, respectively, after 15 min of exposure. Results obtained from principal component analysis (PCA) displayed the present assay's compatibility with other luminescent bacterial assay and commercial Microtox™ assay. Thus, it would the right candidate as an early detection system for heavy metals in aquatic bodies in tropical countries. Schematic representation of the present study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thillaichidambaram Muneeswaran
- Department of Marine and Coastal Studies, School of Energy, Environment and Natural Resources, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, 625021, India
| | - Narayanan Kalyanaraman
- Molecular Biology Lab, Meenakshi Mission Hospital and Research Centre (MMHRC), Madurai, Tamil Nadu, 625107, India
| | | | - Murugesan Rajesh Kannan
- Department of Marine and Coastal Studies, School of Energy, Environment and Natural Resources, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, 625021, India
| | - Chockalingam Muthiah Ramakritinan
- Department of Marine and Coastal Studies, School of Energy, Environment and Natural Resources, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, 625021, India.
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Mirjani M, Soleimani M, Salari V. Toxicity assessment of total petroleum hydrocarbons in aquatic environments using the bioluminescent bacterium Aliivibrio fischeri. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2021; 207:111554. [PMID: 33254411 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.111554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2020] [Revised: 10/12/2020] [Accepted: 10/20/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Toxicity monitoring of environmental pollutants especially petroleum hydrocarbons as priority pollutants is an important environmental issue. This study addresses a rapid, sensitive and cost effective method for the detection of total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPHs) using Aliivibrio fischeri bioluminescence inhibition bioassay. At the first step, the optimum conditions including time, pH and temperature for growth of A. fischeri were determined. Then, two methods were used to evaluate the toxicity of petroleum compounds. In the first method, short-term (15 min) and long-term (16 h) toxicity assays were performed. In the second method luminescence kinetics of A. fischeri was investigated during 24 h. The results demonstrated the most appropriate time for the bacterial growth occurred 16 h after inoculation and optimum temperature and pH were found 25 °C and 7, respectively. Short-term and long-term toxicity did not indicate any toxicity for various concentrations of TPHs (30, 50, 110, 160, 220 mg/L). Considering the luminescence kinetics of A. fischeri the long-term assay was introduced as 6 h. The half maximal effective concentration (EC50) was achieved 1.77 mg/L of TPHs. It is concluded that the luminescence kinetics of A. fischeri can be a valuable approach for assessing toxicity of TPHs in aquatic environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marzieh Mirjani
- Department of Natural Resources, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, 84156-83111, Iran
| | - Mohsen Soleimani
- Department of Natural Resources, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, 84156-83111, Iran.
| | - Vahid Salari
- Department of Physics, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, 84156-83111, Iran; Department of Physical Chemistry, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Apdo. 644, 48080, Bilbao, Spain
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Improvement of Ficin-Based Inhibitive Enzyme Assay for Toxic Metals Using Response Surface Methodology and Its Application for Near Real-Time Monitoring of Mercury in Marine Waters. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17228585. [PMID: 33227985 PMCID: PMC7699262 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17228585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2020] [Revised: 10/04/2020] [Accepted: 10/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Potentially toxic metals pollution in the Straits of Malacca warrants the development of rapid, simple and sensitive assays. Enzyme-based assays are excellent preliminary screening tools with near real-time potential. The heavy-metal assay based on the protease ficin was optimized for mercury detection using response surface methodology. The inhibitive assay is based on ficin action on the substrate casein and residual casein is determined using the Coomassie dye-binding assay. Toxic metals strongly inhibit this hydrolysis. A central composite design (CCD) was utilized to optimize the detection of toxic metals. The results show a marked improvement for the concentration causing 50% inhibition (IC50) for mercury, silver and copper. Compared to one-factor-at-a-time (OFAT) optimization, RSM gave an improvement of IC50 (mg/L) from 0.060 (95% CI, 0.030–0.080) to 0.017 (95% CI, 0.016–0.019), from 0.098 (95% CI, 0.077–0.127) to 0.028 (95% CI, 0.022–0.037) and from 0.040 (95% CI, 0.035–0.045) to 0.023 (95% CI, 0.020–0.027), for mercury, silver and copper, respectively. A near-real time monitoring of mercury concentration in the Straits of Malacca at one location in Port Klang was carried out over a 4 h interval for a total of 24 h and validated by instrumental analysis, with the result revealing an absence of mercury pollution in the sampling site.
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Adnan NA, Halmi MIE, Gani SSA, Zaidan UH, Othman R, Shukor MYA. Statistical Modeling for the Optimization of Bioluminescence Production by Newly Isolated Photobacterium sp. NAA-MIE. PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, INDIA SECTION B: BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES 2020; 90:797-810. [DOI: 10.1007/s40011-019-01154-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2019] [Revised: 08/30/2019] [Accepted: 11/20/2019] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
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Colvin KA, Lewis C, Galloway TS. Current issues confounding the rapid toxicological assessment of oil spills. CHEMOSPHERE 2020; 245:125585. [PMID: 31855760 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.125585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2019] [Revised: 12/03/2019] [Accepted: 12/08/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Oil spills of varying magnitude occur every year, each presenting a unique challenge to the local ecosystem. The complex, changeable nature of oil makes standardised risk assessment difficult. Our review of the state of science regarding oil's unique complexity; biological impact of oil spills and use of rapid assessment tools, including commercial toxicity kits and bioassays, allows us to explore the current issues preventing effective, rapid risk assessment of oils. We found that despite the advantages to monitoring programmes of using well validated standardised tests, which investigate impacts across trophic levels at environmentally relevant concentrations, only a small percentage of the available tests are specialised for use within the marine environment, or validated for the assessment of crude oil toxicity. We discuss the use of rapid tests at low trophic levels in addition to relevant sublethal toxicity assays to allow the characterisation of oil, dispersant and oil and dispersant mixture toxicity. We identify novel, passive dosing techniques as a practical and reproducible means of improving the accuracy and maintenance of nominal concentrations. Future work should explore the possibility of linking this tiered testing system with ecosystem models to allow the prediction and risk assessment of the entire ecosystem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine A Colvin
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Geoffrey Pope, Stocker Road, Exeter, EX4 4QD, UK.
| | - Ceri Lewis
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Geoffrey Pope, Stocker Road, Exeter, EX4 4QD, UK
| | - Tamara S Galloway
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Geoffrey Pope, Stocker Road, Exeter, EX4 4QD, UK
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Assessment of heavy metal toxicity using a luminescent bacterial test based on Photobacterium sp. strain MIE. RENDICONTI LINCEI. SCIENZE FISICHE E NATURALI 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s12210-019-00809-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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10
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Zhang B, Dong T, Simoes JCG. Design and Fabrication of Graphene-based Phototransistor for Drinking Water Monitoring System using Vibrio Fischeri. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF THE IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 2018; 2018:1-4. [PMID: 30440321 DOI: 10.1109/embc.2018.8513390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Drinking Water safety is critical for human's daily life. Real-time monitoring and early warning systems of harmful substances in drinking water is crucial to ensure the safety of tap water. This paper reports the fabrication of a graphene-based phototransistor, oriented towards an integrated system for high accuracy measure of the bioluminescent bacteria. Aliivibrio fischeri is a bioluminescence bacterium (light emission at 490nm), that has a significant light reduction in the presence of harmful contaminants. Each step of the phototransistor was designed and fabricated, including the mask used for the Oxygen Plasma Etching of Graphene and Electron Beam deposition of the gold pads and Spin coating of the polymer. All the fabrication process including experimental conditions were controlled to achieve a high phototransistor performance. Experimental tests were realized to evaluate the performance of the photodetector to the measurement of Vibrio Fischeri light emission The graphene-based phototransistor shows good sensitivity to detect the change of light intensity, for Aliivibrio fischeri. Compared with the traditional design method, this new design and fabrication can not only be more distinct and visualized, but also greatly reduce the cost and difficulty.
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Optimization of lead (Pb) bioaccumulation in Melastoma malabathricum L. by response surface methodology (RSM). RENDICONTI LINCEI-SCIENZE FISICHE E NATURALI 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s12210-017-0656-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Lategan MJ, Klare W, Kidd S, Hose GC, Nevalainen H. The unicellular fungal tool RhoTox for risk assessments in groundwater systems. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2016; 132:18-25. [PMID: 27258820 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2016.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2015] [Revised: 05/21/2016] [Accepted: 05/23/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The recent inclusion of yeasts in environmental monitoring recognizes their ecological significance and sensitivity to toxicants. Here we present a robust and simple two-step toxicity assay and demonstrate the sensitivity of an ubiquitous groundwater yeast, Rhodotorula minuta, to a range of metals and metalloids. The test species was sensitive to copper with a 24h EC50 of 35µg Cu/L, followed in order of decreasing sensitivity by zinc, chromium (VI) and arsenic (EC50 4.40mg As (III)/L). The strain demonstrated an unexpected tolerance to chromium (VI), having an EC50 value (3.45mg Cr (VI)/L) similar to that of arsenic. The inclusion of a unicellular, microbial test-species into the suite of existing multicellular test species for toxicity evaluation is a key step towards strengthening the assessment of risk for groundwater ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Josie Lategan
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, Macquarie University, NSW 2019, Australia.
| | - William Klare
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, Macquarie University, NSW 2019, Australia
| | - Sarah Kidd
- National Mycology Reference Centre, SA Pathology, South Australia 5000, Australia
| | - Grant C Hose
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, NSW 2019, Australia
| | - Helena Nevalainen
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, Macquarie University, NSW 2019, Australia
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