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Hiremath CN. Abbreviated Profile of Drugs (APOD): modeling drug safety profiles to prioritize investigational COVID-19 treatments. Heliyon 2021; 7:e07666. [PMID: 34337170 PMCID: PMC8317482 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Revised: 05/19/2021] [Accepted: 07/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Safe and effective oral formulation of a drug, that is easy to store, transport, and administer, is imperative to reach the masses including those without adequate facilities and resources, in order to combat globally transmitted coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). In this decision analytic modeling study, the safety of investigational COVID-19 drugs in clinical trials was assessed using the Abbreviated Profile of Drugs (APOD) methodology. The method was extensively tested for various unbiased datasets based on different criteria such as drugs recalled worldwide for failing to meet safety standards, organ-specific toxicities, cytochrome P450 inhibitors, and Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved drugs with remarkable successes. Experimental validation of the predictions made by APOD were demonstrated by comparison with a progression of multiparametric optimization of a series of cancer drugs that led to a potent drug (GDC-0941) which went into the clinical development. The drugs were classified into three categories of safety profiles: strong, moderate and weak. A total of 3556 drugs available in public databases were examined. According to the results, drugs with strong safety profiles included molnupiravir (EIDD-2801), moderate safety profiles included dexamethasone, and weak safety profiles included lopinavir. In this analysis, the physicochemical-pharmacokinetic APOD fingerprint was associated with the drug safety profile of withdrawn, approved, as well as drugs in clinical trials and the APOD method facilitated decision-making and prioritization of the investigational treatments. Drugs with only strong and moderate safety profiles can be repurposed for COVID-19 or any other disease targets. The existing effective drugs with weak safety profiles can be modified into effective drugs with moderate/strong profiles. Unification, uniformity, and integration of drug properties by the APOD method represents an advancement in drug discovery.
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McKnight CL, Low YC, Elliott DA, Thorburn DR, Frazier AE. Modelling Mitochondrial Disease in Human Pluripotent Stem Cells: What Have We Learned? Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:7730. [PMID: 34299348 PMCID: PMC8306397 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22147730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 07/16/2021] [Accepted: 07/16/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial diseases disrupt cellular energy production and are among the most complex group of inherited genetic disorders. Affecting approximately 1 in 5000 live births, they are both clinically and genetically heterogeneous, and can be highly tissue specific, but most often affect cell types with high energy demands in the brain, heart, and kidneys. There are currently no clinically validated treatment options available, despite several agents showing therapeutic promise. However, modelling these disorders is challenging as many non-human models of mitochondrial disease do not completely recapitulate human phenotypes for known disease genes. Additionally, access to disease-relevant cell or tissue types from patients is often limited. To overcome these difficulties, many groups have turned to human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) to model mitochondrial disease for both nuclear-DNA (nDNA) and mitochondrial-DNA (mtDNA) contexts. Leveraging the capacity of hPSCs to differentiate into clinically relevant cell types, these models permit both detailed investigation of cellular pathomechanisms and validation of promising treatment options. Here we catalogue hPSC models of mitochondrial disease that have been generated to date, summarise approaches and key outcomes of phenotypic profiling using these models, and discuss key criteria to guide future investigations using hPSC models of mitochondrial disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cameron L. McKnight
- Murdoch Children’s Research Institute, Royal Children’s Hospital, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia; (C.L.M.); (Y.C.L.); (D.A.E.); (D.R.T.)
- Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia
| | - Yau Chung Low
- Murdoch Children’s Research Institute, Royal Children’s Hospital, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia; (C.L.M.); (Y.C.L.); (D.A.E.); (D.R.T.)
- Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia
| | - David A. Elliott
- Murdoch Children’s Research Institute, Royal Children’s Hospital, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia; (C.L.M.); (Y.C.L.); (D.A.E.); (D.R.T.)
- Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia
| | - David R. Thorburn
- Murdoch Children’s Research Institute, Royal Children’s Hospital, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia; (C.L.M.); (Y.C.L.); (D.A.E.); (D.R.T.)
- Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia
- Victorian Clinical Genetics Services, Royal Children’s Hospital, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia
| | - Ann E. Frazier
- Murdoch Children’s Research Institute, Royal Children’s Hospital, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia; (C.L.M.); (Y.C.L.); (D.A.E.); (D.R.T.)
- Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia
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Ahn J, Jung KB, Kwon O, Choi MS, Ahn JH, Han HY, Jung CR, Yoon S, Son MY, Oh JH. Impedance Measurement System for Assessing the Barrier Integrity of Three-Dimensional Human Intestinal Organoids. Anal Chem 2021; 93:8826-8834. [PMID: 34132523 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c00655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC)-derived intestinal organoids (HIOs) hold unprecedented promise for basic biology and translational applications. However, developing a quantitative method to evaluate the epithelial cell membrane integrity of HIOs as an in vitro intestinal barrier model is a major challenge because of their complex three-dimensional (3D) structure. In this study, we developed an impedance system to measure the change in electrical resistance of 3D HIOs depending on the integrity of the intestinal epithelial cell membrane, which can reflect functionality and maturity. The expression of intestinal maturation- and tight junction-related markers was significantly higher in HIOs matured in vitro by treatment with IL-2 than in control HIOs. Analysis of gap junction size indicated that mature HIOs have greater integrity, with approximately 30% more compact gaps than immature HIOs. We designed a multi-microchannel system controlled by the inhalation pressure where the HIO is loaded, which enhances the stability and sensitivity of the impedance signal. We demonstrated the applicability of the impedance system by showing the difference in resistance between control and mature HIOs, reflecting the expression of tight junction proteins and their maturation status. We also validated the impedance system by monitoring its resistance in real time during junctional damage to HIOs induced by a digestive agent. In summary, we suggest a quantitative method to directly quantify the physiological changes in complex 3D organoid structures based on impedance spectroscopy, which can be applied to noninvasively monitor live cells and therefore enable their use in subsequent experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaehwan Ahn
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
- Department of Predictive Toxicology, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon 34114, Republic of Korea
| | - Kwang Bo Jung
- Stem Cell Convergence Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
- KRIBB School of Bioscience, Korea University of Science and Technology (UST), Daejeon 34113, Republic of Korea
| | - Ohman Kwon
- Stem Cell Convergence Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Mi-Sun Choi
- Department of Predictive Toxicology, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon 34114, Republic of Korea
| | - Jun-Ho Ahn
- Bio Medical Research Center, Bio Medical & Health Division, Korea Testing Laboratory (KTL), Seoul 08389, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyoung-Yun Han
- Department of Predictive Toxicology, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon 34114, Republic of Korea
| | - Cho-Rok Jung
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
- Department of Predictive Toxicology, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon 34114, Republic of Korea
| | - Seokjoo Yoon
- Department of Predictive Toxicology, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon 34114, Republic of Korea
| | - Mi-Young Son
- Stem Cell Convergence Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
- KRIBB School of Bioscience, Korea University of Science and Technology (UST), Daejeon 34113, Republic of Korea
| | - Jung-Hwa Oh
- Department of Predictive Toxicology, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon 34114, Republic of Korea
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Palmer JA, Smith AM, Gryshkova V, Donley ELR, Valentin JP, Burrier RE. A Targeted Metabolomics-Based Assay Using Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Cardiomyocytes Identifies Structural and Functional Cardiotoxicity Potential. Toxicol Sci 2021; 174:218-240. [PMID: 32040181 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfaa015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Implementing screening assays that identify functional and structural cardiotoxicity earlier in the drug development pipeline has the potential to improve safety and decrease the cost and time required to bring new drugs to market. In this study, a metabolic biomarker-based assay was developed that predicts the cardiotoxicity potential of a drug based on changes in the metabolism and viability of human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (hiPSC-CM). Assay development and testing was conducted in 2 phases: (1) biomarker identification and (2) targeted assay development. In the first phase, metabolomic data from hiPSC-CM spent media following exposure to 66 drugs were used to identify biomarkers that identified both functional and structural cardiotoxicants. Four metabolites that represent different metabolic pathways (arachidonic acid, lactic acid, 2'-deoxycytidine, and thymidine) were identified as indicators of cardiotoxicity. In phase 2, a targeted, exposure-based biomarker assay was developed that measured these metabolites and hiPSC-CM viability across an 8-point concentration curve. Metabolite-specific predictive thresholds for identifying the cardiotoxicity potential of a drug were established and optimized for balanced accuracy or sensitivity. When predictive thresholds were optimized for balanced accuracy, the assay predicted the cardiotoxicity potential of 81 drugs with 86% balanced accuracy, 83% sensitivity, and 90% specificity. Alternatively, optimizing the thresholds for sensitivity yields a balanced accuracy of 85%, 90% sensitivity, and 79% specificity. This new hiPSC-CM-based assay provides a paradigm that can identify structural and functional cardiotoxic drugs that could be used in conjunction with other endpoints to provide a more comprehensive evaluation of a drug's cardiotoxicity potential.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alan M Smith
- Stemina Biomarker Discovery, Inc, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Vitalina Gryshkova
- UCB Biopharma SPRL, Investigative Toxicology, Development Science, B-1420 Braine L'Alleud, Belgium
| | | | - Jean-Pierre Valentin
- UCB Biopharma SPRL, Investigative Toxicology, Development Science, B-1420 Braine L'Alleud, Belgium
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Horikoshi Y, Yan Y, Terashvili M, Wells C, Horikoshi H, Fujita S, Bosnjak ZJ, Bai X. Fatty Acid-Treated Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Human Cardiomyocytes Exhibit Adult Cardiomyocyte-Like Energy Metabolism Phenotypes. Cells 2019; 8:cells8091095. [PMID: 31533262 PMCID: PMC6769886 DOI: 10.3390/cells8091095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2019] [Revised: 09/12/2019] [Accepted: 09/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived cardiomyocytes (CMs) (iPSC-CMs) are a promising cell source for myocardial regeneration, disease modeling and drug assessment. However, iPSC-CMs exhibit immature fetal CM-like characteristics that are different from adult CMs in several aspects, including cellular structure and metabolism. As an example, glycolysis is a major energy source for immature CMs. As CMs mature, the mitochondrial oxidative capacity increases, with fatty acid β-oxidation becoming a key energy source to meet the heart’s high energy demand. The immaturity of iPSC-CMs thereby limits their applications. The aim of this study was to investigate whether the energy substrate fatty acid-treated iPSC-CMs exhibit adult CM-like metabolic properties. After 20 days of differentiation from human iPSCs, iPSC-CMs were sequentially cultured with CM purification medium (lactate+/glucose-) for 7 days and maturation medium (fatty acids+/glucose-) for 3–7 days by mimicking the adult CM’s preference of utilizing fatty acids as a major metabolic substrate. The purity and maturity of iPSC-CMs were characterized via the analysis of: (1) Expression of CM-specific markers (e.g., troponin T, and sodium and potassium channels) using RT-qPCR, Western blot or immunofluorescence staining and electron microscopy imaging; and (2) cell energy metabolic profiles using the XF96 Extracellular Flux Analyzer. iPSCs-CMs (98% purity) cultured in maturation medium exhibited enhanced elongation, increased mitochondrial numbers with more aligned Z-lines, and increased expression of matured CM-related genes, suggesting that fatty acid-contained medium promotes iPSC-CMs to undergo maturation. In addition, the oxygen consumption rate (OCR) linked to basal respiration, ATP production, and maximal respiration and spare respiratory capacity (representing mitochondrial function) was increased in matured iPSC-CMs. Mature iPSC-CMs also displayed a larger change in basal and maximum respirations due to the utilization of exogenous fatty acids (palmitate) compared with non-matured control iPSC-CMs. Etomoxir (a carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 inhibitor) but not 2-deoxyglucose (an inhibitor of glycolysis) abolished the palmitate pretreatment-mediated OCR increases in mature iPSC-CMs. Collectively, our data demonstrate for the first time that fatty acid treatment promotes metabolic maturation of iPSC-CMs (as evidenced by enhanced mitochondrial oxidative function and strong capacity of utilizing fatty acids as energy source). These matured iPSC-CMs might be a promising human CM source for broad biomedical application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuichi Horikoshi
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Asahikawa Medical University, Asahikawa, Hokkaido 078-8510, Japan.
- Department of Anesthesiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA.
| | - Yasheng Yan
- Department of Cell Biology, Neuroscience & Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA.
| | - Maia Terashvili
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA.
| | - Clive Wells
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA.
| | - Hisako Horikoshi
- Department of Anesthesiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA.
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Juntendo University School of Medicine, Tokyo 113-8421, Japan.
| | - Satoshi Fujita
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Asahikawa Medical University, Asahikawa, Hokkaido 078-8510, Japan.
| | - Zeljko J Bosnjak
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA.
- Department of Medicine, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA.
| | - Xiaowen Bai
- Department of Cell Biology, Neuroscience & Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA.
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Abstract
Systems medicine is a holistic approach to deciphering the complexity of human physiology in health and disease. In essence, a living body is constituted of networks of dynamically interacting units (molecules, cells, organs, etc) that underlie its collective functions. Declining resilience because of aging and other chronic environmental exposures drives the system to transition from a health state to a disease state; these transitions, triggered by acute perturbations or chronic disturbance, manifest as qualitative shifts in the interactions and dynamics of the disease-perturbed networks. Understanding health-to-disease transitions poses a high-dimensional nonlinear reconstruction problem that requires deep understanding of biology and innovation in study design, technology, and data analysis. With a focus on the principles of systems medicine, this Review discusses approaches for deciphering this biological complexity from a novel perspective, namely, understanding how disease-perturbed networks function; their study provides insights into fundamental disease mechanisms. The immediate goals for systems medicine are to identify early transitions to cardiovascular (and other chronic) diseases and to accelerate the translation of new preventive, diagnostic, or therapeutic targets into clinical practice, a critical step in the development of personalized, predictive, preventive, and participatory (P4) medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kalliopi Trachana
- From the Institute for Systems Biology, Seattle, WA (K.T., R.B., G.G., N.D.P., S.H., L.E.H.)
| | - Rhishikesh Bargaje
- From the Institute for Systems Biology, Seattle, WA (K.T., R.B., G.G., N.D.P., S.H., L.E.H.)
| | - Gustavo Glusman
- From the Institute for Systems Biology, Seattle, WA (K.T., R.B., G.G., N.D.P., S.H., L.E.H.)
| | - Nathan D Price
- From the Institute for Systems Biology, Seattle, WA (K.T., R.B., G.G., N.D.P., S.H., L.E.H.)
| | - Sui Huang
- From the Institute for Systems Biology, Seattle, WA (K.T., R.B., G.G., N.D.P., S.H., L.E.H.).,Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada (S.H.)
| | - Leroy E Hood
- From the Institute for Systems Biology, Seattle, WA (K.T., R.B., G.G., N.D.P., S.H., L.E.H.)
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Yue X, Acun A, Zorlutuna P. Transcriptome profiling of 3D co-cultured cardiomyocytes and endothelial cells under oxidative stress using a photocrosslinkable hydrogel system. Acta Biomater 2017. [PMID: 28648749 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2017.06.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Myocardial infarction (MI) is one of the most common among cardiovascular diseases. Endothelial cells (ECs) are considered to have protective effects on cardiomyocytes (CMs) under stress conditions such as MI; however, the paracrine CM-EC crosstalk and the resulting endogenous cellular responses that could contribute to this protective effect are not thoroughly investigated. Here we created biomimetic synthetic tissues containing CMs and human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-derived ECs (iECs), which showed improved cell survival compared to single cultures under conditions mimicking the aftermath of MI, and performed high-throughput RNA-sequencing to identify target pathways that could govern CM-iEC crosstalk and the resulting improvement in cell viability. Our results showed that single cultured CMs had different gene expression profiles compared to CMs co-cultured with iECs. More importantly, this gene expression profile was preserved in response to oxidative stress in co-cultured CMs while single cultured CMs showed a significantly different gene expression pattern under stress, suggesting a stabilizing effect of iECs on CMs under oxidative stress conditions. Furthermore, we have validated the in vivo relevance of our engineered model tissues by comparing the changes in the expression levels of several key genes of the encapsulated CMs and iECs with in vivo rat MI model data and clinical data, respectively. We conclude that iECs have protective effects on CMs under oxidative stress through stabilizing mitochondrial complexes, suppressing oxidative phosphorylation pathway and activating pathways such as the drug metabolism-cytochrome P450 pathway, Rap1 signaling pathway, and adrenergic signaling in cardiomyocytes pathway. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE Heart diseases are the leading cause of death worldwide. Oxidative stress is a common unwanted outcome that especially occurs due to the reperfusion following heart attack or heart surgery. Standard methods of in vivo analysis do not allow dissecting various intermingled parameters, while regular 2D cell culture approaches often fail to provide a biomimetic environment for the physiologically relevant cellular phenotypes. In this research, a systematic genome-wide transcriptome profiling was performed on myocardial cells in a biomimetic 3D hydrogel-based synthetic model tissue, for identifying possible target genes and pathways as protecting regulators against oxidative stress. Identification of such pathways would be very valuable for new strategies during heart disease treatment by reducing the cellular damage due to reperfusion injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoshan Yue
- University of Notre Dame, Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, Bioengineering Graduate Program, United States
| | - Aylin Acun
- University of Notre Dame, Bioengineering Graduate Program, United States
| | - Pinar Zorlutuna
- University of Notre Dame, Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, Bioengineering Graduate Program, United States; University of Notre Dame, Bioengineering Graduate Program, United States.
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Siede D, Rapti K, Gorska A, Katus H, Altmüller J, Boeckel J, Meder B, Maack C, Völkers M, Müller O, Backs J, Dieterich C. Identification of circular RNAs with host gene-independent expression in human model systems for cardiac differentiation and disease. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2017; 109:48-56. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yjmcc.2017.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2017] [Revised: 06/27/2017] [Accepted: 06/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Kaisar MA, Sajja RK, Prasad S, Abhyankar VV, Liles T, Cucullo L. New experimental models of the blood-brain barrier for CNS drug discovery. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2016; 12:89-103. [PMID: 27782770 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2017.1253676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a dynamic biological interface which actively controls the passage of substances between the blood and the central nervous system (CNS). From a biological and functional standpoint, the BBB plays a crucial role in maintaining brain homeostasis inasmuch that deterioration of BBB functions are prodromal to many CNS disorders. Conversely, the BBB hinders the delivery of drugs targeting the brain to treat a variety of neurological diseases. Area covered: This article reviews recent technological improvements and innovation in the field of BBB modeling including static and dynamic cell-based platforms, microfluidic systems and the use of stem cells and 3D printing technologies. Additionally, the authors laid out a roadmap for the integration of microfluidics and stem cell biology as a holistic approach for the development of novel in vitro BBB platforms. Expert opinion: Development of effective CNS drugs has been hindered by the lack of reliable strategies to mimic the BBB and cerebrovascular impairments in vitro. Technological advancements in BBB modeling have fostered the development of highly integrative and quasi- physiological in vitro platforms to support the process of drug discovery. These advanced in vitro tools are likely to further current understanding of the cerebrovascular modulatory mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad A Kaisar
- a Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center , Amarillo , TX , USA
| | - Ravi K Sajja
- a Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center , Amarillo , TX , USA
| | - Shikha Prasad
- a Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center , Amarillo , TX , USA
| | - Vinay V Abhyankar
- c Biological Microsystems Division at The University of Texas at Arlington Research Institute , Fort Worth , TX , USA
| | - Taylor Liles
- a Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center , Amarillo , TX , USA
| | - Luca Cucullo
- a Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center , Amarillo , TX , USA.,b Center for Blood Brain Barrier Research , Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center , Amarillo , TX , USA
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