Investigation of the Anti-Inflammatory and Analgesic Activities of Ethanol Extract of Stem Bark of Sonapatha Oroxylum indicum In Vivo

In vivo and in silico elucidation of possible potential and mechanisms involved in the analgesic action of ethanolic extract of Lavandula Stoechas

OBJECTIVES

Our research focused on plant's ethanolic extract Lavandula stoechas flower part to investigate the potential analgesic effects and possible pathways involvements.

METHODS

Four experimental tests were performed on Swiss albino mice with five animals in each group at different doses (50, 100, and 200mg/kg); formalin test, tail-flick test, acetic acid-induced writhing, and hot-plate test. The opioidergic, noradrenergic, cholinergic, and K channel blockers in the analgesic actions were also carried out for the potential route involvement.

KEY FINDING

The percentage inhibition for abdominal writhing's and formalin activity showed a dose-dependent manner for early and late phases reducing abdominal writhing's and time period of licking, respectively. Tail immersion and hot-plate test demonstrated a substantial and dose-dependent increase in the latency time and time period of paw liking and jumping response respectively. GC-MS showed the abundantly present compounds were octadecatrienoic acid (34.35%), n-hexadecanoic acid (12.98%). In silico analyses have revealed three compounds that had good interactions with 6y3c receptor proteins, demonstrating strong binding affinities and satisfying docking parameters.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, these studies showed that ethanolic extract of L. stoechas is an important medicinal plant, with both central and peripheral antinociceptive and analgesic activities supporting its traditional use for therapeutic purposes.

Ethnopharmacologically important highly subsidized Indian medicinal plants: Systematic review on their traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, quality control, conservation status and future prospective

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

India has an extensive reservoir of traditional wisdom and a diverse range of medicinal plants that enrich its heritage. Plants have actively been used for healthcare practices globally since the time immemorial. Medicinal uses of plants have been well recognized in India, evident from plant species documented in different traditional medicinal systems such as Ayurveda (1400-1800 species), Siddha (500-900 species), Unani (400-700 species), Homeopathy (about 372 species), and Sowa-Rigpa (about 250 species), etc. AIM OF THE STUDY: The primary purpose of this review is to provide systematic updated information on thirteen medicinal plants prioritized by the Indian government (providing75 % subsidy on cultivation cost) based on the availability and market demand of these plants. Updated information regarding the traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, quality control, and conservation status of these plants will help in understanding their pharmacological and commercial importance. This will also help in developing new strategies for their conservation.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Online databases such as SciFinder, Web of Science, Pubmed, and Google Scholar were used to collect the electronically available literature on targeted thirteen plants. Also, different Indian government official websites such as AYUSH (https://www.ayush.gov.in); NMPB (National Medicinal Plants Board) (https://nmpb.nic.in); e.charak (https://echarak.in) were used for collecting information related to the amount of subsidy, trade and price related information of these plants.

RESULTS

To promote medicinal plant cultivation, the Indian government provides subsidies for cultivating some traditionally important medicinal plants. These plants are divided into three categories according to the subsidy provided to farmers, i.e., 30%, 50%, and 75% of the cost of cultivation. Thirteen medicinal plants which are provided 75% subsidy are Aconitum ferox Wall., Aconitum heterophyllum Wall., Aquilaria agallocha Roxb., Berberis aristata DC., Commiphora wightii (Arn.) Bhandari, Nardostachys jatamansi (D.Don) DC., Oroxylum indicum (L.) Benth. ex Kurz, Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth., Podophyllum hexandrum Royle, Pterocarpus santalinus L.f., Santalum Album L., Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch., and Swertia chirayita (Roxb.) H.Karst. The literature survey reveals the enormous traditional medicinal importance, wide geographical distribution, diverse range of natural products, and broad spectrum of pharmacological activities of these plants.

CONCLUSION

A comprehensive literature survey revealed that although remarkable progress has been made in isolation, bioactivity evaluation, quality assessment, and conservation, there is still a lot of scope for further scientific interventions. Scientific validation of traditionally claimed medicinal potential is lacking for various bioactivities. Some of the bioactivities are performed just on extracts/fractions, so there is a need for proper phytochemical studies to identify active constituents responsible for the specific bioactivity. Further, quality assessment methods using both targeted and non-targeted tools are required to evaluate the quality of these highly-priced medicinal plants and their adulterants. Ultimately, to encourage the cultivation of these endangered medicinal plant species, it is imperative to implement proper legislation and employ in-situ and ex-situ conservation tools.

In vitro antimicrobial and antioxidant activities, essential oil composition, and in silico molecular modeling analysis of secondary metabolites from roots of Verbascum sinaiticum

Verbascum sinaiticum is locally used to treat wound, stomachache, viral infection, cancer, sunstroke fever, abdominal colic, diarrhea, hemorrhage, anthrax, and hepatitis. The objective of this study was to identify the compounds and to evaluate the antimicrobial and antioxidant activity of the extracts and isolated compounds from V. sinaiticum. The 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR, and DEPT-135 were used to elucidate the structures of isolated compounds. Essential oils were extracted by hydrodistillation method and their chemical analyses were performed by GC-MS. The broth microdilution method was used to evaluate the antimicrobial activity. The radical scavenging activity of the extracts and isolated compounds were evaluated using DPPH method. Silica gel column chromatographic separation of root extracts afforded seven known compounds: 3'-(4''-methoxy phenyl)-3'-oxo-propionyl hexadecanoate (1), harpagoside (2), pulverulentoside I (3), scrophuloside B4 (4), scropolioside A (5), scropolioside-D2 (6), and harpagide 6-O-β-glucoside (7), which are all reported from this species for the first time. The EO extracts from leaves and roots were the most susceptible to Streptococcus agalactiae, with a 2 mg/mL MIC. The EO from roots was effective against Candida albicans and Trichophyton mentagrophytes, with a MIC of 8 mg/mL. The MeOH and CH2Cl2/CH3OH (1:1) root extracts showed the maximum activity against S. epidermidis with MIC values of 0.25 mg/mL. The strongest antibacterial effects were demonstrated against Staphylococcus epidermidis, which exhibited a 0.0625 mg/mL MIC for compound 1. The strongest radical scavenging activity was exhibited by the methanol extract (IC50 = 3.4 μg/mL), and compounds 4, 6, 5, 3, 7, and 2 with IC50 values of 3.2, 3.38, 3.6, 3.8, 4.2, and 4.7 μg/mL, respectively, in comparison with ascorbic acid (IC50 = 1.3 μg/mL). The results of the molecular docking analysis of compounds revealed minimal binding energies range from -38.5 to -43.1 kJ/mol, -33.1 to -42.7 kJ/mol, -34.7 to -39.3.7 kJ/mol, -25.5 to -37.6 kJ/mol against human myeloperoxidase (PDB ID: 1DNU), murA enzyme (PDB ID: 1UAE), human topoisomerase IIβ (PDB ID: 4fm9), S. epidermidis FtsZ (PDB number: 4M8I) proteins, respectively. The docking results and the in vitro antibacterial activity are in good agreement. These findings show that the isolated compounds 2-7 can act as potential antioxidants and strong antibacterials against Staphylococcus aureus and S. epidermidis. As a result, V. sinaiticum root extracts have the potential to be effective in treating diseases caused by bacteria and free radicals, as long as further investigation has been suggested for the ultimate decision of this plant's potential candidate.

Antidepressant-like Effect of Oroxylum indicum Seed Extract in Mice Model of Unpredictable Chronic Mild Stress

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is one life-threatening disorder that is prevalent worldwide. The evident etiology of this disease is still poorly understood. Currently, herbal medicine is gaining more interest as an alternative antidepressant. Oroxylum indicum, which is used in traditional medicine and contains a potential antidepressive compound, baicalein, could have an antidepressive property. An in vitro monoamine oxidase-A (MAO-A) inhibitory assay was used to preliminarily screening for the antidepressant effect of O. indicum seed (OIS) extract. Mice were subjected to unpredictable chronic mild stress (UCMS) for 6 weeks, and the daily administration of OIS extract started from week 4. The mechanisms involved in the antidepressive activity were investigated. The OIS extract significantly alleviated anhedonia and despair behaviors in the UCMS-induced mouse model via two possible pathways: (i) it normalized the HPA axis function via the restoration of negative feedback (decreased FKBP5 and increased GR expressions) and the reduction in the glucocorticoid-related negative gene (SGK-1), and (ii) it improved neurogenesis via the escalation of BDNF and CREB expressions in the hippocampus and the frontal cortex. In addition, an HPLC analysis of the OIS extract showed the presence of baicalin, baicalein, and chrysin as major constituents. All of the results obtained from this study emphasize the potential of OIS extract containing baicalin and baicalein as an effective and novel alternative treatment for MDD.

Application of preparative high-speed countercurrent chromatography for the separation and purification of three flavonoids from Oroxylum indicum

An efficient method was established by high-speed countercurrent chromatography (HSCCC) for the separation and purification of three flavonoids from Oroxylum indicum. Optimized by single-factor and orthogonal experiments, the optimal extraction conditions were an extraction temperature of 50°C, a solid-to-liquid ratio of 1:50 (g/ml), an ethanol concentration of 75% and an extraction time of 45 min. Using a two-phase solvent system composed of chloroform-methanol-water (6:10:5, v/v/v), the preparative separation was successfully performed by HSCCC in head-to-tail elution mode. Totals of 12.63 mg of oroxin A at a purity of 97.61% with 96.46% recovery, 10.96 mg oroxin B at a purity of 98.32% with 98.81% recovery, and 9.34 mg baicalein at a purity of 98.64% with 97.87% recovery were obtained in one-step separation from 200 mg crude extract. Their chemical structures were confirmed by melting points, HPLC, UV, FTIR, MS, ¹ H and ¹³ C NMR data. Furthermore, they were efficient scavengers of 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl and hydroxyl free radicals in a concentration-dependent manner.

Anti-Inflammatory and Analgesic Activity of Methanolic Root Extract of Verbascum sinaiticum Benth

INTRODUCTION

Pain in its various forms is undoubtedly the most common ailment known to human beings. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and opioid analgesics are widely used to treat pain. However, long-term use of NSAIDs and opioids causes serious adverse effects on various organs. As a result, looking for drugs with better efficacy and lesser adverse effects appears crucial. For this purpose the obvious search begins from traditional medicines, particularly herbs. Therefore, this study investigated analgesic and anti- inflammatory activity of 80% methanol root extract of Verbasicum sinaiticum Benth (VS) in vivo.

METHODS

The dried and crushed plant material was macerated with 80% methanol sequentially and dried with lyophilizer. As per the acute toxicity study conducted elsewhere, 100 mg/kg, 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg doses of extract were used in the acetic acid induced writhing, hot plate test, as well as carrageenan and formalin induced anti-inflammatory models. As a positive control, aspirin 150 mg/kg was used for anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory model and morphine 10 mg/kg was used for central analgesic models.

RESULTS

VS200 and VS400 doses of the extract significantly (p< 0.05) reduced acetic acid induced writhing as compared with the control group. Similarly in hot plate test also, both VS200 and VS400 groups demonstrated significant (p< 0.05 at 30 min and p< 0.001 at 60 and 120 min) analgesic effect in comparison with the control and VS100 groups. Furthermore, in carrageenan and formalin induced anti-inflammatory test both VS200 and VS400 were shown to produce significant (p< 0.05) anti-inflammatory effect at the later hours and days.

CONCLUSION

The findings from this study suggest that 80% methanol root extract of V. sinaiticum possesses peripheral and central analgesic as well as anti-inflammatory activity, possibly emanating from the phytochemicals present in the hydroalcoholic crude extract.

The application of gargle containing honeysuckle and semen oroxyli to reduce the pain and complications after uvulopalatopharyngoplasty

Purpose: The main purpose of this pilot study was to detect the positive effects of our self-made gargle containing honeysuckle and semen oroxyli on post-operative pain and complications after Uvulopalatopharyngoplasty (UPPP).

Methods: Patients with obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) who had underwent elective UPPP during the period of April 2019 to January 2022 were randomly divided into treatment group and control group. The patients in the treatment group were instructed to gargle the solution containing honeysuckle and semen oroxyli (25 ml) four times a day for 2 weeks. The patients in the control group were instructed to gargle normal saline (25 ml) at the same schedule. The post-operative resting throat pain, swallowing throat pain and patient comfort level were evaluated at 12 h, 1 week and 2 weeks after UPPP. The post-operative complications were collected and analyzed.

Results: During the study period, 218 patients completed all the post-operative assessments. For resting throat pain, the treatment group had much lower VAS scores at 1 week and 2 weeks after UPPP. For swallowing throat pain, treatment group had much lower VAS scores than control group at 2 weeks after surgery. And patients in the treatment group felt more comfortable comparing to those in control group at 1 week and 2 weeks after UPPP. Although the treatment group had less numbers of patients with post-operative wound infection or bleeding, the difference between the 2 groups was not statistically significant.

Conclusion: The gargle containing honeysuckle and semen oroxyli could relieve both resting and swallowing throat pain and increase patient comfort after UPPP.

Effects of an Oroxylum indicum Extract (Sabroxy®) on Cognitive Function in Adults With Self-reported Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study

Background: Oroxylum indicum has been used in traditional Ayurvedic medicine for the prevention and treatment of several diseases and may have neuroprotective effects.

Purpose: Examine the effects of Oroxylum indicum on cognitive function in older adults with self-reported cognitive complaints.

Study Design: Two-arm, parallel-group, 12-week, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.

Methods: Eighty-two volunteers received either 500 mg, twice daily of a standardized Oroxylum indicum extract or placebo. Outcome measures included several computer-based cognitive tasks, the Control, Autonomy, Self-Realization, and Pleasure scale (CASP-19), Cognitive Failures Questionnaire (CFQ), and the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA). Changes in the concentration of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) were also examined.

Results: Compared to the placebo, Oroxylum indicum was associated with greater improvements in episodic memory, and on several computer-based cognitive tasks such as immediate word recall and numeric working memory, and a faster rate of learning on the location learning task. However, there were no other significant differences in performance on the other assessed cognitive tests, the MoCA total score, or other self-report questionnaires. BDNF concentrations increased significantly in both groups, with no statistically-significant between-group differences. Oroxylum indicum was well tolerated except for an increased tendency for mild digestive complaints and headaches.

Conclusion: The results of this first human trial on the cognitive-enhancing effects of Oroxylum indicum suggest that it is a promising herbal candidate for the improvement of cognitive function in older adults with self-reported cognitive complaints.

A Review on the Medicinal and Pharmacological Properties of Traditional Ethnomedicinal Plant Sonapatha, Oroxylum indicum

Oroxylum indicum, Sonapatha is traditionally used to treat asthma, biliousness, bronchitis, diarrhea, dysentery, fevers, vomiting, inflammation, leukoderma, skin diseases, rheumatoid arthritis, wound injury, and deworm intestine. This review has been written by collecting the relevant information from published material on various ethnomedicinal and pharmacological aspects of Sonapatha by making an internet, PubMed, SciFinder, Science direct, and Google Scholar search. Various experimental studies have shown that Sonapatha scavenges different free radicals and possesses alkaloids, flavonoids, cardio glycosides, tannins, sterols, phenols, saponins, and other phytochemicals. Numerous active principles including oroxylin A, chrysin, scutellarin, baicalein, and many more have been isolated from the different parts of Sonapatha. Sonapatha acts against microbial infection, cancer, hepatic, gastrointestinal, cardiac, and diabetic disorders. It is useful in the treatment of obesity and wound healing in in vitro and in vivo preclinical models. Sonapatha elevates glutathione, glutathione-s-transferase, glutathione peroxidase, catalase, and superoxide dismutase levels and reduces aspartate transaminase alanine aminotransaminase, alkaline phosphatase, lactate dehydrogenase, and lipid peroxidation levels in various tissues. Sonapatha activates the expression of p53, pRb, Fas, FasL, IL-12, and caspases and inhibited nuclear factor kappa (NF-κB), cyclooxygenase (COX-2), tumor necrosis factor (TNFα), interleukin (IL6), P38 activated mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK), fatty acid synthetase (FAS), sterol regulatory element-binding proteins 1c (SREBP-1c), proliferator-activated receptor γ2 (PPARγ2), glucose transporter (GLUT4), leptin, and HPV18 oncoproteins E6 and E7 at the molecular level, which may be responsible for its medicinal properties. The phytoconstituents of Sonapatha including oroxylin A, chrysin, and baicalein inhibit the replication of SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) in in vitro and in vivo experimental models, indicating its potential to contain COVID-19 infection in humans. The experimental studies in various preclinical models validate the use of Sonapatha in ethnomedicine and Ayurveda.

Antioxidant, Anti-Inflammatory, and Analgesic Activities of Aqueous Extract of Diploknema butyracea (Roxb.) H.J. Lam Bark

Diploknema butyracea (Roxb.) H.J. Lam is a multipurpose tree used by the Nepalese indigenous people for medicinal purposes such as rheumatism, asthma, and ulcer and other purposes such as cooking and lighting. However, there is no scientific evidence for the medicinal uses of this plant. The present study aimed to explore the phytochemical constituents, estimate the total phenolic content, evaluate antioxidant activity, and investigate the in vivo anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of aqueous extract of Diploknema butyracea (Roxb.) H.J. Lam bark (ADBB). Phytochemical screening was performed using standard methods. The total phenolic content was determined using the Folin–Ciocalteu method. The in vitro antioxidant activity was determined using 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging assay and nitric oxide radical scavenging assay. For the in vivo studies, the plant extract was given in three different doses (50, 100, and 200 mg/kg body weight) to male albino Wistar rats. Anti-inflammatory and analgesic studies were carried out using the carrageenan-induced rat paw edema and the hot plate method, respectively. Results revealed the presence of different phytoconstituents such as flavonoids, tannins, glycosides, terpenoids, and carbohydrates together with a considerable amount of phenolic compounds. Antioxidant assays indicated the potent antioxidant activity of the plant extracts. The higher dose of D. butyracea (200 mg/kg) exhibited a maximum and significant inhibition (53.20%) of rat hind paw edema volume at 4 h and showed a greater increment in latency time (12.15 ± 1.81 sec) in the hot plate test at 120 min. The present study demonstrated the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic potential of ADBB, which supports its traditional medicinal use.

Acute Oral Toxicity and Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic Effects of Aqueous and Methanolic Stem Bark Extracts of Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach.)

Inflammation and pain are devastating conditions characterizing many diseases. Their manifestation ranges from mild body discomfort, to a debilitating experience, which may culminate in organ failure or death. In conventional medicine, corticosteroids, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, opioids, and adjuvants are utilized to manage symptoms related to pain and inflammation. Despite their reported successes, these agents are only palliative, debatably inaccessible, unaffordable, and cause many undesirable side effects. As a result, the search for alternative and complementary therapies is warranted. Medicinal plants have been intensively utilized by humans for a long time to treat various ailments. In spite of their reported efficacies, empirical scientific data supporting their healing claims is scanty. P. thonningii (Schumach.) has been used in African traditional medicine, especially by traditional herbalists in Nigeria and Kenya, to treat conditions associated with inflammation. Even though analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and toxicity studies have been performed on leaf extracts, and some of their isolated compounds in Nigeria, there is scanty data supporting the use of stem bark extracts, which are commonly utilized in Kenya for pain, and inflammation management. Moreover, scientific data regarding safety and toxicity of the stem bark extracts of P. thonningii utilized in Kenya by traditional herbalists are inadequate. Based on this background, acute oral toxicity evaluation of the aqueous and methanolic stem bark extracts of P. thonningii, in Swiss albino mice, was performed according to the OECD/OCDE (2008) guidelines. Anti-inflammatory activities were investigated using the xylene-induced ear oedema in mice, whereas analgesic activities were examined following the acetic acid-induced writhing technique. The acute oral toxicity data was analyzed, and interpreted according to the OECDE (2008) guidelines. Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities data were tabulated on MS Excel, and exported to GraphPad Prism (v8.3). Descriptive statistics were computed, and expressed as mean ± SEM. Thereafter, One-Way ANOVA followed by Tukey's test was performed. p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. All the studied plant extracts had LD50 values > 2000 mg/kg bw, and were hence deemed to be nontoxic according to OECD/OCDE document no. 425. The results showed that the acetic acid-induced writhing frequency in mice administered the aqueous stem bark extract of P. thonningii, at a dose of 500 mg/kg bw, was not significantly different from that recorded for mice which received the reference drug (acetylsalicylic acid 75 mg) (p > 0.05). Additionally, at all the studied extract doses, significantly lower acetic acid-induced writhing frequencies were recorded in mice that received the aqueous stem bark extract of P. thonningii, compared with the writhing frequencies in mice that received the methanolic extract of the same plant (p < 0.05). On the other hand, the aqueous stem bark extract of P. thonningii, at doses of 100 mg/kg bw and 500 mg/kg bw, and the methanolic stem bark extract of the same plant, at a dose level of 500 mg/kg bw, exhibited significantly higher percentage inhibitions of xylene-induced oedema than the percentage inhibitions shown by the reference drug (dexamethasone 1 mg/kg bw) (p < 0.05). Generally, the aqueous stem bark extract of P. thonningii, at all the studied dose levels, caused significantly higher inhibitions of xylene-induced ear oedema in mice, compared with the percentage inhibitions shown by methanolic stem bark (p < 0.05). Therefore, the aqueous, and methanolic stem bark extracts of P. thonningii, grown in Kenya, possess peripheral analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities in Swiss albino mice. Hence, they have a potential of offering safe analgesic, and anti-inflammatory compounds. Further studies aimed at isolating, elucidating, and characterizing bioactive components from the studied extracts are recommended. Moreover, specific mode(s) through which these extracts exert the reported bioactivities should be established. Further toxicological investigations involving the studied plant extracts are encouraged to fully establish their safety.

Systematic Elucidation of the Mechanism of Oroxylum indicum via Network Pharmacology

Oroxylum indicum (O. indicum) is an important traditional Chinese medicine that exerts a wide spectrum of pharmacological activities. However, the pharmacological effect of O. indicum and its mechanism of action have not to be systematically elucidated yet. In this study, the druggability for active compounds of O. indicum was assessed via Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology Database (TCMSP), and the potential drug targets of O. indicum were identified using PharmMapper database. Additionally, Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analyses were performed via WebGestalt. Drug-target-pathway networks were constructed using Cytoscape to give a visual view. Our findings revealed that O. indicum has extremely superb druggability with 41 putative identified target genes. GO, KEGG, and network analyses showed that these targets were associated with inflammatory immunoreactions, cancer, and other biological processes. In summary, O. indicum is predicted to target multiple genes/proteins and pathways that shape a network which can exert systematic pharmacological effects.

Elucidation of the possible mechanism of analgesic action of methanol stem bark extract of Uapaca togoensis pax in mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Uapaca togoensis is a medicinal plant used traditionally in Africa for the treatment of rheumatism, epilepsy, cough, pneumonia, vomitting and fever. Previously, the analgesic activity of its methanol stem bark extract has been scientifically demonstrated. However, the mechanism responsible for this activity remains to be investigated.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To elucidate the possible mechanism(s) through which the methanol stem bark extract of Uapaca togoensis (MEUT) exhibits analgesic activity in mice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Analgesic activity of MEUT was evaluated using acetic acid-induced abdominal writhing test in mice at doses of 250, 500 and 1000 mg/kg orally. For the mechanistic studies, mice were pre-treated with Naloxone (2 mg/kg), Atropine (1 mg/kg), Yohimbine (1 mg/kg), Glibenclamide (10 mg/kg), Prazosin (1 mg/kg) and Yohimbine (1 mg/kg) 15 min prior to MEUT (1000 mg/kg) administration, then assessed using AAWT 1 h later. Data was analysed using One way Anova followed by Bonferroni post hoc test.

RESULTS

The extract (at the doses of 250, 500 and 1000 mg/kg) and morphine (10 mg/kg) significantly (p < 0.05) decreased the number of abdominal writhes. Naloxone (opioid receptor antagonist), Atropine (muscarinic receptor antagonist) and Glibenclamide (ATP-sensitive K+ channel blocker) significantly (p < 0.05) reversed the analgesic effect of MEUT. On the other hand, Prazosin and Yohimbine (α₁ and α₂ receptor antagonists respectively) had no effect on the analgesic action of MEUT.

CONCLUSION

The results obtained from this study suggests the possible involvement of opioidergic, cholinergic and sensitive potassium ATP channel pathways in the analgesic activity of the methanol stem bark extract of Uapaca togoensis.

Animal Models of Inflammation for Screening of Anti-inflammatory Drugs: Implications for the Discovery and Development of Phytopharmaceuticals

Inflammation is one of the common events in the majority of acute as well as chronic debilitating diseases and represent a chief cause of morbidity in today's era of modern lifestyle. If unchecked, inflammation leads to development of rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes, cancer, Alzheimer's disease, and atherosclerosis along with pulmonary, autoimmune and cardiovascular diseases. Inflammation involves a complex network of many mediators, a variety of cells, and execution of multiple pathways. Current therapy for inflammatory diseases is limited to the steroidal and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents. The chronic use of these drugs is reported to cause severe adverse effects like gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, and renal abnormalities. There is a massive need to explore new anti-inflammatory agents with selective action and lesser toxicity. Plants and isolated phytoconstituents are promising and interesting sources of new anti-inflammatories. However, drug development from natural sources has been linked with hurdles like the complex nature of extracts, difficulties in isolation of pure phytoconstituents, and the yield of isolated compounds in minute quantities that is insufficient for subsequent lead development. Although various in-vivo and in-vitro models for anti-inflammatory drug development are available, judicious selection of appropriate animal models is a vital step in the early phase of drug development. Systematic evaluation of phytoconstituents can facilitate the identification and development of potential anti-inflammatory leads from natural sources. The present review describes various techniques of anti-inflammatory drug screening with its advantages and limitations, elaboration on biological targets of phytoconstituents in inflammation and biomarkers for the prediction of adverse effects of anti-inflammatory drugs. The systematic approach proposed through present article for anti-inflammatory drug screening can rationalize the identification of novel phytoconstituents at the initial stage of drug screening programs.

Ethnopharmacological Inspections of Organic Extract of Oroxylum indicum in Rat Models: A Promising Natural Gift

The stem bark of Oroxylum indicum (O. indicum) was aimed at testing for anti-inflammatory, antiulcerative, antihyperglycemic, and antidyslipidemic activities. Liver enzyme concentration (SGPT, SGOT) had also been assessed. After being extracted in organic solvent, 3 distinct doses, 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg b.w. (p.o.), were used. For edema formation 0.1 ml carrageenan at a dose of 1% w/v was injected into paw of left hind. It showed a fall of edemas 37.50%, 48.34%, and 55.83% while used doses were 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg b.w. (p.o.) individually. The EtOH extract of O. indicum (50%) and its fractions PET, CLF, EtOAc, and nBUT were studied against ethanol-induced gastric mucosal damage. Only PET and n-BuOH exhibited the highest percentage of protection and were 96% and 99%, respectively, persuaded by ethanol. In OGTT glibenclamide revealed reduction of glucose level to 7.55 ± 0.22 mmol/L from 10.57 ± 0.32 mmol/L after 30 minutes. Antihyperglycemic activities were assessed for 8- and 12-week duration in diabetic rats. Glibenclamide reduced glucose level from 33.50±0.31 to 7.90±0.19 mmol/L in 12 weeks. In 12 and 8 weeks, combination therapy lowered blood glucose level to a normal extent by 79% and 61% individually. In antidyslipidemic activities after 12-week treatment, it revealed simvastatin; MEOI (400 mg/kg b.w.) and combination of both reduced TC level by 44%, 28%, and 48% consequently followed by TG and LDL. In 8-week treatment, HDL levels were increased by 34%, 13%, and 36%, and in 12 weeks increased by 36%, 8%, and 38% consequently. Liver enzyme concentration after 12 weeks of treatment with glibenclamide, 400 mg/kg b.w. (p.o.) of MEOI and combination of both, exhibited the fact that concentration of SGPT showed downturn by 43.23%, 8.01%, and 54.86% and SGOT by 42.40%, 5.31%, and 44.85%. This study remarked that O. indicum has anti-inflammatory, antiulcer, antidiabetic, and antidyslipidemic potentials but has no ameliorative effect on liver enzyme.

Topical application of stem bark ethanol extract of Sonapatha, Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz accelerates healing of deep dermal excision wound in Swiss albino mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The Oroxylum indicum is used traditionally to treat fever, colic, stomach ulcers, constipation, indigestion, intestinal worms, strangury, asthma, cough, hiccough, diarrhea, dysentery and wounds by the herbal healers of Mizoram and it is also part of Ayurvedic formulations.

AIMS OF THE STUDY

The wound healing activity of Oroxylum indicum has not been investigated. Therefore, the present study was undertaken to evaluate the ability of different concentrations of ethanol extract of stem bark of Oroxylum indicum in the deep dermal excision wounds of mice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The deep dermal excision wound was created on the shaved dorsum of Swiss albino mice. Each excision wound was topically applied with 5%, 10%, 20% or 30% gel of stem bark ethanol extract of Oroxylum indicum (OIE) and wound contraction, mean wound healing time (MHT), collagen and DNA syntheses were studied. The expression of NF-κB and COX-II were evaluated in the regenerating wound granulation tissues of mice.

RESULTS

Topical application of different concentrations of OIE resulted in a concentration dependent rise in wound contraction and MHT and the highest wound contraction was recorded for 10% OIE. Similarly, topical application of different concentrations of OIE increased the DNA and neocollagen syntheses in a dose dependent manner at all post wounding days and the greatest acceleration in DNA and neocollagen formation was observed for 10% OIE. The evaluation of lipid peroxidation (LOO) showed a dose dependent decline in LOO, which was lowest for 10% OIE. The study of molecular mechanisms revealed the suppression of NF-κB and COX-II in a dose dependent manner in the regenerating wound of mice with a maximum inhibition at 10% OIE.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study demonstrates that OIE accelerated the wound contraction and reduced mean wound healing time in mice, which may be due to increased collagen and DNA syntheses, reduced lipid peroxidation coupled by NF-κB and COX-II suppression by OIE in the regenerating wounds of mice.

Antimelanogenic Effect of an Oroxylum indicum Seed Extract by Suppression of MITF Expression through Activation of MAPK Signaling Protein

In this study, the antimelanogenic effect of an ethyl acetate fraction of Oroxylum indicum Vent. seeds (OISEA) and its underlying mechanisms in melan-a cells were investigated. Antimelanogenesis activity was confirmed by assessing inhibition of tyrosinase activity and melanin content in the cells. Both transcriptional and translational expression of microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF), tyrosinase, and tyrosinase related protein-1 and 2 (TYRP-1 and TYRP-2), were also examined. The results depicted that pretreatment of OISEA significantly inhibits not only tyrosinase activity, but melanin production and intracellular tyrosinase activity. By repressing the expression of tyrosinase, TYRP-1, TYRP-2, and MITF, OISEA interrupted melanin production. Additionally, OISEA interfered with the phosphorylation of p38, extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2), and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), with the reversal of OISEA-induced melanogenesis inhibition after treatment with the specific inhibitors SB239063, U0126, and SP600125. Overall, these results suggest that OISEA can stimulate p38, ERK1/2, JNK phosphorylation, and subsequent suppression of melanin, leading to the inhibition of melanogenic enzymes and melanin production, possibly owing to the presence of polyphenolic compounds.

Anti-inflammatory hybrids of secondary amines and amide-sulfamide derivatives

The CXCR4/CXCL12 chemokine axis can chemotactically accumulate inflammatory cells to local tissues and regulate the release of inflammatory factors. Developing novel CXCR4 modulators may provide a desirable strategy to control the development of inflammation. A series of novel hybrids were designed by integrating the key pharmacophores of three CXCR4 modulators. The majority of compounds displayed potent CXCR4 binding affinity. Compound 7a exhibited 1000-fold greater affinity than AMD3100 and significantly inhibited invasion of CXCR4-positive tumor cells. Additionally, compound 7a blocked mice ear inflammation by 67% and suppressed the accumulation of inflammatory cells in an in vivo mouse ear edema evaluation. Western blot analyses revealed that 7a inhibited the CXCR4/CXCL12-mediated phosphorylation of Akt and p44 in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, compound 7a had no observable cytotoxicity and displayed a favorable plasma stability in our preliminary pharmacokinetic study. These results confirmed that this is a feasible method to develop CXCR4 modulators for the regulation and reduction of inflammation.

Study of analgesic effect of earthworm extract

Pain represents a major clinical problem and one which has exercised generations of healthcare professionals. Earthworms are used as a traditional Chinese medicine, and have been applied pharmacologically and clinically since a long time in China. However, the analgesic effects of earthworm extract (EE) are seldom studied. Hence, we evaluated the analgesic effects of EE in mice. The obtained data showed that EE increased pain threshold and exhibited peripheral but not central analgesic effects in mice; evidenced by increased inhibition ratio in acetic acid writhing test and formalin test, whereas only slight increase in inhibition ratio in hot plate test and tail immersion test. In addition, EE decreased serum norepinephrine (NE), 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), and nitric oxide (NO) synthase (NOS) concentration, similar to other analgesic drugs like morphine and aspirin. In a nutshell, the obtained data have demonstrated that EE has peripheral analgesic properties and could be used as a promising analgesic drug.

Evaluation of anti-inflammatory potential of aqueous extract and polysaccharide fraction of Thuja occidentalis Linn. in mice

Inflammation is a protective reaction of the microcirculation. However, sustained inflammation can lead to undesired effects. Thuja occidentalis Linn has many pharmacological properties but has no anti-inflammatory activity described. Thus, this study aims evaluating the anti-inflammatory activity of the aqueous extract (AE) and the polysaccharide fraction (PLS) of T. occidentalis L. in mice. The results of our evaluations in various experimental models indicated that AE and PLS (3, 10, and 30mg/kg, i.p.) reduced (p˂0.05) paw edema induced by carrageenan, dextran sulfate (DEX), compound 48/80, serotonin (5-HT), bradykinin (BK), histamine (HIST), and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). Furthermore, it inhibited neutrophils recruitment; decreased MPO activity, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels, vascular permeability, nitrite concentration, and MDA concentration; and maintained the GSH levels in the peritoneal exudate. The AE and PLS reduced neutrophil infiltration and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) immunostaining in paw tissue. Treatment with the AE and PLS (300mg/kg) did not induce gastric toxicity. In conclusion, these results show that the AE and PLS reduced the inflammatory response by inhibiting vascular and cellular events, inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokine production, and reducing oxidative stress. Furthermore, they did not induce gastric toxicity at high doses.

Novel anti-inflammatory agents targeting CXCR4: Design, synthesis, biological evaluation and preliminary pharmacokinetic study

CXCR4 plays a crucial role in the inflammatory disease process, providing an attractive means for drug targeting. A series of novel amide-sulfamide derivatives were designed, synthesized and comprehensively evaluated. This new scaffold exhibited much more potent CXCR4 inhibitory activity, with more than 70% of the compounds showed notably better binding affinity than the reference drug AMD3100 in the binding assay. Additionally, in the Matrigel invasion assay, most of our compounds significantly blocked the tumor cell invasion, demonstrating superior efficacy compared to AMD3100. Furthermore, compound IIj blocked mice ear inflammation by 75% and attenuated ear edema and damage substantially in an in vivo model of inflammation. Western blot analyses revealed that CXCR4 modulator IIj significantly blocked CXCR4/CXCL12-mediated phosphorylation of Akt. Moreover, compound IIj had no observable cytotoxicity and displayed a favourable plasma stability in our preliminary pharmacokinetic study. The preliminary structure-activity relationships were also summarized. In short, this novel amide-sulfamide scaffold exhibited potent CXCR4 inhibitory activity both in vitro and in vivo. These results also confirmed that developing modulators targeting CXCR4 provides an exciting avenue for treatment of inflammation.

Hydro-ethanolic leaf extract of Ziziphus abyssinica Hochst Ex A. Rich (Rhamnaceae) exhibits anti-nociceptive effects in murine models

BACKGROUND

Despite substantial advances in pain research and treatment, millions of people continue to suffer from pain and this has been attributed mainly to the unavailability of effective and safer analgesics. The use of plants as medicines is still widespread and plants constitute a large source of novel phytocompounds that might become leads for the discovery of newer, effective and safer alternatives. Various parts of Ziziphus abyssinica have been used in folk medicine in several African countries as painkillers. However, there is no report on the possible anti-nociceptive effects of this plant especially the leaves, hence the need for this current study.

METHODS

The possible anti-nociceptive activity of hydro-ethanolic leaf extract of Ziziphus abyssinica (EthE) was assessed in rodents using chemical (acetic acid, formalin and glutamate), thermal (tail-immersion test) and mechanical/inflammatory (carrageenan) models of nociception.

RESULTS

EthE (30-300 mg/kg, p.o.) dose-dependently and significantly inhibited chemical-induced nociception with a maximum inhibition of 86.29 ± 2.27%, 76.34 ± 5.67%, 84.97 ± 5.35%, and 82.81 ± 5.97% respectively for acetic acid, formalin (phase 1), formalin (phase 2) and glutamate tests at its highest dose. EthE also dose-dependently and significantly increased reaction times in both tail-immersion and carrageenan-induced hypernociceptive tests. The activities of the extract in the various models were comparable with the effect of morphine hydrochloride and diclofenac sodium used as standard analgesic drugs.

CONCLUSION

Oral administration of hydro-ethanolic leaf extract of Ziziphus abyssinica ameliorates nocifensive behaviours associated with chemical-, thermal- and mechanical/inflammatory - induced nociceptive pain.

Development of CXCR4 modulators by virtual HTS of a novel amide-sulfamide compound library

CXCR4 plays a crucial role in recruitment of inflammatory cells to inflammation sites at the beginning of the disease process. Modulating CXCR4 functions presents a new avenue for anti-inflammatory strategies. However, using CXCR4 antagonists for a long term usage presents potential serious side effect due to their stem cell mobilizing property. We have been developing partial CXCR4 antagonists without such property. A new computer-aided drug design program, the FRESH workflow, was used for anti-CXCR4 lead compound discovery and optimization, which coupled both compound library building and CXCR4 docking screens in one campaign. Based on the designed parent framework, 30 prioritized amide-sulfamide structures were obtained after systemic filtering and docking screening. Twelve compounds were prepared from the top-30 list. Most synthesized compounds exhibited good to excellent binding affinity to CXCR4. Compounds Ig and Im demonstrated notable in vivo suppressive activity against xylene-induced mouse ear inflammation (with 56% and 54% inhibition). Western blot analyses revealed that Ig significantly blocked CXCR4/CXCL12-mediated phosphorylation of Akt. Moreover, Ig attenuated the amount of TNF-α secreted by pathogenic E. coli-infected macrophages. More importantly, Ig had no observable cytotoxicity. Our results demonstrated that FRESH virtual high throughput screening program of targeted chemical class could successfully find potent lead compounds, and the amide-sulfamide pharmacophore was a novel and effective framework blocking CXCR4 function.