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Abdelfattah A, Hijjawi NS, Jacoub K. An overview of qualitative and quantitative platelet abnormalities in schistosomiasis. Parasitol Res 2024; 123:225. [PMID: 38809265 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-024-08245-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2024] [Accepted: 05/20/2024] [Indexed: 05/30/2024]
Abstract
Schistosomiasis is a neglected tropical disease referring to the infection with blood parasitic trematodes of the genus Schistosoma. It impacts millions of people worldwide, primarily in low-to-middle-income countries. Patients infected with schistosomiasis often exhibit a distinct hematological profile, including anemia, eosinophilia, thrombocytopenia, and coagulopathy. Platelets, essential components of the hemostatic system, play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of schistosomiasis. Schistosomes secrete serine proteases and express ectoenzymes, such as calpain protease, alkaline phosphatase (SmAP), phosphodiesterase (SmNPP5), ATP diphosphohydrolase (SmATPDase1), serine protease Sk1, SmSP2, and Sm22.6, which can interfere with platelet normal functioning. This report provides comprehensive, up-to-date information on platelet abnormalities observed in patients with schistosomiasis, highlighting their importance in the disease progression and complications. It delves into the interactions between platelets and schistosomes, including the impact of platelet dysfunction on hemostasis and immune responses, immune-mediated platelet destruction, and the potential mechanisms by which schistosome tegumental ectoenzymes affect platelets. Furthermore, the report clarifies the relationship between platelet abnormalities and clinical manifestations such as thrombocytopenia, coagulation disorders, and the emergence of portal hypertension and gastrointestinal bleeding. Understanding the complex interplay between platelets and schistosomes is crucial for improving patient management and outcomes in schistosomiasis, particularly for those with platelet alterations. This knowledge contributes to improved diagnostic methods, innovative treatment strategies, and global efforts to control and eliminate schistosomiasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Abdelfattah
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, The Hashemite University, Zarqa, 13133, Jordan.
| | - Nawal S Hijjawi
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, The Hashemite University, Zarqa, 13133, Jordan
| | - Khaldun Jacoub
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, The Hashemite University, Zarqa, 13133, Jordan
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Sibanda T, Makwikwi T. The prevalence and burden of urogenital schistosomiasis: a case study of Mount Darwin and Makoni Districts in Zimbabwe. ALL LIFE 2023. [DOI: 10.1080/26895293.2023.2167870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Tatenda Sibanda
- Department of Biotechnology and Biochemistry, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Tendai Makwikwi
- Department of Biotechnology and Biochemistry, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
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Essien-Baidoo S, Essuman MA, Adarkwa-Yiadom B, Adarkwa D, Owusu AA, Amponsah SB. Urinogenital schistosomiasis knowledge, attitude, practices, and its clinical correlates among communities along water bodies in the Kwahu Afram Plains North District, Ghana. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2023; 17:e0011513. [PMID: 37585379 PMCID: PMC10431615 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0011513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2022] [Accepted: 07/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/18/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Adequate knowledge and proper practices coupled with knowledge of the burden of disease are necessary for the eradication of Schistosoma infection. This study assessed knowledge, attitude, and practice (KAP) as well as health outcomes related to Schistosoma haematobium infection at Kwahu Afram Plains North District (KAPND). METHODS A cross-sectional survey using a structured questionnaire was carried out among 140 participants from four local communities in KAPND in August 2021. From these participants, 10ml of urine was collected for determination of the presence of S. haematobium and urine routine examination. In addition, 4ml of blood was collected and used for haematological examination. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression analysis using IBM SPSS were used to describe and represent the data collected. RESULTS The study reports a gap in knowledge about schistosomiasis in the study area with the majority indicating that they have not heard of schistosomiasis (60.7%), do not know the mode of transmission (49.3%), and do not know how the disease could be spread (51.5%). The overall prevalence of urinary schistosomiasis was 52.9%. This was associated with age, occupation, perceived mode of Schistosoma transmission, knowledge of Schistosoma prevention, awareness that schistosomiasis can be treated, frequency of visits to water bodies, and water usage patterns. In multivariate analysis, factors that remained significantly associated with S. haematobium infection were age 21-40 (OR = 0.21, 95% CI: 0.06-0.76), 41-60 (OR = 0.01, 95% CI: 0.01-0.52) and ≥ 60 (OR = 0.02, 95% CI: 0.02-0.87), informal employment (OR = 0.01, 95% CI: 0.01-0.69) and awareness of transmission by drinking water from river body (OR = 0.03, 95% CI: 0.03-0.92). In Schistosoma infection, reduced haemoglobin, haematocrit, mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular haemoglobin, lymphocytes and eosinophils were observed. White blood cells, neutrophils, and monocytes were significantly elevated in infected states. Urine analysis revealed high pus cells and red blood cells counts among Schistosoma-positive participants. CONCLUSION Schistosoma infection is endemic among inhabitants in KAPND, and is associated with a gap in knowledge, awareness, and practice possibly due to inadequate education in the area. Poor clinical outcomes associated with Schistosoma infection have been demonstrated in the area. A well-structured public education, nutritional intervention, and mass drug administration will be necessary to eradicate this menace.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Essien-Baidoo
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, School of Allied Health Sciences, College of Health and Allied Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana
| | - Mainprice Akuoko Essuman
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, School of Allied Health Sciences, College of Health and Allied Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana
| | - Bernard Adarkwa-Yiadom
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, School of Allied Health Sciences, College of Health and Allied Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana
- Laboratory Department, Akomaa Memorial Adventist Hospital, Kortwia, Bekwai, Ghana
| | - Dominic Adarkwa
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, School of Allied Health Sciences, College of Health and Allied Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana
- Laboratory Department, Onwe Government Hospital, Ejisu-Onwe, Ghana
| | - Anita Akua Owusu
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, School of Allied Health Sciences, College of Health and Allied Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana
- Laboratory Department, Agona Nkwanta Health Centre, Agona Nkwanta, Ghana
| | - Seth Boakye Amponsah
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, School of Allied Health Sciences, College of Health and Allied Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana
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Kasambala M, Mukaratirwa S, Vengesai A, Mduluza-Jokonya T, Jokonya L, Midzi H, Makota RB, Mutemeri A, Maziti E, Dube-Marimbe B, Chibanda D, Mutapi F, Mduluza T. The association of systemic inflammation and cognitive functions of pre-school aged children residing in a Schistosoma haematobium endemic area in Zimbabwe. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1139912. [PMID: 37143686 PMCID: PMC10151793 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1139912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2023] [Accepted: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 05/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Cognitive function is negatively impacted by schistosomiasis and might be caused by systemic inflammation which has been hypothesized to be one of the mechanisms driving cognitive decline, This study explored the association of systemic inflammatory biomarkers; interleukin (IL)-10, IL-6, IL-17, transforming growth factor (TGF-β), tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α), C-reactive protein (CRP) and hematological parameters with cognitive performance of preschool-aged children (PSAC) from an Schistosoma haematobium endemic area. Methods The Griffith III tool was used to measure the cognitive performance of 136 PSAC. Whole blood and sera were collected and used to quantify levels of IL-10, TNF-α, IL-6, TGF-β, IL-17 A and CRP using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and hematological parameters using the hematology analyzer. Spearman correlation analysis was used to determine the relationship between each inflammatory biomarker and cognitive performance. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to determine whether systemic inflammation due to S. haematobium infection affected cognitive performance in PSAC. Results Higher levels of TNF-α and IL-6, were correlated with lower performance in the Foundations of Learning domain (r = -0.30; p < 0.001 and r = -0.26; p < 0.001), respectively. Low cognitive performance in the Eye-Hand-Coordination Domain was observed in PSAC with high levels of the following inflammatory biomarkers that showed negative correlations to performance; TNF-α (r = -0.26; p < 0.001), IL-6 (r = -0.29; p < 0.001), IL-10 (r = -0.18; p < 0.04), WBC (r = -0.29; p < 0.001), neutrophils (r = -0.21; p = 0.01) and lymphocytes (r = -0.25; p = 0.003) The General Development Domain correlated with TNF-α (r = -0.28; p < 0.001) and IL-6 (r = -0.30; p < 0.001). TGF-β, L-17A and MXD had no significant correlations to performance in any of the cognitive domains. The overall general development of PSAC was negatively impacted by S. haematobium infections (OR = 7.6; p = 0.008) and (OR = 5.6; p = 0.03) where the PSAC had higher levels of TNF-α and IL-6 respectively. Conclusion Systemic inflammation and S. haematobium infections are negatively associated with cognitive function. We recommend the inclusion of PSAC into mass drug treatment programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maritha Kasambala
- School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
- Department of Biological Sciences and Ecology, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
- *Correspondence: Maritha Kasambala,
| | - Samson Mukaratirwa
- School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
- One Health Center for Zoonoses and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre, Saint Kitts and Nevis
| | - Arthur Vengesai
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Midlands State University, Gweru, Zimbabwe
| | - Tariro Mduluza-Jokonya
- Department of Surgery, College of Health Sciences, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Luxwell Jokonya
- Department of Surgery, College of Health Sciences, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Herald Midzi
- School of Medicine and Medical Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
- Department of Biotechnology and Biochemistry, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Rutendo Birri Makota
- Department of Biological Sciences and Ecology, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Arnold Mutemeri
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Health Sciences, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Emmanuel Maziti
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Health Sciences, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Bazondlile Dube-Marimbe
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Health Sciences, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Dixon Chibanda
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Health Sciences, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Francisca Mutapi
- Ashworth Laboratories, Institute for Immunology and Infection Research and Centre for Immunity, Infection and Evolution, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Takafira Mduluza
- School of Medicine and Medical Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
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Dsane-Aidoo PH, Odikro MA, Alomatu H, Ametepi D, Akwensy PS, Ameme DK, Kenu E. Urogenital schistosomiasis outbreak in a basic school, Volta Region, Ghana: a case-control study. Pan Afr Med J 2022; 43:191. [PMID: 36942139 PMCID: PMC10024558 DOI: 10.11604/pamj.2022.43.191.33362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2022] [Accepted: 09/28/2022] [Indexed: 03/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction schistosomiasis is a neglected parasitic infection caused by nematode worms. It affects approximately 200 million people globally. Prevalence in Ghana is 23.3%, mostly affecting school children. On November 28th 2018, the Disease Surveillance Department received reports of increase in occurrence of bloody urine among students of a basic school in the Volta Region. We investigated to identify the agent and source, to determine the magnitude, risk factors and to implement control measures. Methods we conducted a case-control study. A suspected case was any student of the school, who has bloody urine with or without: dysuria, itching of the skin, frequent urination or lower abdominal pain from September 2018 to November 2018. A confirmed case was one with laboratory-isolation of Schistosoma ova in appropriate urine sample. We identified cases from the school and hospital records. We collected socio-demographic, clinical and exposure data from cases and controls. Descriptive and inferential analysis were performed to estimate odds ratios at 95% confidence intervals (CI) to determine associations. Results of 880 students, 112 suspected cases were identified (attack rate = 12.7%). Mean age of suspected cases was 14-years (standard deviation = ±3.5). Confirmed cases were 76.8%(86/112). Males had twice odds of becoming cases (cOR = 2.3, 95% CI = 1.35-3.96). Fishing (cOR = 7.29, 95% CI = 4.08-13.04) and swimming (aOR = 44.63, 95% CI = 4.73-420.86) were factors significantly associated with infection. Students with previous history of bloody urine had greater odds of being cases (aOR = 47.9, 95% CI = 4.19-546.55). Conclusion Schistosoma haematobium was isolated in this outbreak. Fishing and swimming were risky water-related activities. WASH education and mass drug administration with Praziquantel were control measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Henry Dsane-Aidoo
- Ghana Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program, School of Public Health, Legon, Ghana
| | - Magdalene Akos Odikro
- Ghana Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program, School of Public Health, Legon, Ghana
| | - Holy Alomatu
- Ghana Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program, School of Public Health, Legon, Ghana
| | - Desmond Ametepi
- Ghana Health Service, Ketu North District Health Directorate, Volta Region, Ghana
| | | | - Donne Kofi Ameme
- Ghana Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program, School of Public Health, Legon, Ghana
| | - Ernest Kenu
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana
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Dejon-Agobé JC, Adegnika AA, Grobusch MP. Haematological changes in Schistosoma haematobium infections in school children in Gabon. Infection 2021; 49:645-651. [PMID: 33486713 PMCID: PMC8316219 DOI: 10.1007/s15010-020-01575-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Background Schistosomiasis is a parasitic disease affecting the blood cell. As a chronic disease, schistosomiasis particularly impacts on the human host’s haematological profile. We assessed here the impact of urogenital schistosomiasis on the full blood counts (FBC) as proxy diagnostic tool for schistosomiasis. Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted among school children living in Lambaréné, Gabon. Schistosomiasis status was determined using urine filtration technique. EDTA blood samples were analysed using a Pentra ABX 60® analyzer. Results Compared to their infection-free counterparts, school children infected with Schistosoma haematobium displayed an altered FBC profile, with changes in all three blood cell lines. Adjusted for praziquantel intake, soil-transmitted helminthic infections and Plasmodium falciparum infection status, schistosomiasis was independently associated with a decreasing trend of mean haemoglobin (β = − 0.20 g/dL, p-value = 0.08) and hematocrit (β = − 0.61%, p-value = 0.06) levels, a lower mean MCV (β = − 1.50µm3, p-value = 0.02) and MCH (β = − 0.54 pg, p-value = 0.04), and higher platelet (β = 28.2 103/mm3, p-value = 0.002) and leukocyte (β = 1.13 103/mm3, p-value = 0.0003) counts, respectively. Conclusions Schistosomiasis is associated with a characteristic FBC profile of schoolchildren living in Lambaréné, indicating the necessity to consider schistosomiasis as a single cause of disease, or a co-morbidity, when interpreting FBC in endemic areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean Claude Dejon-Agobé
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné (CERMEL), Lambaréné, BP 242, Lambaréné, Gabon.,Center of Tropical Medicine and Travel Medicine, Department of Infectious Diseases, Division of Internal Medicine, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location AMC, Amsterdam Public Health, Amsterdam Infection and Immunity, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ayôla A Adegnika
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné (CERMEL), Lambaréné, BP 242, Lambaréné, Gabon.,Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center, 2333 ZA, Leiden, The Netherlands.,Institut Für Tropenmedizin, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, 72074, Tübingen, Germany.,German Center for Infection Research, Partner Site Tübingen, 72074, Tübingen, Germany.,Fondation Pour la Recherche Scientifique, 72 BP 045, Cotonou, Benin
| | - Martin P Grobusch
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné (CERMEL), Lambaréné, BP 242, Lambaréné, Gabon. .,Center of Tropical Medicine and Travel Medicine, Department of Infectious Diseases, Division of Internal Medicine, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location AMC, Amsterdam Public Health, Amsterdam Infection and Immunity, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. .,Institut Für Tropenmedizin, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, 72074, Tübingen, Germany. .,Masanga Medical Research Unit (MMRU), Masanga, Sierra Leone. .,Institute of Infectious Diseases and Molecular Medicine (IIDMM), Cape Town, Republic of South Africa.
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Hematological and Biochemical Profile of Patients Infected with Schistosoma mansoni in Comparison with Apparently Healthy Individuals at Sanja Town, Northwest Ethiopia: A Cross-Sectional Study. J Trop Med 2020; 2020:4083252. [PMID: 32454838 PMCID: PMC7225855 DOI: 10.1155/2020/4083252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2020] [Revised: 04/14/2020] [Accepted: 04/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Schistosomiasis is a parasitic disease that resides in the vascular system of vertebrates, causing a chronic, debilitating disease that affects more than 200 million people and 800,000 deaths per year in over 70 countries. This parasite causes liver dysfunction and disorders normal hematological and biochemical profiles in addition to portal vein hypertension syndrome, ascites, and liver fibrosis. The general objective of the current study is to assess hematological and biochemical profiles of patients infected with Schistosoma mansoni in comparison with apparently healthy individuals (control group) in Sanja town, northwest Ethiopia. Method A comparative cross-sectional study was conducted from February to April 2019 among microscopically confirmed S. mansoni-infected patients attending Sanja hospital and apparently healthy (control group) from Sanja town community. A total of 220 participants, 110 from the S. mansoni-infected and 110 from the control group, were enrolled using convenient sampling technique. Three grams of stool and six milliliters of blood samples were collected from each study participant. Stool samples were processed using the Kato–Katz technique to determine infection and count parasite density. The blood sample was processed for the analysis of hematological and biochemical profiles using Cell Dyn 1800 (Abbot Hematology, IL, USA) and iChem535 chemistry analyzer, respectively. All data were analyzed using SPSS version 20, and P value less than 0.05 was taken as statistically significant. Results This study showed that the mean values of serum alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, total protein, total cholesterol, hemoglobin, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, and total white blood cell count were different in the Schistosoma mansoni-positive group as compared with the control group with statistically significant value (P ≤ 0.05). However, the mean values of blood glucose, red blood cell, packed cell volume, and granulocyte count difference were not statistically significant (P ≥ 0.05). The mean value of hemoglobin, red blood cells, blood glucose, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, total protein, total cholesterol, and total white blood cell was significantly dropped in the moderate and heavy S. mansoni parasitic load patients as compared with the control group and light S. mansoni parasite density patients. However, the mean of AST and ALT progressively elevated as the burden of S. mansoni increased. Conclusion. Most hematological and biochemical profiles were significantly lower in the Schistosoma mansoni-positive group as compared with the control group. Most hematological and biochemical profiles decline significantly as the parasite density increased. Hence, with Schistosoma treatment, supportive treatment against hematological and biochemical disorders is recommended.
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Atalabi TE, Adubi TO. The epidemiology and chemotherapeutic approaches to the control of urinary schistosomiasis in school-age children (SAC): a systematic review. BMC Infect Dis 2019; 19:73. [PMID: 30658583 PMCID: PMC6339440 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-018-3647-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2018] [Accepted: 12/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Human schistosomiases are acute and chronic infectious diseases of poverty. Currently, epidemiological data of urinary schistosomiasis (US) in school-age children (SAC) and adults are often reported together making it difficult to ascertain the true status of the disease. Based on this premise, we set out to carry out this review. METHOD To achieve this aim, we carried out a computer-aided search of PubMed, Web of Science, Science Direct, African Journals OnLine (AJOL) and the database of World Health Organization. However, the information obtained from these sources was supplemented with additional literatures from Mendeley, Research Gate, and Google. RESULTS The search yielded 183 literatures of which 93 full text research, review and online articles were deemed fit for inclusion. Our key findings showed that: (1) of all World Health Organization (WHO) Regions, Africa is the most endemic zone for US, with Kenya and Senegal recording the highest prevalence and mean intensity respectively; (2) SAC within the range of 5-16 years contribute most significantly to the transmission cycle of US globally; (3) gender is a factor to watch out for, with male often recording the highest prevalence and intensity of infection; (4) contact with open, potentially infested water sources contribute significantly to transmission; (5) parental factors (occupation and education status) predispose SAC to US; (6) economic vis a vis ecological factors play a key role in infection transmission; and (7) in the last decade, a treatment coverage of 45% was never achieved globally for SAC or non-SAC treatment category for urinary schistosomiasis. CONCLUSION In view of the WHO strategic plan to eliminate schistosomiasis by 2020 and the findings from this review, it is obvious that this goal, in the face of realities, might not be achieved. It is imperative that annual control programmes be scaled up marginally, particularly in the African region of WHO. While US-based researches should be sponsored at the grass-root level to unveil hidden endemic foci, adequate facilities for Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) should be put in place in all schools globally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tolulope Ebenezer Atalabi
- Department of Biological Sciences, Federal University, Dutsin-Ma, Km 65, P.M.B. 5001, Dutsin-Ma, Katsina State Nigeria
| | - Taiwo Oluwakemi Adubi
- Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, College of Pure and Applied Sciences, Caleb University, Imota, Lagos State Nigeria
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