Probiotic Mixture Protects Dextran Sulfate Sodium-Induced Colitis by Altering Tight Junction Protein Expressions and Increasing Tregs. Mediators Inflamm. 2018;2018:9416391. [PMID: 29849501 PMCID: PMC5925202 DOI: 10.1155/2018/9416391]

Fermented Soymilk with Probiotic Lactobacilli and Bifidobacterium Strains Ameliorates Dextran-Sulfate-Sodium-Induced Colitis in Rats

Background: Current treatments for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) are relatively futile and the extended use of drugs may reduce effectiveness. Several probiotic strains have shown promise in relieving/treating IBD symptoms. Objectives: The current study investigated the impact of fermented soymilk with a mixture of probiotic starter cultures containing Lactobacillus rhamnosus, L. casei, L. plantarum, L. acidophilus, Bifidobacterium longum, and B. animalis subsp. lactis in rats with dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis compared to control. Methods: Rats were randomly assigned to five groups (5 rats/group; n = 25): G1: negative normal control; G2: positive control (DSS); G3: DSS with sulfasalazine (DSS-Z); G4: DSS with soymilk (DSS-SM), and G5: DSS with fermented soymilk (DSS-FSM). Parameters monitored included the following: the disease activity index (DAI), macroscopic and histological assessments of colitis, and a fecal microbial analysis performed to assess the severity of inflammation and ulceration. Results: The DSS-FSM rats group exhibited lower DAI scores (p < 0.05) than other treated groups during the induction period. A macroscopical examination revealed no ulceration or swelling in the intestinal mucosa of rats in the DSS-FSM-treated group, resembling the findings in the negative control group. In the positive control (DSS group), the colon tissue showed increased inflammation (p < 0.05), whereas those in the DSS-SM- and DSS-FSM-treated rats groups did not show significant macroscopic scores of colitis. The positive DSS control and DSS-Z groups had crypt erosion and ulceration areas, severe crypt damage, and epithelial surface erosion, which were absent in the negative control and DSS-FSM groups. The counts of Lactobacillus spp. and Bifidobacterium spp. remained stable in both G1 and G5 over 4 weeks. The consumption of fermented soymilk with a mixture of probiotics could minimize the severity of DSS-induced colitis in rats. Conclusion, it was found that fermented soymilk containing Lactobacilli and Bifidobacterium might be an effective vehicle for reducing the severity of DSS-induced colitis in rats.

Enterococcus faecium inhibits NF-κB/NLRP3/Caspase-1 signaling pathway to antagonize enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli-mediated inflammatory response

Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) can cause intestinal inflammation and diarrhea in yaks, which has a negative impact on their economic value. In recent years, probiotics have gained increasing attention as a pure, natural, nontoxic, harmless, and residue-free additive. However, the underlying mechanisms by which probiotics safeguard against ETEC are not completely elucidated. This study aimed to investigate the protective effect of Enterococcus faecium (E. faecium) against ETEC infection in mice through oral gavage. Morphological changes were examined through light microscopy. The expressions of inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, IL-10, NF-κB, and NLRP3), tight junction protein (ZO-1, Claudin-1), and pyroptosis (Caspase-1, Caspase-4, and gasdermin D (GSDMD)) were detected using immunohistochemistry and quantitative real-time PCR. The results indicate that ETEC infection triggers the activation of inflammation-related pathways (NF-κB) and NLRP3 inflammasome, leading to the expression of a large number of inflammatory cytokines. Additionally, the activation of NLRP3 leads to the release of GSDMD activation through Caspase-1, ultimately resulting in inflammatory injury and pyroptosis. Feeding mice E. faecium early resulted in an increase in the expression of tight junction protein, a reduction in inflammatory cytokines, and alleviation of inflammatory injury and pyroptosis in intestinal tissues. Our research indicates that E. faecium has the ability to antagonize ETEC and provide protection to the gastrointestinal mucosa in mice.

In silico and in vivo evaluation of the anti-cryptosporidial activity of eugenol

Background

Cryptosporidiosis is an opportunistic parasitic disease widely distributed worldwide. Although Cryptosporidium sp. causes asymptomatic infection in healthy people, it may lead to severe illness in immunocompromised individuals. Limited effective therapeutic alternatives are available against cryptosporidiosis in this category of patients. So, there is an urgent need for therapeutic alternatives for cryptosporidiosis. Recently, the potential uses of Eugenol (EUG) have been considered a promising novel treatment for bacterial and parasitic infections. Consequently, it is suggested to investigate the effect of EUG as an option for the treatment of cryptosporidiosis.

Materials and methods

The in silico bioinformatics analysis was used to predict and determine the binding affinities and intermolecular interactions of EUG and Nitazoxanide (NTZ) toward several Cryptosporidium parvum (C. parvum) lowa II target proteins. For animal study, five groups of immunosuppressed Swiss albino mice (10 mice each) were used. Group I was left uninfected (control), and four groups were infected with 1,000 oocysts of Cryptosporidium sp. The first infected group was left untreated. The remaining three infected groups received NTZ, EUG, and EUG + NTZ, respectively, on the 6th day post-infection (dpi). All mice were sacrificed 30 dpi. The efficacy of the used formulas was assessed by counting the number of C. parvum oocysts excreted in stool of infected mice, histopathological examination of the ileum and liver tissues and determination of the expression of iNOS in the ileum of mice in different animal groups.

Results

treatment with EUG resulted in a significant reduction in the number of oocysts secreted in stool when compared to infected untreated mice. In addition, oocyst excretion was significantly reduced in mice received a combination therapy of EUG and NTZ when compared with those received NTZ alone. EUG succeeded in reverting the histopathological alterations induced by Cryptosporidium infection either alone or in combination with NTZ. Moreover, mice received EUG showed marked reduction of the expression of iNOS in ileal tissues.

Conclusion

Based on the results, the present study signified a basis for utilizing EUG as an affordable, safe, and alternative therapy combined with NTZ in the management of cryptosporidiosis.

The Mechanism and Potential Therapeutic Effects of Cyclosporin, Cyclophilin, Probiotics and Syndecan-1 in an Animal Model of Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Background: Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs) have several treatment modalities including immunoregulators, like cyclosporine A, an immunosuppressant that interacts with cytoplasmic cyclophilin A, and probiotics. Aims: This study explored and compared the possible role of syndecan-1 in the IBD pathogenic process as well as the effectiveness of cyclophilin A, cyclosporine A, and their combination in the management of IBDs in the presence of probiotics. Methodology: IBD was induced in a total of 112 mice equally divided between syndecan-1 knock-out (KO) and Balb/c wild-type mice, using 2% dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) followed by intraperitoneal treatment with cyclosporine A, cyclophilin A, or a combination of both. In addition, a daily dose of probiotics was given in their drinking water. The animals were monitored for clinical signs and symptoms and checked for gross pathologies in the abdomen after 3 weeks. Descending and sigmoid colon biopsies were collected and fixed for routine microscopy or frozen for protein extraction and molecular testing for IL-6, CD3, CD147, and beta 1 integrins as well as pAkt expression. Results: The data showed that the induction of IBD in the syndecan-1 KO mice was more severe at the clinical, histological, and molecular levels than in the wild type. The combined CypA-CyA treatment showed no added inhibitory effect compared to single-drug treatment in both strains. Probiotics added to the combination was more effective in the wild type and, when used alone, its inhibition of IL-6 was the highest. As for the CD147 marker, there were more suppressions across the various groups in the KO mice except for the probiotics-alone group. Concerning CD3, it was significantly increased by the CypA-CyA complex, which led to more inflammation in the KO mice. Probiotics had little effect with the combination. In relation to beta 1 integrins, the CypA-CyA combination made no significant difference from CyA alone, and adding probiotics to the combination resulted in higher beta 1 integrin expression in the KO mice. As for pAkt, it was very well expressed and upregulated in both strains treated with DSS, but the effect was much larger in the KO mice. In brief, the CypA-CyA complex showed a decrease in the expression of pAkt, but there was no added effect of both drugs. Probiotics along with the complex had a similar reduction effects in both strains, with a greater effect in the wild-type mice, while probiotics alone led to a similar reduction in pAkt expressions in both strains. Conclusions: The differential effects of CyA, CypA, probiotics, and their combinations on the various inflammatory markers, as well as the histological alterations and clinical signs and symptoms, speak in favor of a clear role of syndecan-1 in reducing inflammation. However, probiotics need to be considered after more explorations into the mechanisms involved in the presence of CypA and CyA especially since pAkt is less active in their presence.

The interplay between the microbiota, diet and T regulatory cells in the preservation of the gut barrier in inflammatory bowel disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is becoming more common in the Western world due to changes in diet-related microbial dysbiosis, genetics and lifestyle. Incidences of gut permeability can predate IBD and continued gut barrier disruptions increase the exposure of bacterial antigens to the immune system thereby perpetuating chronic inflammation. Currently, most of the approved IBD therapies target individual pro-inflammatory cytokines and pathways. However, they fail in approximately 50% of patients due to their inability to overcome the redundant pro inflammatory immune responses. There is increasing interest in the therapeutic potential of T regulatory cells (Tregs) in inflammatory conditions due to their widespread capability to dampen inflammation, promote tolerance of intestinal bacteria, facilitate healing of the mucosal barrier and ability to be engineered for more targeted therapy. Intestinal Treg populations are inherently shaped by dietary molecules and gut microbiota-derived metabolites. Thus, understanding how these molecules influence Treg-mediated preservation of the intestinal barrier will provide insights into immune tolerance-mediated mucosal homeostasis. This review comprehensively explores the interplay between diet, gut microbiota, and immune system in influencing the intestinal barrier function to attenuate the progression of colitis.

The Anti-Inflammatory Effect of a Probiotic Cocktail in Human Feces Induced-Mouse Model

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the gastrointestinal tract due to altered interaction between the immune system and the gut microbiota. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of a probiotic cocktail in modulating immune dysregulation induced in mice. Mice were divided into 5 groups (n = 5/group), and inflammation was induced in two separate groups by fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) from the stool of human with IBD and dextran sulfate sodium (DSS). In the other two groups, the cocktail of Lactobacillus spp. and Bifidobacterium spp. (108CFU/kg/day) was administered daily for a total of 28days in addition to inducing inflammation. A group as a contcxsrol group received only water and food. The alteration of the selected genera of gut microbiota and the expression of some genes involved in the regulation of the inflammatory response were studied in the probiotic-treated and untreated groups by quantitative real-time PCR. The selected genera of gut microbiota of the FMT and DSS groups showed similar patterns on day 28 after each treatment. In the probiotic-treated groups, the population of the selected genera of gut microbiota normalized and the abundance of Firmicutes and Actinobacteria increased compared to the DSS and FMT groups. The expression of genes related to immune response and tight junctions was positively affected by the probiotic. Changes in the gut microbiota could influence the inflammatory status in the gut, and probiotics as a preventive or complementary treatment could improve the well-being of patients with inflammatory bowel disease symptoms.

β-sitosterol alleviates dextran sulfate sodium-induced experimental colitis via inhibition of NLRP3/Caspase-1/GSDMD-mediated pyroptosis

Background: Inflammation-related NLRP3/Caspase-1/GSDMD-mediated pyroptosis is involved in the progression of ulcerative colitis (UC). β-sitosterol (SIT) was reported to have anti-inflammatory effects on experimental colitis, while the regulation of SIT on pyroptosis is unclear. Therefore, the present study aimed to define the protective and healing effects of SIT on dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced experimental UC rats and human epithelial colorectal adenocarcinoma cells (Caco-2) and explore the underlying mechanisms that are responsible for its effects on NLRP3/Caspase-1/GSDMD-mediated pyroptosis in UC. Methods: UC model rats were established by oral 4% DSS. Following colitis injury, the animals received SIT (doses of 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg) treatment for 2 weeks. For in vitro study, we exposed Caco-2-50 mg/mL DSS with or without SIT (concentrations of 8 and 16 μg/mL). Disease activity index (DAI) and histopathological injury were assessed in vivo. Activation proteins of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) signaling axis, and tight junction-related proteins of zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) and occludin were detected in colon tissues. TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-18 in serum and cell supernatant were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Changes in NLRP3/Caspase-1/GSDMD-mediated pyroptosis signaling pathway activation were analyzed both in tissues and cells. Results: Our findings suggested that SIT treatment attenuated the severity of 4% DSS-induced UC by protecting rats from weight and colon length loss, and macroscopic damage. SIT also reduced proinflammatory factors production (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-18) in serum and cell supernatant. Mechanistically, SIT downregulated the expression levels of pyroptosis-related proteins including Caspase-1, cleaved-Caspase-1, NLRP3, GSDMD, and GSDMD-N in colon tissues and Caco-2 cells. Further analysis indicated that SIT maintained the colonic barrier integrity by enhancing the protein expression of ZO-1 and occludin. Conclusion: We confirmed that SIT exerts protective and therapeutic effects on DSS-induced colitis injury by suppressing NLRP3/Caspase-1/GSDMD-mediated pyroptosis and inflammation response. These findings demonstrated that SIT could be a potential medication for UC treatment.

The role of Lactobacillus in inflammatory bowel disease: from actualities to prospects

Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD), a chronic nonspecific intestinal inflammatory disease, is comprised of Ulcerative Colitis (UC) and Crohn's Disease (CD). IBD is closely related to a systemic inflammatory reaction and affects the progression of many intestinal and extraintestinal diseases. As one of the representative bacteria for probiotic-assisted therapy in IBD, multiple strains of Lactobacillus have been proven to alleviate intestinal damage and strengthen the intestinal immunological barrier, epithelial cell barrier, and mucus barrier. Lactobacillus also spares no effort in the alleviation of IBD-related diseases such as Colitis-associated Colorectal cancer (CAC), Alzheimer's Disease (AD), Depression, Anxiety, Autoimmune Hepatitis (AIH), and so on via gut-brain axis and gut-liver axis. This article aims to discuss the role of Lactobacillus in IBD and IBD-related diseases, including its underlying mechanisms and related curative strategies from the present to the future.

The gut microbes in inflammatory bowel disease: Future novel target option for pharmacotherapy

Gut microbes constitute the main microbiota in the human body, which can regulate biological processes such as immunity, cell proliferation, and differentiation, hence playing a specific function in intestinal diseases. In recent years, gut microbes have become a research hotspot in the pharmaceutical field. Because of their enormous number, diversity, and functional complexity, gut microbes have essential functions in the development of many digestive diseases. Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic non-specific inflammatory disease with a complex etiology, the exact cause and pathogenesis are unclear. There are no medicines that can cure IBD, and more research on therapeutic drugs is urgently needed. It has been reported that gut microbes play a critical role in pathogenesis, and there is a tight and complex association between gut microbes and IBD. The dysregulation of gut microbes may be a predisposing factor for IBD, and at the same time, IBD may exacerbate gut microbes' disorders, but the mechanism of interaction between the two is still not well defined. The study of the relationship between gut microbes and IBD is not only important to elucidate the pathogenesis but also has a positive effect on the treatment based on the regimen of regulating gut microbes. This review describes the latest research progress on the functions of gut microbes and their relationship with IBD, which can provide reference and assistance for further research. It may provide a theoretical basis for the application of probiotics, fecal microbiota transplantation, and other therapeutic methods to regulate gut microbes in IBD.

Probiotics for the treatment of ulcerative colitis: a review of experimental research from 2018 to 2022

Ulcerative colitis (UC) has become a worldwide public health problem, and the prevalence of the disease among children has been increasing. The pathogenesis of UC has not been elucidated, but dysbiosis of the gut microbiota is considered the main cause of chronic intestinal inflammation. This review focuses on the therapeutic effects of probiotics on UC and the potential mechanisms involved. In animal studies, probiotics have been shown to alleviate symptoms of UC, including weight loss, diarrhea, blood in the stool, and a shortened colon length, while also restoring intestinal microecological homeostasis, improving gut barrier function, modulating the intestinal immune response, and attenuating intestinal inflammation, thereby providing theoretical support for the development of probiotic-based microbial products as an adjunctive therapy for UC. However, the efficacy of probiotics is influenced by factors such as the bacterial strain, dose, and form. Hence, the mechanisms of action need to be investigated further. Relevant clinical trials are currently lacking, so the extension of animal experimental findings to clinical application requires a longer period of consideration for validation.

Development of Novel pH-Sensitive Eudragit Coated Beads Containing Curcumin-Mesalamine Combination for Colon-Specific Drug Delivery

This research aims to develop a drug delivery system that effectively treats colitis while administering curcumin/mesalamine by coating alginate/chitosan beads with Eudragit® S-100 to target the colon. Beads were tested to determine their physicochemical characteristics. Coating with Eudragit® S-100 prevents drug release at a pH of less than 7; this was demonstrated by in-vitro release conducted in a medium with gradually varying pH to mimic circumstances in various regions of the gastrointestinal tract. This study examined the efficacy of the coated beads in treating acetic acid-induced colitis in rats. Results showed that spherical beads were formed with an average diameter of 1.6–2.8 mm, and the obtained swelling ranged from 409.80% to 890.19%. The calculated entrapment efficiency ranged from 87.49% to 97.89%. The optimized formula F13 (which was composed of mesalamine-curcumin active ingredients, Sodium alginate as a gelling agent, chitosan as a controlled release agent, CaCl2 as a crosslinking agent, and Eudragit S-100 as a pH-sensitive coating agent) demonstrated the best entrapment efficiency (97.89% ± 1.66), swelling (890.19% ± 60.1), and bead size (2.7 ± 0.62 mm). In formulation #13, which was coated with Eudragit S 100, curcumin (6.01 ± 0.04%) and mesalamine (8.64 ± 0.7%), were released after 2 h at pH 1.2; 6.36 ± 0.11% and 10.45 ± 1.52% of curcumin and mesalamine, respectively, were then released after 4 h and at pH 6.8. Meanwhile, at pH 7.4, after 24 h, approximately 85.34 ± 2.3% (curcumin) and 91.5 ± 1.2% (mesalamine) were released. Formula #13 significantly reduced the colitis, and this suggests that the developed hydrogel beads can be used for delivering curcumin-mesalamine combinations to treat ulcerative colitis after adequate research.

Therapeutic interventions target the NLRP3 inflammasome in ulcerative colitis: Comprehensive study

One of the significant health issues in the world is the prevalence of ulcerative colitis (UC). UC is a chronic disorder that mainly affects the colon, beginning with the rectum, and can progress from asymptomatic mild inflammation to extensive inflammation of the entire colon. Understanding the underlying molecular mechanisms of UC pathogenesis emphasizes the need for innovative therapeutic approaches based on identifying molecular targets. Interestingly, in response to cellular injury, the NLR family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is a crucial part of the inflammation and immunological reaction by promoting caspase-1 activation and the release of interleukin-1β. This review discusses the mechanisms of NLRP3 inflammasome activation by various signals and its regulation and impact on UC.

Bifico relieves irritable bowel syndrome by regulating gut microbiota dysbiosis and inflammatory cytokines

PURPOSE

Gut microbiota dysbiosis, a core pathophysiology of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), is closely related to immunological and metabolic functions. Gut microbiota-based therapeutics have been recently explored in several studies. Bifico is a probiotic cocktail widely used in gastrointestinal disorders which relate to the imbalance of gut microbiota. However, the efficacy and potential mechanisms of Bifico treatment in IBS remains incompletely understood.

METHODS

Adopting a wrap restraint stress (WRS) -induced IBS mice model. Protective effect of Bifico in IBS mice was examined through abdominal withdrawal reflex (AWR) scores. 16S rDNA, ¹H nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H-NMR) and western blot assays were performed to analyze alterations of gut microbiota, microbiome metabolites and inflammatory cytokines, respectively.

RESULTS

Bifico could decrease intestinal visceral hypersensitivity. Although gut microbiota diversity did not increase, composition of gut microbiota was changed after treatment of Bifico, which were characterized by an increase of Proteobacteria phylum and Actinobacteria phylum, Muribaculum genus, Bifidobacterium genus and a decrease of Parabacteroides genus, Sutterella genus and Lactobacillus genus. Moreover, Bifico elevated the concentration of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and reduced protein levels of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). From further Spearman's correlation analysis, Bifidobacterium genus were positively correlated with SCFAs including propionate, butyrate, valerate and negatively correlated with IL-6 and TNF-α.

CONCLUSION

Bifico could alleviate symptoms of IBS mice through regulation of the gut microbiota, elevating production of SCFAs and reducing the colonic inflammatory response.

Direct Action of Non-Digestible Oligosaccharides against a Leaky Gut

The epithelial monolayer is the primary determinant of mucosal barrier function, and tight junction (TJ) complexes seal the paracellular space between the adjacent epithelial cells and represent the main "gate-keepers" of the paracellular route. Impaired TJ functionality results in increased permeation of the "pro-inflammatory" luminal contents to the circulation that induces local and systemic inflammatory and immune responses, ultimately triggering and/or perpetuating (chronic) systemic inflammatory disorders. Increased gut leakiness is associated with intestinal and systemic disease states such as inflammatory bowel disease and neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease. Modulation of TJ dynamics is an appealing strategy aiming at inflammatory conditions associated with compromised intestinal epithelial function. Recently there has been a growing interest in nutraceuticals, particularly in non-digestible oligosaccharides (NDOs). NDOs confer innumerable health benefits via microbiome-shaping and gut microbiota-related immune responses, including enhancement of epithelial barrier integrity. Emerging evidence supports that NDOs also exert health-beneficial effects on microbiota independently via direct interactions with intestinal epithelial and immune cells. Among these valuable features, NDOs promote barrier function by directly regulating TJs via AMPK-, PKC-, MAPK-, and TLR-associated pathways. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the epithelial barrier-protective effects of different NDOs with a special focus on their microbiota-independent modulation of TJs.

Oral supplementation with selected Lactobacillus acidophilus triggers IL-17-dependent innate defense response, activation of innate lymphoid cells type 3 and improves colitis

Live biotherapeutic products constitute an emerging therapeutic approach to prevent or treat inflammatory bowel diseases. Lactobacillus acidophilus is a constituent of the human microbiota with probiotic potential, that is illustrated by improvement of intestinal inflammation and antimicrobial activity against several pathogens. In this study, we evaluated the immunomodulatory properties of the L. acidophilus strain BIO5768 at steady state and upon acute inflammation. Supplementation of naïve mice with BIO5768 heightened the transcript level of some IL-17 target genes encoding for protein with microbicidal activity independently of NOD2 signaling. Of these, the BIO5768-induced expression of Angiogenin-4 was blunted in monocolonized mice that are deficient for the receptor of IL-17 (but not for NOD2). Interestingly, priming of bone marrow derived dendritic cells by BIO5768 enhanced their ability to support the secretion of IL-17 by CD4⁺ T cells. Equally of importance, the production of IL-22 by type 3 innate lymphoid cells is concomitantly heightened in response to BIO5768. When administered alone or in combination with Bifidobacterium animalis spp. lactis BIO5764 and Limosilactobacillus reuteri, BIO5768 was able to alleviate at least partially intestinal inflammation induced by Citrobacter rodentium infection. Furthermore, BIO5768 was also able to improve colitis induced by 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS). In conclusion, we identify a new potential probiotic strain for the management of inflammatory bowel diseases, and provide some insights into its IL-17-dependent and independent mode of action.

Immune pathogenesis in pigeons during experimental Prohemistomum vivax infection

Prohemistomum vivax is a small trematode belonging to the family Cyathocotylidae, infecting fish-eating birds and mammals, including humans. However, no data on molecular identification and immune pathogenesis are available, challenging effective diagnostic and therapeutic interventions. Here, we identified P. vivax based on combined morphological and molecular data and examined histopathological lesions and the differential cytokines expression in experimentally infected pigeons. Pigeons were orally infected with 500 prohemistomid metacercariae. Intestinal and spleen tissues were harvested 2, 4, 7, 14, 21, and 28 days post-infection (dpi). Gene expression levels of eleven cytokines (IL-1, IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12, IL-15, IL-18, IFN-γ, and TGF-β3) were assessed using quantitative reverse-transcription PCR (RT-qPCR). We identified the recovered flukes as Prohemistomum vivax based on morphological features and the sequence and phylogenetic analysis of the internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1), 5.8 ribosomal RNA, and ITS2 region. Histopathological lesions were induced as early as 2 dpi, with the intensity of villi atrophy and inflammatory cell infiltration increasing as the infection progressed. An early immunosuppressive state (2 and 4 dpi), with TGF-β3 overexpression, developed to allow parasite colonization. A mixed Th1/Th2 immune response (overexpressed IFN-γ, IL-12, IL-2, IL-4, and IL-5) was activated as the infection progressed from 7 to 28 dpi. Inflammatory cytokines (IL-1, IL-6, IL-18, and IL-15) were generally overexpressed at 7–28 dpi, peaking at 7 or 14 dpi. The upregulated Treg IL-10 expression peaking between 21 and 28 dpi might promote the Th1/Th2 balance and immune homeostasis to protect the host from excessive tissue pathology and inflammation. The intestine and spleen expressed a significantly different relative quantity of cytokines throughout the infection. To conclude, our results presented distinct cytokine alteration throughout P. vivax infection in pigeons, which may aid in understanding the immune pathogenesis and host defense mechanism against this infection.

Targeting Lineage-Specific Transcription Factors and Cytokines of the Th17/Treg Axis by Novel 1,3,4-Oxadiazole Derivatives of Pyrrolo[3,4-d]pyridazinone Attenuates TNBS-Induced Experimental Colitis

The pharmacotherapy of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is still not fully effective and safe. Attempts to search for new IBD drugs remain an incessant research aim. One of the novel approaches is targeting the developmental pathway molecules and effector cytokines of Th17/Treg axis. This study aimed to elucidate the impact of new pyrrolo[3,4-d]pyridazinone derivatives, compounds 7b, 10b, or 13b, on the course of experimental colitis in rats and to assess whether these new compounds may influence Th17/Treg axis. Rats were pretreated with studied compounds intragastrically before intrarectal administration of 2,4,6-trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid used for colitis induction. Body weight loss, disease activity index, colon index, and colon tissue damage were analyzed to evaluate the severity of colitis. The colonic levels of RORγt, STAT3, CCR6, Foxp3, IL-6, IL-10, IL-17, TNF-α, IL-23, and PGE₂ were assessed. Pretreatment with compounds 7b and 13b alleviated the severity of colitis and concomitantly counteracted the increased levels of RORγt, STAT3, CCR6, IL-6, IL-17, IL-23, TNF-α, and PGE₂. The beneficial effect of compounds 7b and 13b may be due to the decrease in the levels of Th17-specific transcription factors and cytokines. The studied compounds might therefore constitute a promising therapeutic strategy in Th17/Treg imbalance-driven inflammatory conditions such as IBD.

Evolutionary Insights Into Microbiota Transplantation in Inflammatory Bowel Disease

The intestinal microbiome plays an essential role in human health and disease status. So far, microbiota transplantation is considered a potential therapeutic approach for treating some chronic diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). The diversity of gut microbiota is critical for maintaining resilience, and therefore, transplantation with numerous genetically diverse gut microbiota with metabolic flexibility and functional redundancy can effectively improve gut health than a single probiotic strain supplement. Studies have shown that natural fecal microbiota transplantation or washing microbiota transplantation can alleviate colitis and improve intestinal dysbiosis in IBD patients. However, unexpected adverse reactions caused by the complex and unclear composition of the flora limit its wider application. The evolving strain isolation technology and modifiable pre-existing strains are driving the development of microbiota transplantation. This review summarized the updating clinical and preclinical data of IBD treatments from fecal microbiota transplantation to washing microbiota transplantation, and then to artificial consortium transplantation. In addition, the factors considered for strain combination were reviewed. Furthermore, four types of artificial consortium transplant products were collected to analyze their combination and possible compatibility principles. The perspective on individualized microbiota transplantation was also discussed ultimately.

Multi-Strain-Probiotic-Loaded Nanoparticles Reduced Colon Inflammation and Orchestrated the Expressions of Tight Junction, NLRP3 Inflammasome and Caspase-1 Genes in DSS-Induced Colitis Model

Gut modulation by multi-strain probiotics (MSPs) is considered an effective strategy for treating inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). The combination of nanomaterial-based MSPs can improve their viability and resistance and can allow their targeted release in the gastrointestinal tract to be achieved. Thus, our aim is to investigate the prospective role of MSP integration into nanomaterials (MSPNPs) and the underlying molecular mechanisms supporting their application as an alternative therapy for IBD using a colitis rat model. To induce the colitis model, rats received 5% DSS, and the efficacy of disease progression after oral administration of MSPNPs was assessed by evaluating the severity of clinical signs, inflammatory response, expressions of tight-junction-related genes and NLRP3 inflammasome and caspase-1 genes, microbial composition and histopathological examination of colonic tissues. The oral administration of MSPNPs successfully alleviated the colonic damage induced by DSS as proved by the reduced severity of clinical signs and fecal calprotectin levels. Compared with the untreated DSS-induced control group, the high activities of colonic NO and MPO and serum CRP levels were prominently reduced in rats treated with MSPNPs. Of note, colonic inflammation in the group treated with MSPNPs was ameliorated by downstreaming NLRP3 inflammasome, caspase-1, IL-18 and IL-1β expressions. After colitis onset, treatment with MSPNPs was more effective than that with free MSPs in restoring the expressions of tight-junction-related genes (upregulation of occludin, ZO-1, JAM, MUC and FABP-2) and beneficial gut microbiota. Interestingly, treatment with MSPNPs accelerated the healing of intestinal epithelium as detected in histopathological findings. In conclusion, the incorporation of MPSs into nanomaterials is recommended as a perspective strategy to overcome the challenges they face and augment their therapeutic role for treating of colitis.

Smarter cures to combat COVID-19 and future pathogens: a review

Prevention is better than cure. A milestone of the anthropocene is the emergence of a series of epidemics and pandemics often characterized by the transmission of a pathogen from animals to human in the past two decades. In particular, the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has made a profound impact on emergency responding and policy-making in a public health crisis. Classical solutions for controlling the virus, such as travel restrictions, lockdowns, repurposed drugs and vaccines, are socially unpopular and medically limited by the fast mutation and adaptation of the virus. This is exacerbated by microbial resistance to therapeutic drugs and the slowness of vaccine development. In other words, microbial pathogens are somehow 'smarter' and faster than us, thus calling for more intelligent cures to combat future pandemics. Here, we compare therapeutics for COVID-19 such as synthetic drugs, vaccines, antibodies and phages. We present the strength and limitations of antibiotic and antiviral drugs, vaccines, and antibody-based therapeutics. We describe smarter, cheaper and preventive cures such as bacteriophages, food medicine using probiotics and prebiotics, sports, healthy diet, music, yoga, Tai Chi, dance, reading, knitting, cooking and outdoor activities. Some of these preventive cures have been intuitively developed since thousands of years ago, as illustrated by the fascinating similarity of the Chinese characters for 'music' and 'herbal medicine.'

Chlamydia muridarum Alleviates Colitis via the IL-22/Occludin Signal Pathway

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is the most common inflammatory bowel disease, and its incidence has increased in recent years. Recent clinical and experimental data indicate that gut microbiota plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of UC. Chlamydia establishes a stable and persistent colonization in the gastrointestinal tract without apparent pathogenicity to gastrointestinal or extragastrointestinal tissues. However, the detailed effects of Chlamydia on the gastrointestinal tissue remain unknown. The primary aim of this study is to investigate the effects of Chlamydia muridarum (C. muridarum) on development of colitis induced by dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) and the underlying molecular mechanism. The results suggested that C. muridarum significantly improved colitis symptoms-including weight loss, disease activity index, colon length, and histopathological changes in the colon caused by DSS-and alleviated the reduced expression of interleukin-22 and occludin in the colonic tissue due to DSS administration. Furthermore, the absence of IL-22 completely prevented C. muridarum from alleviating colitis and significantly decreased the levels of occludin, an important downstream effector protein of IL-22. These findings suggest that C. muridarum ameliorates ulcerative colitis induced by DSS via the IL-22/occludin signal pathway.

Colon Carcinogenesis: The Interplay Between Diet and Gut Microbiota

Colorectal cancer (CRC) incidence increases yearly, and is three to four times higher in developed countries compared to developing countries. The well-known risk factors have been attributed to low physical activity, overweight, obesity, dietary consumption including excessive consumption of red processed meats, alcohol, and low dietary fiber content. There is growing evidence of the interplay between diet and gut microbiota in CRC carcinogenesis. Although there appears to be a direct causal role for gut microbes in the development of CRC in some animal models, the link between diet, gut microbes, and colonic carcinogenesis has been established largely as an association rather than as a cause-and-effect relationship. This is especially true for human studies. As essential dietary factors influence CRC risk, the role of proteins, carbohydrates, fat, and their end products are considered as part of the interplay between diet and gut microbiota. The underlying molecular mechanisms of colon carcinogenesis mediated by gut microbiota are also discussed. Human biological responses such as inflammation, oxidative stress, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) damage can all influence dysbiosis and consequently CRC carcinogenesis. Dysbiosis could add to CRC risk by shifting the effect of dietary components toward promoting a colonic neoplasm together with interacting with gut microbiota. It follows that dietary intervention and gut microbiota modulation may play a vital role in reducing CRC risk.

Anti-inflammatory Bifidobacterium strains prevent dextran sodium sulfate induced colitis and associated gut microbial dysbiosis in mice

Crohn’s and ulcerative colitis are common inflammatory conditions associated with Inflammatory bowel disease. Owing to the importance of diet based approaches for the prevention of inflammatory gut conditions, the present study was aimed to screen the human isolates of Bifidobacterium strains based on their ability to reduce LPS-induced inflammation in murine macrophage (RAW 264.7) cells and to evaluate prioritized strains for their preventive efficacy against ulcerative colitis in mice. Twelve out of 25 isolated strains reduced the production of LPS-induced nitric oxide and inflammatory cytokines. Furthermore, three strains, B. longum Bif10, B. breve Bif11, and B. longum Bif16 conferred protection against dextran sodium sulfate induced colitis in mice. The three strains prevented shortening of colon, spleen weight, percentage body weight change and disease activity index relative to colitis mice. Lower levels of Lipocalin-2, TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 and improved SCFA levels were observed in Bifidobacterium supplemented mice relative to DSS counterparts. Bacterial composition of B. longum Bif10 and B. breve Bif11 fed mice was partly similar to the normal mice, while DSS and B. longum Bif16 supplemented mice showed deleterious alterations. At the genus level, Bifidobacterium supplementation inhibited the abundances of pathobionts such as Haemophilus, Klebsiella and Lachnospira there by conferring protection.

Regulation of the intestinal microbiota: An emerging therapeutic strategy for inflammatory bowel disease

The rapid development of metagenomics, metabolomics, and metatranscriptomics provides novel insights into the intestinal microbiota factors linked to inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Multiple microorganisms play a role in intestinal health; these include bacteria, fungi, and viruses that exist in a dynamic balance to maintain mucosal homeostasis. Perturbations in the intestinal microbiota disrupt mucosal homeostasis and are closely related to IBD in humans and colitis in mice. Therefore, preventing or correcting the imbalance of microbiota may serve as a novel prevention or treatment strategy for IBD. We review the most recent evidence for direct or indirect interventions targeting intestinal microbiota for treatment of IBD in order to overcome the current limitations of IBD therapies and shed light on personalized treatment options.

The Effectiveness of Probiotics in the Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)-A Critical Review

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), which affects millions of people worldwide, includes two separate diseases: Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC). Although the background (chronic inflammatory state) and some of the symptoms of CD and UC are similar, both diseases differ from each other. It is becoming clear that a combination of many factors, in particular genetic background, host immune response and microbial reduced diversity status are associated with IBD. One potential strategy to prevent/treat IBD is gut modulation by probiotics. Over the last twenty years, many publications have focused on the role of probiotics in the course of IBD. The review discusses the utility of different strains of probiotics, especially Bifidobacterium spp., in all factors potentially involved in the etiology of IBD. The probiotic modulatory properties among different study models (cell lines, animal models of colitis, clinical study) are discussed and probiotic usefulness is assessed in relation to the treatment, prevention, and remission of diseases.

Shen-Ling-Bai-Zhu-San Improves Dextran Sodium Sulfate-Induced Colitis by Inhibiting Caspase-1/Caspase-11-Mediated Pyroptosis

The traditional Chinese medicine Shen-ling-bai-zhu-san (SLBZS) is described in “Tai Ping Hui Min He Ji Ju Fang.” SLBZS has been shown to be effective against many gastrointestinal diseases. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of SLBZS on experimental colitis in mice and to define the potential mechanisms. Our data suggest that compared to the model group, SLBZS treatment increases mouse body weight and colon length, decreases the DAI score, and improves colonic injury. SLBZS reduces the production of cytokines (IL-1β, IL-18, and TNF-α) in colon tissue and mouse colonic mucosal epithelial (MCME) cells. Mechanistically, SLBZS inhibits inflammation by inhibiting the MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways. Further mechanistic analyses showed that SLBZS attenuates the expression levels of pyroptosis-related genes, including NLRP3, ASC, and GSDMD-N in the colons of mice. In addition, SLBZS restores the levels of the colon tight junction proteins ZO-1 and occludin, suggesting that it protects colonic barrier integrity and ameliorates the progression of colitis. In this paper, we demonstrate that SLBZS attenuates DSS-induced ulcerative colitis injury in mice via the MAPK/NF-κB and pyroptosis signaling pathway. These results indicate that SLBZS is a potential drug for the treatment of UC.

Application of vitamin-producing lactic acid bacteria to treat intestinal inflammatory diseases

Recent studies have shown that inflammatory diseases are becoming more frequent throughout the world. The causes of these disorders are multifactorial and include genetic, immunological, and environmental factors, and intestinal microbiota dysbiosis. The use of beneficial microorganisms has shown to be useful in the prevention and treatment of disorders such as colitis, mucositis, and even colon cancer by their immune-stimulating properties. It has also been shown that certain vitamins, especially riboflavin and folate derivatives, have proven to be helpful in the treatment of these diseases. The application of vitamin-producing lactic acid bacteria, especially strains that produce folate and riboflavin together with immune-stimulating strains, could be used as adjunct treatments in patients suffering from a wide range of inflammatory diseases since they could improve treatment efficiency and prevent undesirable side effects in addition to their nutrition values. In this review, the most up to date information on the current knowledge and uses of vitamin-producing lactic acid bacteria is discussed in order to stimulate further studies in this field.

Vitamin D and microbiota: Two sides of the same coin in the immunomodulatory aspects

The gut microbiota is crucial for host immune response, vitamin synthesis, short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) production, intestinal permeability, nutrient digestion energy metabolism and protection from pathogens. Therefore, gut microbiota guarantees the host's predisposition to gastrointestinal diseases. Intestinal microbiota may be damaged by environmental components with negative health conditions. Dysbiosis consisting in alteration in the gut microbiota has been involved in several disorders including inflammation, allergic reactions, autoimmune diseases, heart diseases, obesity, and metabolic syndrome and even in the state of malignant carcinogenesis existing in humans. Several epidemiological studies have shown that inadequate solar exposure results in vitamin D insufficiency/deficiency which has a strong impact on different immune responses and the occurrence of a wide range of pathological conditions. Additionally, new evidence indicates that the vitamin D pathway plays a key role in gut homeostasis. Due to the strong connection between vitamin D and microbiota, herein we focus on the new findings about intestinal bacteria-immune crosstalk and the impact of vitamin D in gut microbiota regulation, in order to offer new clarifications on their interaction. Understanding the mechanism by which vitamin D can affect the gut microbiota composition and its dynamic activities, as well as the innate and adaptive state of the immune system, is not only a fundamental research but also an opportunity to improve health status.

Establishing Boundaries: The Relationship That Exists between Intestinal Epithelial Cells and Gut-Dwelling Bacteria

The human gastrointestinal (GI) tract is a highly complex organ in which various dynamic physiological processes are tightly coordinated while interacting with a complex community of microorganisms. Within the GI tract, intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) create a structural interface that separates the intestinal lumen from the underlying lamina propria. In the lumen, gut-dwelling microbes play an essential role in maintaining gut homeostasis and functionality. Whether commensal or pathogenic, their interaction with IECs is inevitable. IECs and myeloid immune cells express an array of pathogen recognition receptors (PRRs) that define the interaction of both pathogenic and beneficial bacteria with the intestinal mucosa and mount appropriate responses including induction of barrier-related factors which enhance the integrity of the epithelial barrier. Indeed, the integrity of this barrier and induction of appropriate immune responses is critical to health status, with defects in this barrier and over-activation of immune cells by invading microbes contributing to development of a range of inflammatory and infectious diseases. This review describes the complexity of the GI tract and its interactions with gut bacteria.

Current understanding of the gut microbiota shaping mechanisms

Increasing evidences have shown strong associations between gut microbiota and many human diseases, and understanding the dynamic crosstalks of host-microbe interaction in the gut has become necessary for the detection, prevention, or therapy of diseases. Many reports have showed that diet, nutrient, pharmacologic factors and many other stimuli play dominant roles in the modulation of gut microbial compositions. However, it is inappropriate to neglect the impact of host factors on shaping the gut microbiota. In this review, we highlighted the current findings of the host factors that could modulate the gut microbiota. Particularly the epithelium-associated factors, including the innate immune sensors, anti-microbial peptides, mucus barrier, secretory IgAs, epithelial microvilli, epithelial tight junctions, epithelium metabolism, oxygen barrier, and even the microRNAs are discussed in the context of the microbiota shaping. With these shaping factors, the gut epithelial cells could select the residing microbes and affect the microbial composition. This knowledge not only could provide the opportunities to better control many diseases, but may also be used for predicting the success of fecal microbiota transplantation clinically.

Pinocembrin Protects Against Dextran Sulfate Sodium-Induced Rats Colitis by Ameliorating Inflammation, Improving Barrier Function and Modulating Gut Microbiota

Pinocembrin (PIN) is a natural flavonoid widely found in bee propolis with potent gastrointestinal protective effects. In consequence, PIN has great potential in preventing inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs) while scant information is available. In this study, a dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced rats ulcerative colitis model (3.5% DSS in drinking water for 7 days) was applied to explore the protective effects of PIN on macroscopic colitis symptoms, inflammation, intestinal epithelial barrier function, and gut microbiota homeostasis. While DSS-treated rats showed severe colitis clinical symptoms and histological changes (colonic pathological damages and intestinal goblet cells loss), pre-administration of PIN (5 and 10 mg/kg, p.o.) for a week alleviated these symptoms. Pre-administration of PIN also suppressed the pro-inflammatory gene expressions and improved tight junction functions of colonic epithelial cells. Additionally, PIN administration reversed DSS-induced short chain fatty acid loss, and improved the gut microbial diversity assessed by 16S rRNA phylogenetic sequencing. Overall, our results suggest a wide spectrum of protective effects of PIN in preventing IBDs.

The protective effect of nigeglanine on dextran sulfate sodium-induced experimental colitis in mice and Caco-2 cells

Ulcerative colitis (UC) was a nonspecific inflammatory disease. The treatment of UC is imperative. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of nigeglanine on dextran sulfate sodium-induced UC in experimental mice and Caco-2 cells and define the underlying mechanism. The nigeglanine was shown a significant protective effect on the colon, significantly reduced the weight and colon length loss and inhibited intestinal epithelial cell damage. Nigeglanine also reduced proinflammatory factors and increased anti-inflammatory factor production. The results indicate that nigeglanine suppresses the nuclear factor kappa B and mitogen-activated protein kinases pathways in addition to NLRP3 inflammasome action, inhibiting colon epithelial cell pyroptosis. Surprisingly, ZO-1 and occludin protein levels increased with nigeglanine treatment, suggesting that nigeglanine plays a protective role in barrier integrity, reducing colitis progression. The present study suggests that dietary therapy with nigeglanine may be a useful treatment for prophylaxis and palliative UC.