β-Sitosterol Alters the Inflammatory Response in CLP Rat Model of Sepsis by Modulation of NFκB Signaling

Unveiling the molecular mechanisms: dietary phytosterols as guardians against cardiovascular diseases

Until recently, the main pharmaceuticals used to control cholesterol and prevent cardiovascular disease (CVD) were statin-related drugs, known for their historical side effects. Therefore, there is growing interest in exploring alternatives, such as nutritional and dietary components, that could play a central role in CVD prevention. This review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of how natural phytosterols found in various diets combat CVDs. We begin with a description of the overall approach, then we explore in detail the different direct and indirect mechanisms that contribute to reducing cardiovascular incidents. Phytosterols, including stigmasterol, β-sitosterol, ergosterol, and fucosterol, emerge as promising molecules within nutritional systems for protection against CVDs due to their beneficial effects at different levels through direct or indirect cellular, subcellular, and molecular mechanisms. Specifically, the mentioned phytosterols exhibit the ability to diminish the generation of various radicals, including hydroperoxides and hydrogen peroxide. They also promote the activation of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione, while inhibiting lipid peroxidation through the activation of Nrf2 and Nrf2/heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) signaling pathways. Additionally, they demonstrate a significant inhibitory capacity in the generation of pro-inflammatory cytokines, thus playing a crucial role in regulating the inflammatory/immune response by inhibiting the expression of proteins involved in cellular signaling pathways such as JAK3/STAT3 and NF-κB. Moreover, phytosterols play a key role in reducing cholesterol absorption and improving the lipid profile. These compounds can be used as dietary supplements or included in specific diets to aid control cholesterol levels, particularly in individuals suffering from hypercholesterolemia.

Unveiling the anti-inflammatory potential of Acalypha indica L. and analyzing its research trend: digging deep to learn deep

The plant Acalypha indica L. is a well-known traditional plant belonging to the family Euphorbiaceae. Traditional practices of the plant claim to treat asthma, pneumonia, wound healing, rheumatoid arthritis, bronchitis, and skin disorders. The major phytochemicals reported are cyanogenic glucosides, tannins, coumarins, flavonoid glycosides, fatty acids, and volatile oils. To summarize the anti-inflammatory potential of Acalypha indica extract and its phytochemicals through preclinical studies. The search terms include anti-inflammatory, Acalypha indica, and Acalypha indica extract independently or in combination with pro-inflammatory markers using various databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, ProQuest, and Google Scholar. The results of preclinical studies confirm that Acalypha indica exhibits strong anti-inflammatory activity. Most of the experimental studies that have been conducted on plant extract are protein denaturation, human red blood cell membrane stabilization assay, and carrageenan-induced inflammation models. However, the molecular mechanism in these studies is still unclear to demonstrate its anti-inflammatory effects. Acalypha indica possesses anti-inflammatory effects that may be due to the presence of phenolic compounds especially flavonoids present in the Acalypha indica. Thus, further research is needed, to understand mechanistic insights of the plant phytochemicals to represent anti-inflammatory properties.

Exploring the efficacious constituents and underlying mechanisms of sini decoction for sepsis treatment through network pharmacology and multi-omics

BACKGROUND

Traditional Chinese medicine prescription sini decoction (SND) can alleviate inflammation, improve microcirculation, and modulate immune status in sepsis patients. However, its underlying mechanisms remain unclear, and therapeutic effects may vary among individuals.

PURPOSE

Through a comprehensive and systematic network pharmacology analysis, the purpose of this study is to investigate the therapeutic mechanisms of SND in treating sepsis.

METHODS

An analysis of WGCNA identified CX3CR1 as a key gene influencing sepsis prognosis. A drug-active component-target network for SND was created using the traditional Chinese medicine systems pharmacology (TCMSP) database and Cytoscape software. Shared targets between SND and CX3CR1 high-expression gene modules were found through the GEO database. Gene module functionality was analyzed using GO, KEGG, GSEA, and GSVA. Unsupervised clustering of sepsis patients was performed based on the ferroptosis gene set, and immune cell interactions and mechanisms were explored using CIBERSORT, single-cell sequencing, and intercellular communication analysis.

RESULTS

This study demonstrates that high expression of CX3CR1 improves survival rates in sepsis patients and is associated with immune cell signaling pathways. SND contains 116 active components involved in oxidative stress and lipid metabolism pathways. HMOX1, a co-expressed gene in SND and CX3CR1 high-expression gene module, plays a crucial role in sepsis survival. Unsupervised clustering analysis classified sepsis patients into three clusters based on the ferroptosis gene set, revealing differences in immune cell expression and involvement in heme metabolism pathways. Notably, intercellular interactions among immune cells primarily occur through paracrine and autocrine mechanisms in MIF, GALECTIN, and IL16 signaling pathways, modulating the immune-inflammatory microenvironment in sepsis.

CONCLUSIONS

This study identifies CX3CR1 as a crucial molecule impacting sepsis prognosis through WGCNA analysis. It reveals that SND's active component, quercetin and kaempferol, target HMOX1 via related pathways to regulate heme metabolism, reduce inflammation, inhibit ferroptosis, and improve immune function, ultimately improving sepsis prognosis. These findings offer a solid pharmacological foundation and potential therapeutic targets for SND in treating sepsis.

Therapeutic efficacy of β-sitosterol treatment on Trypanosoma congolense infection, anemia development, and trans-sialidase (TconTS1) gene expression

Background

African animal trypanosomiasis hinders sustainable livestock productivity in sub-Saharan Africa. About 17 million infected cattle are treated with trypanocides annually but most of the drugs are associated with drawbacks, necessitating the search for a promising chemotherapeutic agent.

Objectives

In this study, the effects of β-sitosterol on Trypanosoma congolense infection were investigated along with its effect on the trans-sialidase gene expressions.

Results

Oral treatment with β-sitosterol at 15 and 30 mg/kg body weight (BW) for 14 days significantly (p < 0.05) reduced parasitemia and ameliorated the parasite-induced anemia. Also, the parasite-induced increase in serum urea level and renal histopathological damage scores in addition to renal hypertrophy was significantly (p < 0.05) reverted following treatment with 30 mg/kg BW β-sitosterol. The compound also significantly (p < 0.05) down-regulated the expression of TconTS1 but not TconTS2, TconTS3, and TconTS4. Correlation analysis between free serum sialic acid with the TconTS1 and TconTS2 gene variants revealed negative correlations in the β-sitosterol-treated groups although they were non-significant (p > 0.05) in the group treated with 15 mg/kg BW β-sitosterol. Similarly, a non-significant negative (p > 0.05) correlation between the biomolecule and the TconTS3 and TconTS4 gene variants was observed in the β-sitosterol-treated groups while positive correlations were observed in the infected untreated control group.

Conclusion

The observed effect of β-sitosterol on T. congolense infection could make the compound a possible template for the design of novel trypanocides.

Antimicrobial, Cytotoxic, and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Tigridia vanhouttei Extracts

In this work, bulb extracts of Tigridia vanhouttei were obtained by maceration with solvents of increasing polarity. The extracts were evaluated against a panel of pathogenic bacterial and fungal strains using the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) assay. The cytotoxicity of the extracts was tested against two cell lines (THP-1 and A549) using the MTT assay. The anti-inflammatory activity of the extracts was evaluated in THP-1 cells by measuring the secretion of pro-inflammatory (IL-6 and TNF-α) and anti-inflammatory (IL-10) cytokines by ELISA. The chemical composition of the extracts was recorded by FTIR spectroscopy, and their chemical profiles were evaluated using GC-MS. The results revealed that only hexane extract inhibited the growth of the clinical isolate of Pseudomonas aeruginosa at 200 μg/mL. Against THP-1 cells, hexane and chloroform extracts were moderately cytotoxic, as they exhibited LC50 values of 90.16, and 46.42 μg/mL, respectively. Treatment with methanol extract was weakly cytotoxic at LC50 443.12 μg/mL against the same cell line. Against the A549 cell line, hexane, chloroform, and methanol extracts were weakly cytotoxic because of their LC50 values: 294.77, 1472.37, and 843.12 μg/mL. The FTIR analysis suggested the presence of natural products were confirmed by carboxylic acids, ketones, hydroxyl groups, or esters. The GC-MS profile of extracts revealed the presence of phytosterols, tetracyclic triterpenes, multiple fatty acids, and sugars. This report confirms the antimicrobial, cytotoxic, and anti-inflammatory activities of T. vanhouttei.

Therapeutic role of Wuda granule in gastrointestinal motility disorder through promoting gastrointestinal motility and decreasing inflammatory level

Introduction: Previous studies indicated that Wuda Granule (WDG) has been applied in the treatment of gastrointestinal motility disorder (GMD), but the effect and underlying mechanisms is yet to be elucidated. This study aimed to explore the mechanism and pharmacological effect of WDG for GMD via network analysis, verification of animal experiments and clinical experiments. Methods: The chemical components of WDG were identified from the Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology Database (TCMSP, http://lsp.nwu.edu.cn/index.php), and the Encyclopedia of Traditional Chinese Medicine (ETCM, http://www.tcmip.cn/ETCM/index.php/Home/Index/) according to oral bioavailability (OB) ≥ 20% and drug-likeness (DL) ≥ 0.10. The targets of WDG compounds were retrieved from the Swiss Target Prediction database (http://www.swisstargetprediction.ch/) and targets related to GMD were retrieved from GeneCards database (https://www.genecards.org/). Network analysis were performed to screen the key active compounds of WDG and its hub targets. Then the pharmacological effect of WDG were verified via vivo experiments in rats and clinical experiments. Results: The results showed that 117 effective active compounds of WDG were screened and 494 targets of WDG compounds targeting GMD were selected. These targets were involved in the biological process of inflammatory regulation and the regulation of gastrointestinal motility. The mechanism was mainly involved in the regulation of PI3K-Akt signaling pathway and Rap1 signaling pathway. In addition, molecular docking analysis suggested that eight key active compounds of WDG may be mainly responsible for the effect of WDG on GMD by targeting HARS, AKT, and PIK3CA, respectively. Animal experiments and clinical trials both suggested that WDG could exert therapeutical effect on GMD via inhibiting inflammation and promoting gastrointestinal motility, it could also improve digestive function of patients with laparoscopic colorectal cancer after surgery. Conclusion: This study was the first to demonstrate that WDG improved GMD mainly via inhibiting inflammatory level and promoting gastrointestinal motility, providing new insights for the understanding of WDG for GMD, inspiration for future research and reference for clinical strategy in terms of the treatment of GMD.

Combined β-sitosterol and trimetazidine mitigate potassium dichromate-induced cardiotoxicity in rats through the interplay between NF-κB/AMPK/mTOR/TLR4 and HO-1/NADPH signaling pathways

Hexavalent chromium salt, like potassium dichromate (PD), is chromium's most precarious valence state in industrial wastes. Recently, there has been increasing interest in β-sitosterol (BSS), a bioactive phytosterol, as a dietary supplement. BSS is recommended in treating cardiovascular disorders due to its antioxidant effect. Trimetazidine (TMZ) was used traditionally for cardioprotection. Through the administration of BSS and TMZ, the cardiotoxic effects of PD were to be countered in this study, in addition to examining the precise mechanism of PD-induced cardiotoxicity. Thirty male albino rats were divided into five groups; the control group: administered normal saline daily (3 mL/kg); the PD group: administered normal saline daily (3 mL/kg); BSS group: administered BSS daily (20 mg/kg); TMZ group: administered TMZ daily (15 mg/kg); and the BSS + TMZ group: administered both BSS (20 mg/kg) and TMZ (15 mg/kg) daily. All experimental groups, except the control, received on the 19th day a single dose of PD (30 mg/kg/day, S.C.). Normal saline, BSS, and TMZ were received daily for 21 consecutive days p.o. The exposure to PD promoted different oxidative stresses, pro-inflammatory, and cardiotoxicity biomarkers. BSS or TMZ succeeded solely in reducing these deleterious effects; however, their combination notably returned measured biomarkers close to normal values. The histopathological investigations have supported the biochemical findings. The combination of BSS and TMZ protects against PD cardiotoxicity in rats by reducing oxidative stress and apoptotic and inflammatory biomarkers. It may be promising for alleviating and protecting against PD-induced cardiotoxicity in people at an early stage; however, these findings need further clinical studies to be confirmed. HIGHLIGHTS: • Potassium dichromate induces cardiotoxicity in rats through the upregulation of oxidative stress, proinflammatory, and apoptotic pathways biomarkers. • β-Sitosterol possesses a possible cardioprotective effect by modulating several signaling pathways. • Trimetazidine, the antianginal agent, has a potential cardioprotective impact on PD-intoxicated rat model. • The combination of β-Sitosterol and trimetazidine was the best in modulating different pathways involved in PD cardiotoxicity in rats via the interplay between NF-κB/AMPK/mTOR/TLR4 and HO-1/NADPH signaling pathways.

The Lack of Standardization and Pharmacological Effect Limits the Potential Clinical Usefulness of Phytosterols in Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia

The prevalence of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) markedly increases with age. Phytotherapeutic approaches have been developed over time owing to the adverse side effects of conventional medications such as 5-reductase inhibitors and α1-adrenergic receptor antagonists. Therefore, dietary supplements (DS) containing active compounds that benefit BPH are widely available. Phytosterols (PSs) are well recognized for their role in maintaining blood cholesterol levels; however, their potential in BPH treatment remains unexplored. This review aims to provide a general overview of the available data regarding the clinical evidence and a good understanding of the detailed pharmacological roles of PSs-induced activities at a molecular level in BPH. Furthermore, we will explore the authenticity of PSs content in DS used by patients with BPH compared to the current legislation and appropriate analytical methods for tracking DS containing PSs. The results showed that PSs might be a useful pharmacological treatment option for men with mild to moderate BPH, but the lack of standardized extracts linked with the regulation of DS containing PSs and experimental evidence to elucidate the mechanisms of action limit the use of PSs in BPH. Moreover, the results suggest multiple research directions in this field.

Mechanism of Tao Hong Decoction in the treatment of atherosclerosis based on network pharmacology and experimental validation

Background

Atherosclerosis (AS) has long been recognized as a cardiovascular disease and stroke risk factor. A well-known traditional Chinese medicine prescription, Tao Hong decoction (THD), has been proven effective in treating AS, but its mechanism of action is still unclear.

Objective

To assess the effects, explore THD's primary mechanism for treating AS, and provide a basis for rational interpretation of its prescription compatibility.

Methods

Based on network pharmacology, we evaluated the mechanism of THD on AS by data analysis, target prediction, the construction of PPI networks, and GO and KEGG analysis. AutoDockTools software to conduct Molecular docking. Then UPLC-Q-TOF-MS was used to identify significant constituents of THD. Furthermore, an AS mice model was constructed and intervened with THD. Immunofluorescence, RT-qPCR, and Western blot were used to verify the critical targets in animal experiments.

Results

The network pharmacology results indicate that eight core targets and seven core active ingredients play an essential role in this process. The GO and KEGG analysis results suggested that the mechanism is mainly involved in Fluid shear stress and atherosclerosis and Lipid and atherosclerosis. The molecular docking results indicate a generally strong affinity. The animal experiment showed that THD reduced plaque area, increased plaque stability, and decreased the levels of inflammatory cytokines (NF-κB, IL-1α, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-18, IL-1β) in high-fat diet -induced ApoE-/-mice. Decreased levels of PTGS2, HIF-1α, VEGFA, VEGFC, FLT-4, and the phosphorylation of PI3K, AKT, and p38 were detected in the THD-treated group.

Conclusion

THD plays a vital role in treating AS with multiple targets and pathways. Angiogenesis regulation, oxidative stress regulation, and immunity regulation consist of the crucial regulation cores in the mechanism. This study identified essential genes and pathways associated with the prognosis and pathogenesis of AS from new insights, demonstrating a feasible method for researching THD's chemical basis and pharmacology.

Phytochemical Analysis and Anti-Inflammatory Potential of Acanthus mollis L. Rhizome Hexane Extract

The rhizomes of Acanthus mollis have traditionally been used for the treatment of several ailments involving inflammation. However, to the best of our knowledge, their chemical composition and pharmacological properties have not been studied until now. As a first approach, this study analyses the A. mollis rhizome hexane extract phytochemistry and its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant capacities in HepG2 and RAW 264.7 cell culture assays. Chemical profiling was performed with gas chromatography mass spectrometry without the modification of native molecules. Free phytosterols (such as β-sitosterol) account for 70% of detected compounds. The anti-inflammatory capacity of the rhizome extract of A. mollis is mediated by the decrease in the NO production in RAW 264.7 that has previously been stimulated with lipopolysaccharide in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, HepG2 pre-treatment with the rhizome extract prevents any damage being caused by oxidative stress, both through ROS scavenge and through the antioxidant cellular enzyme system. In this respect, the extract reduced the activity of glutathione peroxidase and reductase, which were stimulated under oxidative stress conditions. Our results suggest that the extract from the rhizomes of A. mollis may constitute a potential source of natural products with anti-inflammatory activity and could validate the traditional use of A. mollis.

Pneumolysin as a target for new therapies against pneumococcal infections: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

This systematic review evaluates pneumolysin (PLY) as a target for new treatments against pneumococcal infections. Pneumolysin is one of the main virulence factors produced by all types of pneumococci. This toxin (53 kDa) is a highly conserved protein that binds to cholesterol in eukaryotic cells, forming pores that lead to cell destruction.

METHODS

The databases consulted were MEDLINE, Web of Science, and Scopus. Articles were independently screened by title, abstract, and full text by two researchers, and using consensus to resolve any disagreements that occurred. Articles in other languages different from English, patents, cases report, notes, chapter books and reviews were excluded. Searches were restricted to the years 2000 to 2021. Methodological quality was evaluated using OHAT framework.

RESULTS

Forty-one articles describing the effects of different molecules that inhibit PLY were reviewed. Briefly, the inhibitory molecules found were classified into three main groups: those exerting a direct effect by binding and/or blocking PLY, those acting indirectly by preventing its effects on host cells, and those whose mechanisms are unknown. Although many molecules are proposed as toxin blockers, only some of them, such as antibiotics, peptides, sterols, and statins, have the probability of being implemented as clinical treatment. In contrast, for other molecules, there are limited studies that demonstrate efficacy in animal models with sufficient reliability.

DISCUSSION

Most of the studies reviewed has a good level of confidence. However, one of the limitations of this systematic review is the lack of homogeneity of the studies, what prevented to carry out a statistical comparison of the results or meta-analysis.

CONCLUSION

A panel of molecules blocking PLY activity are associated with the improvement of the inflammatory process triggered by the pneumococcal infection. Some molecules have already been used in humans for other purposes, so they could be safe for use in patients with pneumococcal infections. These patients might benefit from a second line treatment during the initial stages of the infection preventing acute respiratory distress syndrome and invasive pneumococcal diseases. Additional research using the presented set of compounds might further improve the clinical management of these patients.

Serum Phytosterols Are Not Associated with Inflammatory Markers in Two Cross-Sectional, Swiss Population-Based Studies (The CoLaus|PsyCoLaus Study)

Background: The association between inflammation and dietary sterols remains poorly assessed at the population level. Aims: To assess the possible association between serum levels of various phytosterols (PS) and inflammatory markers. Methods: Serum levels of six PS (campesterol, campestanol, stigmasterol, sitosterol, sitostanol, brassicasterol), four cholesterol synthesis markers (lathosterol, lanosterol, desmosterol, dihydroxylanosterol) and one cholesterol absorption marker (cholestanol) were measured together with levels of CRP, IL-6 and TNF-α in two cross-sectional surveys of a population-based, prospective study. Results: CRP levels were negatively associated with levels of cholestanol and of sterols of plant origin, although some associations were not statistically significant. CRP levels were positively associated with cholesterol synthesis markers in the first but not in the second follow-up. IL-6 levels were negatively associated with cholestanol in both follow-ups. No associations between IL-6 levels and PS were found in the first follow-up, while significant negative associations with campesterol, sitosterol, brassicasterol, sitostanol and campesterol:TC ratio were found in the second follow-up. TNF-α levels were negatively associated with cholestanol in both follow-ups. These associations did not withstand adjusting for sex, age, BMI and statin administration. Conclusions: In a population-based study, PS serum levels were not significantly associated with inflammatory markers.

Liposomal β-Sitosterol Suppresses Metastasis of CT26/luc Colon Carcinoma via Inhibition of MMP-9 and Evoke of Immune System

β-sitosterol (SITO) has been reported with anticancer effects; however, with poor bioavailability. The current study aimed to investigate whether liposomal encapsulated β-sitosterol (LS) has a better inhibition effect on tumor metastasis than β-sitosterol in a CT26/luc lung metastasis mouse model and the possible underlying mechanism. LS was liposomal-encapsulated SITO and was delivered to mice by oral gavage. The cell viability was determined by the MTT assay, and invasiveness of the tumor cells and related protein expression were evaluated with the invasion assay and Western blotting. For therapeutic efficacy evaluation, male BALB/c mice were treated with PBS, SITO, and LS once a day for 7 days prior to intravenous injections of CT26/luc cells; treatments were continued twice a week post-cell inoculation throughout the entire experiment. Tumor growth inhibition was monitored by bioluminescent imaging (BLI). IL-12, IL-18, and IFN-γ in the intestinal epithelium were determined by ELISA. The results show that LS treatment had a better invasion inhibition with lower cytotoxicity than SITO when the same dose was utilized. Notably, mice treated with LS significantly exhibited fewer metastases to the lungs and other tissues/organs compared with the Control and SITO groups. Additionally, the IL-12, IL-18, and IFN-γ levels were significantly increased in the LS-treated mice compared with the Control and SITO groups. The underlying mechanism may be through the inhibition of MMP-9 and elicitation of the antitumoral Th1 immune response, such as increasing CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells, IL-12, IL-18, and IFN-γ.

Detecting Critical Functional Ingredients Group and Mechanism of Xuebijing Injection in Treating Sepsis

Sepsis is a systemic inflammatory reaction caused by various infectious or noninfectious factors, which can lead to shock, multiple organ dysfunction syndrome, and death. It is one of the common complications and a main cause of death in critically ill patients. At present, the treatments of sepsis are mainly focused on the controlling of inflammatory response and reduction of various organ function damage, including anti-infection, hormones, mechanical ventilation, nutritional support, and traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). Among them, Xuebijing injection (XBJI) is an important derivative of TCM, which is widely used in clinical research. However, the molecular mechanism of XBJI on sepsis is still not clear. The mechanism of treatment of "bacteria, poison and inflammation" and the effects of multi-ingredient, multi-target, and multi-pathway have still not been clarified. For solving this issue, we designed a new systems pharmacology strategy which combines target genes of XBJI and the pathogenetic genes of sepsis to construct functional response space (FRS). The key response proteins in the FRS were determined by using a novel node importance calculation method and were condensed by a dynamic programming strategy to conduct the critical functional ingredients group (CFIG). The results showed that enriched pathways of key response proteins selected from FRS could cover 95.83% of the enriched pathways of reference targets, which were defined as the intersections of ingredient targets and pathogenetic genes. The targets of the optimized CFIG with 60 ingredients could be enriched into 182 pathways which covered 81.58% of 152 pathways of 1,606 pathogenetic genes. The prediction of CFIG targets showed that the CFIG of XBJI could affect sepsis synergistically through genes such as TAK1, TNF-α, IL-1β, and MEK1 in the pathways of MAPK, NF-κB, PI3K-AKT, Toll-like receptor, and tumor necrosis factor signaling. Finally, the effects of apigenin, baicalein, and luteolin were evaluated by in vitro experiments and were proved to be effective in reducing the production of intracellular reactive oxygen species in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW264.7 cells, significantly. These results indicate that the novel integrative model can promote reliability and accuracy on depicting the CFIGs in XBJI and figure out a methodological coordinate for simplicity, mechanism analysis, and secondary development of formulas in TCM.