Role of Cytokines and Chemokines in NSCLC Immune Navigation and Proliferation

Reprogramming tumor-associated macrophages: The role of MEK-STAT3 inhibition in lung cancer

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) crucially contribute to lung cancer's advancement and escape from the immune system. TAMs, particularly the M2 phenotype, promote an immunosuppressive microenvironment, facilitating tumor growth and metastasis. The MEK-STAT3 signalling pathway is a critical mediator in this process, driving TAM reprogramming and contributing to lung cancer's resistance to treatment. Inhibiting the MEK and STAT3 pathways disrupts key cancer-promoting mechanisms, including immune evasion, angiogenesis, and metastasis. Preclinical studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of MEK inhibitors, such as trametinib and selumetinib, in synergistic therapies for NSCLC, particularly in modulating the tumor microenvironment. We analyse the present understanding of approaches that can transform TAMs via the inhibition of MEK-STAT3 with either solo or combined treatments in lung cancer therapy.

Leveraging Evolutionary Immunology in Interleukin-6 and Interleukin-17 Signaling for Lung Cancer Therapeutics

Lung cancer is among the most common instances of cancer subtypes and is associated with high mortality rates. Due to the availability of fewer therapies and delayed clinical investigations, the number of cancer incidences is rising dramatically. This is possibly an effect of immune modulations and chemotherapeutic drugs that raises cancer resistance. Among the list, IL-6 and IL-17 are host-derived paradoxical effectors that attune immune responses in malignant lung cells. Their excessive release in the cytokine milieu stabilizes immunosuppressive phenotypes, resulting in cellular perturbations. During tumor development, the significance of these molecules is reflected in their potential to regulate oncogenesis by initiating a myriad of signaling events that influence tumor growth and the metastatic ability of benign cancer cells. Moreover, their transactivation contributes to antiapoptotic mechanisms and favors cancer cell survival via constitutive expression of immunoregulatory molecules. Co-evolution and gene duplication events could be the major drivers behind cytokine evolution, which have prompted generic changes and, hence, the additive effect. The evolutionary model and statistical analysis provide evidence about the cytokines ancestral relationships and site-specific conservation, which is more convincing as both cytokines share cysteine-knot-like structures important in maintaining structural integrity. Funneling through the findings could help find residues that serve a catalytic role in immune functioning. Designing peptides or subunit vaccine formulations against those conserved residues could aid in combating lung cancer pathogenesis.

Premalignant Progression in the Lung: Knowledge Gaps and Novel Opportunities for Interception of Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer. An Official American Thoracic Society Research Statement

Rationale: Despite significant advances in precision treatments and immunotherapy, lung cancer is the most common cause of cancer death worldwide. To reduce incidence and improve survival rates, a deeper understanding of lung premalignancy and the multistep process of tumorigenesis is essential, allowing timely and effective intervention before cancer development. Objectives: To summarize existing information, identify knowledge gaps, formulate research questions, prioritize potential research topics, and propose strategies for future investigations into the premalignant progression in the lung. Methods: An international multidisciplinary team of basic, translational, and clinical scientists reviewed available data to develop and refine research questions pertaining to the transformation of premalignant lung lesions to advanced lung cancer. Results: This research statement identifies significant gaps in knowledge and proposes potential research questions aimed at expanding our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the progression of premalignant lung lesions to lung cancer in an effort to explore potential innovative modalities to intercept lung cancer at its nascent stages. Conclusions: The identified gaps in knowledge about the biological mechanisms of premalignant progression in the lung, together with ongoing challenges in screening, detection, and early intervention, highlight the critical need to prioritize research in this domain. Such focused investigations are essential to devise effective preventive strategies that may ultimately decrease lung cancer incidence and improve patient outcomes.

Advancing non-small cell lung cancer treatment: the power of combination immunotherapies

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) remains an unsolved challenge in oncology, signifying a substantial global health burden. While considerable progress has been made in recent years through the emergence of immunotherapy modalities, such as immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), monotherapies often yield limited clinical outcomes. The rationale behind combining various immunotherapeutic or other anticancer agents, the mechanistic underpinnings, and the clinical evidence supporting their utilization is crucial in NSCLC therapy. Regarding the synergistic potential of combination immunotherapies, this study aims to provide insights to help the landscape of NSCLC treatment and improve clinical outcomes. In addition, this review article discusses the challenges and considerations of combination regimens, including toxicity management and patient selection.

Decoding temporal heterogeneity in NSCLC through machine learning and prognostic model construction

BACKGROUND

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is a prevalent and heterogeneous disease with significant genomic variations between the early and advanced stages. The identification of key genes and pathways driving NSCLC tumor progression is critical for improving the diagnosis and treatment outcomes of this disease.

METHODS

In this study, we conducted single-cell transcriptome analysis on 93,406 cells from 22 NSCLC patients to characterize malignant NSCLC cancer cells. Utilizing cNMF, we classified these cells into distinct modules, thus identifying the diverse molecular profiles within NSCLC. Through pseudotime analysis, we delineated temporal gene expression changes during NSCLC evolution, thus demonstrating genes associated with disease progression. Using the XGBoost model, we assessed the significance of these genes in the pseudotime trajectory. Our findings were validated by using transcriptome sequencing data from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), supplemented via LASSO regression to refine the selection of characteristic genes. Subsequently, we established a risk score model based on these genes, thus providing a potential tool for cancer risk assessment and personalized treatment strategies.

RESULTS

We used cNMF to classify malignant NSCLC cells into three functional modules, including the metabolic reprogramming module, cell cycle module, and cell stemness module, which can be used for the functional classification of malignant tumor cells in NSCLC. These findings also indicate that metabolism, the cell cycle, and tumor stemness play important driving roles in the malignant evolution of NSCLC. We integrated cNMF and XGBoost to select marker genes that are indicative of both early and advanced NSCLC stages. The expression of genes such as CHCHD2, GAPDH, and CD24 was strongly correlated with the malignant evolution of NSCLC at the single-cell data level. These genes have been validated via histological data. The risk score model that we established (represented by eight genes) was ultimately validated with GEO data.

CONCLUSION

In summary, our study contributes to the identification of temporal heterogeneous biomarkers in NSCLC, thus offering insights into disease progression mechanisms and potential therapeutic targets. The developed workflow demonstrates promise for future applications in clinical practice.

Predictive and Prognostic Relevance of Tumor-Infiltrating Immune Cells: Tailoring Personalized Treatments against Different Cancer Types

TIICs are critical components of the TME and are used to estimate prognostic and treatment responses in many malignancies. TIICs in the tumor microenvironment are assessed and quantified by categorizing immune cells into three subtypes: CD66b+ tumor-associated neutrophils (TANs), FoxP3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs), and CD163+ tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs). In addition, many cancers have tumor-infiltrating M1 and M2 macrophages, neutrophils (Neu), CD4+ T cells (T-helper), CD8+ T cells (T-cytotoxic), eosinophils, and mast cells. A variety of clinical treatments have linked tumor immune cell infiltration (ICI) to immunotherapy receptivity and prognosis. To improve the therapeutic effectiveness of immune-modulating drugs in a wider cancer patient population, immune cells and their interactions in the TME must be better understood. This study examines the clinicopathological effects of TIICs in overcoming tumor-mediated immunosuppression to boost antitumor immune responses and improve cancer prognosis. We successfully analyzed the predictive and prognostic usefulness of TIICs alongside TMB and ICI scores to identify cancer's varied immune landscapes. Traditionally, immune cell infiltration was quantified using flow cytometry, immunohistochemistry, gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA), CIBERSORT, ESTIMATE, and other platforms that use integrated immune gene sets from previously published studies. We have also thoroughly examined traditional limitations and newly created unsupervised clustering and deconvolution techniques (SpatialVizScore and ProTICS). These methods predict patient outcomes and treatment responses better. These models may also identify individuals who may benefit more from adjuvant or neoadjuvant treatment. Overall, we think that the significant contribution of TIICs in cancer will greatly benefit postoperative follow-up, therapy, interventions, and informed choices on customized cancer medicines.

Synergistic B and T lymphocyte interaction: prognostic implications in non-small cell lung cancer

While T-cell-mediated immune responses in solid tumors have been well-established and have driven major therapeutic advances, our understanding of B-cell biology in cancer is comparatively less developed. A total of 60 lung cancer patients were included, of which 53% were diagnosed at an early stage while 47% were diagnosed at an advanced stage. Flow cytometry was used to analyze the proportion of T and B cells in all blood samples, and the levels of human serum cytokines were also assessed. Compared to the control group, cancer patients showed lower frequencies of IgD+CD27+ marginal B cells and CD32+ B cells, and higher frequencies of T cells with lower CD8+ T cells and higher central memory and naïve CD4+ T cells. Additionally, advanced-stage cancer patients exhibited higher levels of cytokines, a higher proportion of effector memory CD8+ T cells, and a lower frequency of CD27+CD28+CD4+/CD8+ T cells. Linear regression analysis revealed significant correlations between cancer stage and the frequency of B and T cell subsets, leukocyte count, and cytokine levels. Survival analysis demonstrated that patients with higher frequency of class-switched B cells had a worse prognosis, while patients with higher frequency of CD8+ effector T cells and lower frequency of CD4+57+ T cells appeared to have a better survival rate. These findings provide valuable insight into the immunological changes that occur during lung cancer progression and have the potential to inform the development of new immunotherapeutic strategies.

CXC chemokines: Potential biomarker and immunotherapeutic target for uterine corpus endometrial carcinoma

Uterine corpus endometrial carcinoma (UCEC) is one of the most common type of gynecological malignancies. Multiple lines of evidence indicated that CXC chemokines exerted an anti-tumor immunological role in the tumor microenvironment which were critical regulators of cancer immunity. However, the relevance of CXC chemokines in the evaluation of prognosis and immune infiltration of UCEC remains to be explored. This study utilized various online databases, including TCGA, UALCAN, Kaplan-Meier Plotter, cBioPortal, TIMER2.0, TISIDB, and MethSurv to perform the analysis. Gene expression data from the TCGA-UCEC dataset indicated decreased expression of CXCL2/12 and increased expression of CXCL14/17. CXCL2/12 expression was negatively whereas CXCL14/17 expression was positively correlated with clinicopathological features of UCEC patients, including cancer stage, patients' age, weight and menopause status. Patients with higher CXCL12/14 expression corresponded with better clinical outcomes, which were not influenced by the genetic alterations. The differential expression of CXCL2/12/14/17 was not only significantly correlated with immune infiltration levels, but also the abundance of immune checkpoint inhibitors. Heatmaps of DNA methylation of CXCL2/12/14/17 were investigated, and 4 CpGs of CXCL2, 16 CpGs of CXCL12, 3 CpGs of CXCL14/17 were identified where altered methylation affected the prognosis of UCEC patients. These findings provided novel insights into the immunologic features of UCEC and might pave the way toward the prognostic evaluation and immunotherapy selection based on CXCL2/12/14/17 expression status.

Systematic Multiomic Analysis of PKHD1L1 Gene Expression and Its Role as a Predicting Biomarker for Immune Cell Infiltration in Skin Cutaneous Melanoma and Lung Adenocarcinoma

The identification of genetic factors that regulate the cancer immune microenvironment is important for understanding the mechanism of tumor progression and establishing an effective treatment strategy. Polycystic kidney and hepatic disease 1-like protein 1 (PKHD1L1) is a large transmembrane protein that is highly expressed in immune cells; however, its association with tumor progression remains unclear. Here, we systematically analyzed the clinical relevance of PKHD1L1 in the tumor microenvironment in multiple cancer types using various bioinformatic tools. We found that the PKHD1L1 mRNA expression levels were significantly lower in skin cutaneous melanoma (SKCM) and lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) than in normal tissues. The decreased expression of PKHD1L1 was significantly associated with unfavorable overall survival (OS) in SKCM and LUAD. Additionally, PKHD1L1 expression was positively correlated with the levels of infiltrating B cells, cluster of differentiation (CD)-8+ T cells, and natural killer (NK) cells, suggesting that the infiltration of immune cells could be associated with a good prognosis due to increased PKHD1L1 expression. Gene ontology (GO) analysis also revealed the relationship between PKHD1L1-co-altered genes and the activation of lymphocytes, including B and T cells. Collectively, this study shows that PKHD1L1 expression is positively correlated with a good prognosis via the induction of immune infiltration, suggesting that PKHD1L1 has potential prognostic value in SKCM and LUAD.

Chemokines: Function and therapeutic potential in bone metastasis of lung cancer

Lung cancer is a rapidly progressing disease with a poor prognosis. Bone metastasis is commonly found in 40.6% of advanced-stage patients. The mortality rate of lung cancer patients with bone metastasis can be significantly decreased by implementing novel diagnostic techniques, improved staging and classification systems, precise surgical interventions, and advanced treatment modalities. However, it is important to note that there is currently a lack of radical procedures available for these patients due to the development of drug resistance. Consequently, palliative care approaches are commonly employed in clinical practice. Therefore, new understandings of the process of bone metastasis of lung cancer are critical for developing better treatment strategies to improve patient's clinical cure rate and quality of life. Chemokines are cell-secreted small signaling proteins in cancer occurrence, proliferation, invasion, and metastasis. In this study, we review the development of bone metastasis in lung cancer and discuss the mechanisms of specific chemokine families (CC, CXC, CX3C, and XC) in regulating the biological activities of tumors and promoting bone metastasis. We also highlight some preclinical studies and clinical trials on chemokines for lung cancer and bone metastasis.

Cytokine Profile in Lung Cancer Patients: Anti-Tumor and Oncogenic Cytokines

Lung cancer is currently the second leading cause of cancer death worldwide. In recent years, checkpoint inhibitor immunotherapy (ICI) has emerged as a new treatment. A better understanding of the tumor microenvironment (TMJ) or the immune system surrounding the tumor is needed. Cytokines are small proteins that carry messages between cells and are known to play an important role in the body's response to inflammation and infection. Cytokines are important for immunity in lung cancer. They promote tumor growth (oncogenic cytokines) or inhibit tumor growth (anti-tumour cytokines) by controlling signaling pathways for growth, proliferation, metastasis, and apoptosis. The immune system relies heavily on cytokines. They can also be produced in the laboratory for therapeutic use. Cytokine therapy helps the immune system to stop the growth or kill cancer cells. Interleukins and interferons are the two types of cytokines used to treat cancer. This article begins by addressing the role of the TMJ and its components in lung cancer. This review also highlights the functions of various cytokines such as interleukins (IL), transforming growth factor (TGF), and tumor necrosis factor (TNF).

A Vaccine against Cancer: Can There Be a Possible Strategy to Face the Challenge? Possible Targets and Paradoxical Effects

Is it possible to have an available vaccine that eradicates cancer? Starting from this question, this article tries to verify the state of the art, proposing a different approach to the issue. The variety of cancers and different and often unknown causes of cancer impede, except in some cited cases, the creation of a classical vaccine directed at the causative agent. The efforts of the scientific community are oriented toward stimulating the immune systems of patients, thereby preventing immune evasion, and heightening chemotherapeutic agents effects against cancer. However, the results are not decisive, because without any warning signs, metastasis often occurs. The purpose of this paper is to elaborate on a vaccine that must be administered to a patient in order to prevent metastasis; metastasis is an event that leads to death, and thus, preventing it could transform cancer into a chronic disease. We underline the fact that the field has not been studied in depth, and that the complexity of metastatic processes should not be underestimated. Then, with the aim of identifying the target of a cancer vaccine, we draw attention to the presence of the paradoxical actions of different mechanisms, pathways, molecules, and immune and non-immune cells characteristic of the tumor microenvironment at the primary site and pre-metastatic niche in order to exclude possible vaccine candidates that have opposite effects/behaviors; after a meticulous evaluation, we propose possible targets to develop a metastasis-targeting vaccine. We conclude that a change in the current concept of a cancer vaccine is needed, and the efforts of the scientific community should be redirected toward a metastasis-targeting vaccine, with the increasing hope of eradicating cancer.

Health concerns about possible long-term effects of legally marketed milk and dairy from animals with intramammary infections

Milk and dairy from animals with subclinical mastitis infections are marketable. Mastitis is detected with the somatic cell count (SCC). The EU regulation, among the stricter ones, limits an average of 400,000 somatic cells/ml in milk. Other countries have higher or no thresholds. This level suggests 40% of infected animals, and we indeed consume mastitic milk and dairy. A worldwide prevalence of dairy cattle and buffaloes with subclinical mastitis is estimated to range between 34 and 46%. The current food safety regulations account for mastitis pathogens, their toxins, and the risk of antimicrobial residues, but milk from animals with mastitis contains also compounds that derive from an immune response and inflammation process with biological function for the offspring. To the best of the current knowledge, it cannot be excluded that these compounds do not interfere with human homeostasis and that they do not contribute to redox or cytokine dysregulation that, in turn, could promote certain chronic diseases. These compounds include radicals, oxidation products, nitrosamines, and proinflammatory cytokines with nitrosamines being already recognized as probable carcinogens. Mastitis also alters the composition of caseins, plasmin, and plasminogen activators, which may be related to increased transformation into amyloid with similar characteristics as the fibrils associated with Alzheimer's disease. We should determine whether these bioactive compounds could, alone or in combination, represent any long-term risk to the consumer's health. Adapted regulations and concomitant subsidies for farmers are suggested, for sensing tools that reveal individual SCC and mastitis at milking. Frequent SCC determination is the prerequisite for any mastitis control program.

Tumour microenvironment changes after osimertinib treatment resistance in non-small cell lung cancer

BACKGROUND

Growing evidence suggests that acquired resistance to targeted therapy in non-small cell lung cancer patients is linked to the mutual domestication between the tumour and its surrounding microenvironment.

AIM

Our study aims to explore the remodelling of tumour microenvironment after osimertinib treatment resistance.

METHODS

We took RNA-seq-based tumour immune infiltration analysis using the TIMER 2.0. We carried out flow cytometry assay and real-time cell analysis to explore the interaction between tumour cells and immune cells. In addition, we analysed exosomes via miRNA-seq and label-free proteomics.

RESULTS

Immune infiltration estimation showed a significant decrease in the immune score (P < 0.001), microenvironment score (P < 0.001) and CD8+ T cells (P < 0.05), but an increase in M0 macrophages (P < 0.01) at osimertinib resistance compared to pre-treatment patients. It was demonstrated that exosomes from H1975OR cells could be taken up by macrophages and drove their polarisation towards the M2 phenotype, and the polarised M2 macrophages could reduce the inhibitory effect on tumour cell proliferation. Pre-activated peripheral blood mononuclear cells exhibited a more potent killing effect on H1975OR cells. We also detected a decrease in CD4+HLA-DR- T cells and an increase in CD4+PD1+ T cells after being co-cultured with H1975OR derived exosomes or conditioned medium. Further miRNA-seq and proteomics analysis of exosomes demonstrated that mir-1258-3p and miR-17-5p might participate in this interaction.

CONCLUSIONS

An immunosuppressive environment, characterised by decreased T cell infiltration and activation, whereas increased macrophage infiltration and M2 polarisation, was identified at osimertinib resistance. This interaction may be carried out by tumour-derived exosomes.

Panel of miR-150 and linc00673, regulators of CCR6/CCL20 may serve as non-invasive diagnostic marker of non-small cell lung cancer

The C-C motif ligand 20 (CCL20) is a chemokine that specifically binds to the chemokine receptor 6 (CCR6) and the CCL20/CCR6 axis has been implicated in the non-small lung cancer (NSCLC) development and progression. Its expression is regulated by mutual interactions of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs). This goals of presented study was to evaluate the expression level of CCR6/CCL20 mRNA in NSCLC tissue comparative to selected ncRNAs: miR-150, linc00673. The expression level of the studied ncRNAs was also assessed in serum extracellular vesicles (EVs). Thirty patients (n = 30) were enrolled as the study cohort. Total RNA was isolated from tumor tissue, adjacent macroscopically unchanged tissue and serum EVs. The expression level of studied genes and ncRNAs were estimated based on the qPCR method. Higher expression level of CCL20 mRNA but lower expression level of CCR6 mRNA were observed in tumor in comparison to control tissue. Relative to the smoking status, higher CCL20 (p < 0.05) and CCR6 mRNA (p > 0.05) expression levels were observed in current smokers than in never smokers. In serum EVs the expression level of miR-150 has a negative correlation with AJCC tumor staging, whereas the expression level of linc00673 positively correlated (p > 0.05). The lower expression level of miR-150 and higher expression level of linc00673 in serum EVs were observed in NSCLC patients with lymph nodes metastases (p > 0.05). Regarding the histopathological type, significantly lower expression level of miR-150 and higher expression level of linc00673 were observed in the serum EVs of patients with AC compared to patient with SCC. Our findings revealed that smoking significantly changed the expression level of CCL20 mRNA in NSCLC tissue. Changes in expression levels of miR-150 and linc00673 in the serum EVs of NSCLC patients in relation to presence of lymph node metastases and the stage of cancer development may serve as a non-invasive molecular biomarkers of tumor progression. Furthermore, expression levels of miR-150 and linc00673 may serve as non-intrusive diagnostic biomarkers differentiating adenocarcinoma from squamous cell carcinoma.

The Association of IFN-γ, TNF-α, and Interleukins in Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid with Lung Cancer: A Prospective Analysis

Lung cancer is a leading cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide. Identifying novel diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers is essential for improving patient outcomes. This study aimed to investigate the predictive role of cytokines from bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) in lung cancer diagnosis and prognosis. A prospective study was conducted on 33 patients with suspected lung cancer, divided into inflammatory and non-inflammatory BALF groups. Inflammatory markers in BALF were assessed, and their association with lung cancer risk was analyzed using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) plot analysis, sensitivity and specificity percentages, and regression analysis. Statistically significant differences were observed between the inflammatory and non-inflammatory groups for several inflammatory markers, including IFN-gamma, IL-1b, IL-2, IL-6, IL-10, and IL-12p70. In the follow-up analysis, significant differences persisted for IFN-gamma, IL-1b, IL-2, IL-4, and IL-6. ROC plot analysis revealed that IL-12p70 had the highest area under the curve (AUC) value (0.702), followed by IL-2 (0.682), IL-6 (0.620), IL-4 (0.611), TNF-alpha (0.609), IL-10 (0.604), IL-1b (0.635), and IFN-gamma (0.521). IL-6 showed the highest sensitivity (73%), and IL-1b had the highest specificity (69%). Regression analysis demonstrated that IL-6 (cut-off = 25 pg/mL) and IL-12p70 (cut-off = 30 pg/mL) had the highest odds ratios for lung cancer risk, at 5.09 (95% CI: 2.38-9.24, p < 0.001) and 4.31 (95% CI: 1.85-8.16, p < 0.001), respectively. Cytokines from BALF, particularly IL-6 and IL-12p70, show potential as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers for lung cancer. Further studies with larger cohorts are warranted to confirm these findings and elucidate the clinical implications of these markers in lung cancer management.

Circulating Biomarkers for Prediction of Immunotherapy Response in NSCLC

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) constitutes the majority of the lung cancer population and the prognosis is poor. In recent years, immunotherapy has become the standard of care for advanced NSCLC patients as numerous trials demonstrated that immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) are more efficacious than conventional chemotherapy. However, only a minority of NSCLC patients benefit from this treatment. Therefore, there is an unmet need for biomarkers that could accurately predict response to immunotherapy. Liquid biopsy allows repeated sampling of blood-based biomarkers in a non-invasive manner for the dynamic monitoring of treatment response. In this review, we summarize the efforts and progress made in the identification of circulating biomarkers that predict immunotherapy benefit for NSCLC patients. We also discuss the challenges with future implementation of circulating biomarkers into clinical practice.

Cancer-associated fibroblasts in nonsmall cell lung cancer: From molecular mechanisms to clinical implications

Lung cancer is the common and leading cause of cancer death worldwide. The tumor microenvironment has been recognized to be instrumental in tumorigenesis. To have a deep understanding of the molecular mechanism of nonsmall cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC), cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) have gained increasing research interests. CAFs belong to the crucial and dominant cell population in the tumor microenvironment to support the cancer cells. The interplay and partnership between cancer cells and CAFs contribute to each stage of tumorigenesis. CAFs exhibit prominent heterogeneity and secrete different kinds of cytokines and chemokines, growth factors and extracellular matrix proteins involved in cancer cell proliferation, invasion, metastasis and chemoresistance. Many studies focused on the protumorigenic functions of CAFs, yet many challenges about the heterogeneity of CAFS remain unresolved. This review comprehensively summarized the tumor-promoting role and molecular mechanisms of CAFs in NSCLC, including their origin, phenotypic changes and heterogeneity and their functional roles in carcinogenesis. Meanwhile, we also highlighted the updated molecular classifications based on the molecular features and functional roles of CAFs. With the development of cutting-edge platforms and further investigations of CAFs, novel therapeutic strategies for accurately targeting CAFs in NSCLC may be developed based on the increased understanding of the relevant molecular mechanisms.

CXC Chemokines in the Pathogenesis of Pulmonary Disease and Pharmacological Relevance

Chemokines and their receptors play important roles in the pathophysiology of many diseases by regulating the cellular migration of major inflammatory and immune players. The CXC motif chemokine subfamily is the second largest family, and it is further subdivided into ELR motif CXC (ELR+) and non-ELR motif (ELR-) CXC chemokines, which are effective chemoattractants for neutrophils and lymphocytes/monocytes, respectively. These chemokines and their receptors are expected to have a significant impact on a wide range of lung diseases, many of which have inflammatory or immunological underpinnings. As a result, manipulations of this subfamily of chemokines and their receptors using small molecular agents and other means have been explored for potential therapeutic benefit in the setting of several lung pathologies. Furthermore, encouraging preclinical data has necessitated the progression of a few of these drugs into clinical trials in order to make the most effective use of interventions in the development of viable targeted therapeutics. The current review presents the understanding of the roles of CXC ligands (CXCLs) and their cognate receptors (CXCRs) in the pathogenesis of several lung diseases such as allergic rhinitis, COPD, lung fibrosis, lung cancer, pneumonia, and tuberculosis. The potential therapeutic benefits of pharmacological or other CXCL/CXCR axis manipulations are also discussed.

Chemokines and NSCLC: Emerging role in prognosis, heterogeneity, and therapeutics

Lung cancer persists to contribute to one-quarter of cancer-associated deaths. Among the different histologies, non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) alone accounts for 85% of the cases. The development of therapies involving immune checkpoint inhibitors and angiogenesis inhibitors has increased patients' survival probability and reduced mortality rates. Developing targeted therapies against essential genetic alterations also translates to better treatment strategies. But the benefits still seem farfetched due to the development of drug resistance and refractory tumors. In this review, we have highlighted the interplay of different tumor microenvironment components, essentially discussing the chemokine families (CC, CXC, C, and CX3C) that regulate the tumor biology in NSCLC and promote tumor growth, metastasis, and associated heterogeneity. The development of therapeutics and prognostic markers is a complex and multipronged approach. However, some essential chemokines can act as critical players for being considered potential prognostic markers and therapeutic targets.

A study on the roles of long non-coding RNA and circular RNA in the pulmonary injuries induced by polystyrene microplastics

Microplastics (MPs) pollution has become a global concern due to its close relation to the environment and human health. Recently, more and more studies have pointed out the existence of MPs in the air, but its potential inhalation toxicity is unclear. Polystyrene Microplastics (PS-MPs) is one of the representative MPs. Besides, non-coding RNA plays crucial roles in regulating gene expression. Therefore, this study aims to provide new insights into the molecular exploration of PS-MPs inhalation. In this study, Sprague Dawley（SD）rats were treated with 100 nm, 500 nm, 1 μm and 2.5 μm PS-MPs for three days. And then intra-tracheal instillation of saline or 100 nm PS-MPs with 0, 0.5, 1 and 2 mg/200 μL were performed in SD rats every two days for two consecutive weeks. The deposition of PS-MPs was observed through immunofluorescence. Lung histological alternations were observed in haematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining sections. The expressions of pro-inflammatory cytokines were quantified by ELISA and qPCR. Genome-wide transcriptomic profiling of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), circular RNAs (circRNAs) in rats lung were done by ribosomal RNA depleted RNA sequencing and verified by qRT-PCR. We observed that 100 nm and 1 μm PS-MPs could deposite in the lungs. In addition, pathological examination shows alveolar destruction and bronchial epithelium arranged in a mess in PS-MPs groups. Furthermore, the expressions of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6, TNF-α and IL-1β were upregulated in PS-MPs exposed rats. Sequencing results showed that 269 circRNAs and 109 lncRNAs were differentially expressed in lung tissue of the saline and PS-MPs exposed rats. The upregulated expressions of lncRNA XLOC_031479, circRNA 014924 and circRNA 006603 and the downregulated expressions of lncRNA XLOC_014188 and circ003982 were identified by qRT-PCR in MPs group. The identified novel circRNAs and lncRNAs may paly important role in the development of lung inflammation caused by PS-MPs.

Therapeutic applications of engineered chimeric antigen receptors-T cell for cancer therapy

Background

Findings of new targeted treatments with adequate safety evaluations are essential for better cancer cures and mortality rates. Immunotherapy holds promise for patients with relapsed disease, with the ability to elicit long-term remissions. Emerging promising clinical results in B-cell malignancy using gene-altered T-lymphocytes uttering chimeric antigen receptors have sparked a lot of interest. This treatment could open the path for a major difference in the way we treat tumors that are resistant or recurring.

Main body

Genetically altered T cells used to produce tumor-specific chimeric antigen receptors are resurrected fields of adoptive cell therapy by demonstrating remarkable success in the treatment of malignant tumors. Because of the molecular complexity of chimeric antigen receptors-T cells, a variety of engineering approaches to improve safety and effectiveness are necessary to realize larger therapeutic uses. In this study, we investigate new strategies for enhancing chimeric antigen receptors-T cell therapy by altering chimeric antigen receptors proteins, T lymphocytes, and their relations with another solid tumor microenvironment (TME) aspects. Furthermore, examine the potential region of chimeric antigen receptors-T cells therapy to become a most effective treatment modality, taking into account the basic and clinical and practical aspect.

Short conclusions

Chimeric antigen receptors-T cells have shown promise in the therapy of hematological cancers. Recent advancements in protein and cell editing, as well as genome-editing technologies, have paved the way for multilayered T cell therapy techniques that can address numerous important demands. At around the same time, there is crosstalk between various intended aspects within the chimeric antigen receptors-T cell diverse biological complexity and possibilities. These breakthroughs substantially improve the ability to comprehend these complex interactions in future solid tumor chimeric antigen receptor-T cell treatment and open up new treatment options for patients that are currently incurable.