Plants in Anticancer Drug Discovery: From Molecular Mechanism to Chemoprevention

Exploring the Therapeutic Potential for Breast Cancer of Phytochemicals and Secondary Metabolites in Marjoram, Thyme, and Persimmon

Background/Objectives: Breast cancer is the most common cause of death in women worldwide and the most commonly diagnosed cancer. Although several therapeutic approaches are widely used against breast cancer, their adverse effects often lead to symptoms severely affecting the quality of life. Alternative methods have been explored to reduce these adverse effects, and nutraceuticals have yielded promising results. This review will discuss mechanisms of action and potential applications against breast cancer of some nutraceuticals, specifically marjoram, thyme, and persimmon leaves. Methods: A systematic search was conducted across the public databases of PubMed, PubChem, and Google Scholar, with a specific focus on the plant extracts and phytochemicals of interest, as well as the anticarcinogenic mechanisms. Results: Ethnopharmacological and biochemical evidence support the anticarcinogenic role of marjoram, thyme, and persimmon. Numerous phytochemicals contained in these herbs' extracts, like terpenes and flavonoids, possess remarkable potential to effectively treat breast cancer. Discussion: The phytochemicals contained in the reviewed nutraceuticals target the main cellular pathways involved in cell growth and disrupted in carcinogenesis, such as Nf-κB, MAPK/p38, TNF-α/IL-1β, and PI3K/Akt. The mechanisms of action of these compounds can successfully limit the abnormal growth and proliferation of cancerous breast cells. Conclusions: The potential use of the phytochemicals discussed in this review, either alone or in combination, may offer a valid alternative to chemotherapy against breast cancer with virtually no adverse effects, and further research on these molecules may lead to the identification of additional chemo-preventative and chemotherapeutic candidates.

Molecular Targets of Plant-Derived Bioactive Compounds in Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma

BACKGROUND

With a significant increase in both incidence and mortality, oral cancer-particularly oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC)-is one of the main causes of death in developing countries. Even though there is evidence of advances in surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy, the overall survival rate for patients with OSCC has improved, but by a small percentage. This may be due, on the one hand, to the fact that the disease is diagnosed when it is at a too-advanced stage, when metastases are already present.

METHODS

This review explores the therapeutic potential of natural herbal products and their use as adjuvant therapies in the treatment of oral cancer from online sources in databases (PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar, Research Gate, Scopus, Elsevier).

RESULTS

Even if classic therapies are known to be effective, they often produce many serious side effects and can create resistance. Certain natural plant compounds may offer a complementary approach by inducing apoptosis, suppressing tumor growth, and improving chemotherapy effectiveness. The integration of these compounds with conventional treatments to obtain remarkable synergistic effects represents a major point of interest to many authors. This review highlights the study of molecular mechanisms and their efficiency in in vitro and in vivo models, as well as the strategic ways in which drugs can be administered to optimize their use in real contexts.

CONCLUSIONS

This review may have a significant impact on the oncology community, creating new inspirations for the development of more effective, safer cancer therapies with less toxic potential.

Phytochemical analysis, antioxidant, anticancer, and antibacterial potential of Alpinia galanga (L.) rhizome

Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd. (A. galanga) is extremely significant and is utilized extensively in traditional medicine throughout many nations. This study aimed to determine the chemical composition of A. galanga rhizome extract (AgRE) and to evaluate its antioxidant, anticancer, and antibacterial activities. The total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) of AgRE were determined. The antioxidant activity, cytotoxic capability, and antibacterial of were assessed, as well as anti-apoptotic genes. Molecular docking (MD) was used to assess the binding affinity of the most enriched constituents in AgRE toward the active sites of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase and p53 tumor suppressor protein (TP53). Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis demonstrated that AgRE is a rich source of turmerone. AgRE had moderate 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2'-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) radical scavenging properties, with the half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) values of 79.34 ± 1.78 and 88.94 ± 2.28 μg/ml, respectively. AgRE preferentially reduced the viability of a subset of malignant MCF-7 and HepG2 cell lines, with IC50 of 125.35 ± 4.28 and 182.49 ± 3.19 μg/ml, respectively. AgRE exhibited considerable antimicrobial activity against all bacterial strains, with MIC values ranging from 7.81 ± 1.53 to 62.5 ± 3.28 μg/ml. The MD results revealed that ethyl-4-(2-methylpropyl)-benzene had the greatest binding energy with NADPH oxidase, with a Glide score of -6848 kcal/mol, followed by 2-methoxy-phenol (-5111 kcal/mol). Taken together, we report the interesting antioxidant, antibacterial, and anticancer properties of AgRE, which warrant further investigation. AgRE is a promising natural resource that could be used to combat complicated diseases such as cancer and bacterial infections.

Biotransformation of selected secondary metabolites by Alternaria species and the pharmaceutical, food and agricultural application of biotransformation products

Biotransformation is a process in which molecules are modified in the presence of a biocatalyst or enzymes, as well as the metabolic alterations that occur in organisms from exposure to the molecules. Microbial biotransformation is an important process in natural product drug discovery as novel compounds are biosynthesised. Additionally, biotransformation products offer compounds with improved efficacy, solubility, reduced cytotoxic and allows for the understanding of structure activity relationships. One of the driving forces for these impeccable findings are associated with the presence of cytochrome P450 monooxygenases that is present in all organisms such as mammals, bacteria, and fungi. Numerous fungal strains have been used and reported for their ability to biotransform different compounds. This review focused on studies using Alternaria species as biocatalysts in the biotransformation of natural product compounds. Alternaria species facilitates reactions that favour stereoselectivity, regioselectivity under mild conditions. Additionally, microbial biotransformation products, their application in food, pharmaceutical and agricultural sector is discussed in this review.

Cimicifugoside H-2 as an Inhibitor of IKK1/Alpha: A Molecular Docking and Dynamic Simulation Study

One of the most challenging issues scientists face is finding a suitable non-invasive treatment for cancer, as it is widespread around the world. The efficacy of phytochemicals that target oncogenic pathways appears to be quite promising and has gained attention over the past few years. We investigated the effect of docking phytochemicals isolated from the rhizomes of the Cimicifuga foetida plant on different domains of the IκB kinase alpha (IKK1/alpha) protein. The Cimicifugoside H-2 phytochemical registered a high docking score on the activation loop of IKK1/alpha amongst the other phytochemicals compared to the positive control. The interaction of the protein with Cimicifugoside H-2 was mostly stabilized by hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions. A dynamic simulation was then performed with the Cimicifugoside H-2 phytochemical on the activation loop of IKK1/alpha, revealing that Cimicifugoside H-2 is a possible inhibitor of this protein. The pharmacokinetic properties of the drug were also examined to assess the safety of administering the drug. Therefore, in this in silico study, we discovered that the Cimicifugoside H-2 phytochemical inhibits the actively mutated conformation of IKK1/alpha, potentially suppressing the nuclear factor kappa light chain enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) pathway.

Silencing E6/E7 Oncoproteins in SiHa Cells Treated with siRNAs and Oroxylum indicum Extracts Induced Apoptosis by Upregulating p53/pRb Pathways

E6 and E7 human papillomavirus (HPV) oncoproteins play a significant role in the malignant transformation of infected cervical cancer cells via suppression of tumour suppressor pathways by targeting p53 and pRb, respectively. This study aimed to investigate the anticancer effects of Oroxylum indicum (OI) leaves' methanol extract on SiHa cervical cancer cells. Expression of apoptosis-related proteins (Bcl-2, caspase (cas)-3, and cas-9), viral oncoproteins (E6 and E7), and tumour suppressor proteins (p53 and pRb) were evaluated using western blot analysis before and after E6/E7 small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) transfection. In addition, the E6/E7 mRNA expression levels were assessed with real-time (RT)-PCR. The present study showed that the OI extract effectively hindered the proliferation of SiHa cells and instigated increments of cas-3 and cas-9 expressions but decreased the Bcl-2 expressions. The OI extract inhibited E6/E7 viral oncoproteins, leading to upregulation of p53 and pRb tumour suppressor genes in SiHa cells. Additionally, combinatorial treatment of OI extract and gossypin flavonoid induced restorations of p53 and pRb. Treatment with OI extract in siRNA-transfected cells also further suppressed E6/E7 expression levels and further upregulations of p53 and pRb proteins. In conclusion, OI extract treatment on siRNAs-transfected SiHa cells can additively and effectively block E6- and E7-dependent p53 and pRb degradations. All these data suggest that OI could be explored for its chemotherapeutic potential in cervical cancer cells with HPV-integrated genomes.

Synthesis of Rhodamine-Conjugated Lupane Type Triterpenes of Enhanced Cytotoxicity

Various conjugates with rhodamines were prepared by starting with betulinic acid (BA) and platanic acid (PA). The molecules homopiperazine and piperazine, which were identified in earlier research, served as linkers between the rhodamine and the triterpene. The pentacyclic triterpene's ring A was modified with two acetyloxy groups in order to possibly boost its cytotoxic activity. The SRB assays' cytotoxicity data showed that conjugates 13-22, derived from betulinic acid, had a significantly higher cytotoxicity. Of these hybrids, derivatives 19 (containing rhodamine B) and 22 (containing rhodamine 101) showed the best values with EC50 = 0.016 and 0.019 μM for A2780 ovarian carcinoma cells. Additionally, based on the ratio of EC50 values, these two compounds demonstrated the strongest selectivity between malignant A2780 cells and non-malignant NIH 3T3 fibroblasts. A375 melanoma cells were used in cell cycle investigations, which showed that the cells were halted in the G1/G0 phase. Annexin V/FITC/PI staining demonstrated that the tumor cells were affected by both necrosis and apoptosis.

Phytochemical profiling and antioxidant activity of Linum trigynum

In this study, the total phenolic and flavonoid contents (TPC and TFC), secondary metabolite composition (LC-HRMS/MS analyses) and antioxidant potential (DPPH, ABTS, GOR, CUPRAC, and phenanthroline assays) of Linum trigynum L. (LT) extracts were determined. Our results showed for the first time that the extracts (PE, CHCl3, AcOEt, and n-BuOH) of LT exert antioxidant activity. The AcOEt and n-BuOH extracts were the most antioxidant compared to the standards, and had a higher amount of TPC (323.51 ± 0.62; 229.98 ± 6.80 µg GAE/mL) and TFC (183.75 ± 1.17 and 157.50 ± 1.77 µg QE/mL), resectively. The high antioxidant properties of these extracts may be due to their major compounds (phenolic compounds) detected by LC-HRMS/MS analyses including flavonoids (40 compounds) and phenolic acids and derivatives (18 and 19 compounds, respectively). AcOEt and n-BuOH extracts of LT can be used as an excellent source of antioxidant phytochemicals to prevent or treat various diseases.

Globospiramine from Voacanga globosa Exerts Robust Cytotoxic and Antiproliferative Activities on Cancer Cells by Inducing Caspase-Dependent Apoptosis in A549 Cells and Inhibiting MAPK14 (p38α): In Vitro and Computational Investigations

Bisindole alkaloids are a source of inspiration for the design and discovery of new-generation anticancer agents. In this study, we investigated the cytotoxic and antiproliferative activities of three spirobisindole alkaloids from the traditional anticancer Philippine medicinal plant Voacanga globosa, along with their mechanisms of action. Thus, the alkaloids globospiramine (1), deoxyvobtusine (2), and vobtusine lactone (3) showed in vitro cytotoxicity and antiproliferative activities against the tested cell lines (L929, KB3.1, A431, MCF-7, A549, PC-3, and SKOV-3) using MTT and CellTiter-Blue assays. Globospiramine (1) was also screened against a panel of breast cancer cell lines using the sulforhodamine B (SRB) assay and showed moderate cytotoxicity. It also promoted the activation of apoptotic effector caspases 3 and 7 using Caspase-Glo 3/7 and CellEvent-3/7 apoptosis assays. Increased expressions of cleaved caspase 3 and PARP in A549 cells treated with 1 were also observed. Apoptotic activity was also confirmed when globospiramine (1) failed to promote the rapid loss of membrane integrity according to the HeLa cell membrane permeability assay. Network pharmacology analysis, molecular docking, and molecular dynamics simulations identified MAPK14 (p38α), a pharmacological target leading to cancer cell apoptosis, as a putative target. Low toxicity risks and favorable drug-likeness were also predicted for 1. Overall, our study demonstrated the anticancer potentials and apoptotic mechanisms of globospiramine (1), validating the traditional medicinal use of Voacanga globosa.

Mitigating digestive disorders: Action mechanisms of Mediterranean herbal active compounds

This study explores the effects of the Mediterranean diet, herbal remedies, and their phytochemicals on various gastrointestinal conditions and reviews the global use of medicinal plants for common digestive problems. The review highlights key plants and their mechanisms of action and summarizes the latest findings on how plant-based products influence the digestive system and how they work. We searched various sources of literature and databases, including Google Scholar, PubMed, Science Direct, and MedlinePlus. Our focus was on gathering relevant papers published between 2013 and August 2023. Certain plants exhibit potential in preventing or treating digestive diseases and cancers. Notable examples include Curcuma longa, Zingiber officinale, Aloe vera, Calendula officinalis, Lavandula angustifolia, Thymus vulgaris, Rosmarinus officinalis, Ginkgo biloba, Cynodon dactylon, and Vaccinium myrtillus. The phytochemical analysis of the plants showed that compounds such as quercetin, anthocyanins, curcumin, phenolics, isoflavones glycosides, flavonoids, and saponins constitute the main active substances within these plants. These natural remedies have the potential to enhance the digestive system and alleviate pain and discomfort in patients. However, further research is imperative to comprehensively evaluate the benefits and safety of herbal medicines to use their active ingredients for the development of natural and effective drugs.

A Comprehensive Review of Ethnomedicinal Uses, Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, and Toxicity of Prunus africana (Hook. F.) Kalkman from Africa

Prunus africana, a widely utilized medicinal plant in various African ethnic communities, continues to hold significant importance in traditional healing practices. Research has identified phytochemical compounds in this plant, exhibiting diverse pharmacological activities that offer potential for pharmaceutical development. Notably, P. africana is employed in treating various ailments such as wounds, diabetes mellitus, malaria, benign prostatic hyperplasia, chest pain, and prostate cancer. Its pharmacological properties are attributed to a spectrum of bioactive compounds, including tannins, saponins, alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, phytosterols, and fatty acids. Multiple studies have documented the anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiandrogenic, antiangiogenic, antioxidant, antidipeptidyl peptidase-4 activity, analgesic, and astringent properties of P. africana extracts. This review offers a comprehensive compilation of ethnomedicinal applications, phytochemical composition, pharmacological effects, and toxicity assessments of P. africana, serving as a foundation for future preclinical and clinical investigations. By understanding its traditional uses and chemical constituents, researchers can target specific medical conditions with greater precision, potentially expediting the development of safe and effective pharmaceuticals. Moreover, toxicity assessments provide crucial insights into the safety profile of P. africana extracts, ensuring the development of safe pharmaceuticals to treat various diseases.

Identification of TBK1 inhibitors against breast cancer using a computational approach supported by machine learning

Introduction: The cytosolic Ser/Thr kinase TBK1 is of utmost importance in facilitating signals that facilitate tumor migration and growth. TBK1-related signaling plays important role in tumor progression, and there is need to work on new methods and workflows to identify new molecules for potential treatments for TBK1-affecting oncologies such as breast cancer. Methods: Here, we propose the machine learning assisted computational drug discovery approach to identify TBK1 inhibitors. Through our computational ML-integrated approach, we identified four novel inhibitors that could be used as new hit molecules for TBK1 inhibition. Results and Discussion: All these four molecules displayed solvent based free energy values of -48.78, -47.56, -46.78 and -45.47 Kcal/mol and glide docking score of -10.4, -9.84, -10.03, -10.06 Kcal/mol respectively. The molecules displayed highly stable RMSD plots, hydrogen bond patterns and MMPBSA score close to or higher than BX795 molecule. In future, all these compounds can be further refined or validated by in vitro as well as in vivo activity. Also, we have found two novel groups that have the potential to be utilized in a fragment-based design strategy for the discovery and development of novel inhibitors targeting TBK1. Our method for identifying small molecule inhibitors can be used to make fundamental advances in drug design methods for the TBK1 protein which will further help to reduce breast cancer incidence.

The therapeutic potential of natural metabolites in targeting endocrine-independent HER-2-negative breast cancer

Breast cancer (BC) is a heterogenous disease, with prognosis and treatment options depending on Estrogen, Progesterone receptor, and Human Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor-2 (HER-2) status. HER-2 negative, endocrine-independent BC presents a significant clinical challenge with limited treatment options. To date, promising strategies like immune checkpoint inhibitors have not yielded breakthroughs in patient prognosis. Despite being considered archaic, agents derived from natural sources, mainly plants, remain backbone of current treatment. In this context, we critically analyze novel naturally-derived drug candidates, elucidate their intricate mechanisms of action, and evaluate their pre-clinical in vitro and in vivo activity in endocrine-independent HER-2 negative BC. Since pre-clinical research success often does not directly correlate with drug approval, we focus on ongoing clinical trials to uncover current trends. Finally, we demonstrate the potential of combining cutting-edge technologies, such as antibody-drug conjugates or nanomedicine, with naturally-derived agents, offering new opportunities that utilize both traditional cytotoxic agents and new metabolites.

Anticancer activity and other biomedical properties of β-sitosterol: Bridging phytochemistry and current pharmacological evidence for future translational approaches

Sterols, including β-sitosterol, are essential components of cellular membranes in both plant and animal cells. Despite being a major phytosterol in various plant materials, comprehensive scientific knowledge regarding the properties of β-sitosterol and its potential applications is essential for scholarly pursuits and utilization purposes. β-sitosterol shares similar chemical characteristics with cholesterol and exhibits several pharmacological activities without major toxicity. This study aims to bridge the gap between phytochemistry and current pharmacological evidence of β-sitosterol, focusing on its anticancer activity and other biomedical properties. The goal is to provide a comprehensive understanding of β-sitosterol's potential for future translational approaches. A thorough examination of the literature was conducted to gather relevant information on the biological properties of β-sitosterol, particularly its anticancer therapeutic potential. Various databases were searched, including PubMed/MedLine, Scopus, Google Scholar, and Web of Science using appropriate keywords. Studies investigating the effects of β-sitosterol on different types of cancer were analyzed, focusing on mechanisms of action, pharmacological screening, and chemosensitizing properties. Modern pharmacological screening studies have revealed the potential anticancer therapeutic properties of β-sitosterol against various types of cancer, including leukemia, lung, stomach, breast, colon, ovarian, and prostate cancer. β-sitosterol has demonstrated chemosensitizing effects on cancer cells, interfering with multiple cell signaling pathways involved in proliferation, cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, survival, metastasis invasion, angiogenesis, and inflammation. Structural derivatives of β-sitosterol have also shown anti-cancer effects. However, research in the field of drug delivery and the detailed mode of action of β-sitosterol-mediated anticancer activities remains limited. β-sitosterol, as a non-toxic compound with significant pharmacological potential, exhibits promising anticancer effects against various cancer types. Despite being relatively less potent than conventional cancer chemotherapeutics, β-sitosterol holds potential as a safe and effective nutraceutical against cancer. Further comprehensive studies are recommended to explore the biological properties of β-sitosterol, including its mode of action, and develop novel formulations for its potential use in cancer treatment. This review provides a foundation for future investigations and highlights the need for further research on β-sitosterol as a potent superfood in combating cancer.

Anticancer Potential of β-Carboline Alkaloids: An Updated Mechanistic Overview

his comprehensive review is designed to evaluate the anticancer properties of β-carbolines derived from medicinal plants, with the ultimate goal of assessing their suitability and potential in cancer treatment, management, and prevention. An exhaustive literature survey was conducted on a wide array of β-carbolines including, but not limited to, harmaline, harmine, harmicine, harman, harmol, harmalol, pinoline, tetrahydroharmine, tryptoline, cordysinin C, cordysinin D, norharmane, and perlolyrine. Various analytical techniques were employed to identify and screen these compounds, followed by a detailed analysis of their anticancer mechanisms. Natural β-carbolines such as harmaline and harmine have shown promising inhibitory effects on the growth of cancer cells, as evidenced by multiple in vitro and in vivo studies. Synthetically derived β-carbolines also displayed noteworthy anticancer, neuroprotective, and cognitive-enhancing effects. The current body of research emphasizes the potential of β-carbolines as a unique source of bioactive compounds for cancer treatment. The diverse range of β-carbolines derived from medicinal plants can offer valuable insights into the development of new therapeutic strategies for cancer management and prevention.

Aloe-emodin: Progress in Pharmacological Activity, Safety, and Pharmaceutical Formulation Applications

Aloe-emodin (AE) is an anthraquinone derivative and a biologically active component sourced from various plants, including Rheum palmatum L. and Aloe vera. Known chemically as 1,8-dihydroxy-3-hydroxymethyl-anthraquinone, AE has a rich history in traditional medicine and is esteemed for its accessibility, safety, affordability, and effectiveness. AE boasts multiple biochemical and pharmacological properties, such as strong antibacterial, antioxidant, and antitumor effects. Despite its array of benefits, AE's identity as an anthraquinone derivative raises concerns about its potential for liver and kidney toxicity. Nevertheless, AE is considered a promising drug candidate due to its significant bioactivities and cost efficiency. Recent research has highlighted that nanoformulated AE may enhance drug delivery, biocompatibility, and pharmacological benefits, offering a novel approach to drug design. This review delves into AE's pharmacological impacts, mechanisms, pharmacokinetics, and safety profile, incorporating insights from studies on its nanoformulations. The goal is to outline the burgeoning research in this area and to support the ongoing development and utilization of AE-based therapies.

Enhanced Cytotoxicity and Antimelanoma Activity of Novel Semisynthetic Derivatives of Betulinic Acid with Indole Conjugation

The prevalence and severity of skin cancer, specifically malignant melanoma, among Caucasians remains a significant concern. Natural compounds from plants have long been explored as potential anticancer agents. Betulinic acid (BI) has shown promise in its therapeutic properties, including its anticancer effects. However, its limited bioavailability has hindered its medicinal applications. To address this issue, two recently synthesized semisynthetic derivatives, N-(2,3-indolo-betulinoyl)diglycylglycine (BA1) and N-(2,3-indolo-betulinoyl)glycylglycine (BA2), were compared with previously reported compounds N-(2,3-indolo-betulinoyl)glycine (BA3), 2,3-indolo-betulinic acid (BA4), and BI. These compounds were evaluated for their effects on murine melanoma cells (B164A5) using various in vitro assays. The introduction of an indole framework at the C2 position of BI resulted in an increased cytotoxicity. Furthermore, the cytotoxicity of compound BA4 was enhanced by conjugating its carboxylic group with an amino acid residue. BA2 and BA3, with glycine and glycylglycine residues at C28, exhibited approximately 2.20-fold higher inhibitory activity compared to BA4. The safety assessment of the compounds on human keratinocytes (HaCaT) has revealed that concentrations up to 10 µM slightly reduced cell viability, while concentrations of 75 µM resulted in lower cell viability rates. LDH leakage assays confirmed cell membrane damage in B164A5 cells when exposed to the tested compounds. BA2 and BA3 exhibited the highest LDH release, indicating their strong cytotoxicity. The NR assay revealed dose-dependent lysosome disruption for BI and 2,3-indolo-betulinic acid derivatives, with BA1, BA2, and BA3 showing the most cytotoxic effects. Scratch assays demonstrated concentration-dependent inhibition of cell migration, with BA2 and BA3 being the most effective. Hoechst 3342 staining revealed that BA2 induced apoptosis, while BA3 induced necrosis at lower concentrations, confirming their anti-melanoma properties. In conclusion, the semisynthetic derivatives of BI, particularly BA2 and BA3, show promise as potential candidates for further research in developing effective anti-cancer therapies.

Network pharmacology and experimental validation for deciphering the action mechanism of Fritillaria cirrhosa D. Don constituents in suppressing breast carcinoma

Fritillaria cirrhosa D. Don is a well-known medicinal plant of Kashmir Himalaya. Traditionally, it has been used to treat several diseases, including cancer. However, the molecular mechanism behind anticancer activity remains unclear. Therefore, in the present study, we have performed high performance-liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HR-LC/MS), network pharmacology, molecular docking and molecular dynamic (MD) simulation methods were used to explore the underlying molecular mechanism of F. cirrhosa for the treatment of breast cancer (BC). The targets of F. cirrhosa for treating BC were predicted using databases like SwissTargetPrediction, Gene Cards and OMIM. Protein-protein interaction analysis and network construction were performed using the Search Tool for the Retrieval of Interacting Genes/Proteins programme, and analysis of Gene Ontology term enrichment and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway enrichment was done using the Cytoscape programme. In addition, molecular docking was used to investigate intermolecular interactions between the compounds and the proteins using the Autodock tool. MD simulations studies were also used to explore the stability of the representative AKT1 gene peiminine and Imperialine-3-β-glucoside. In addition, experimental treatment of F. cirrhosa was also verified. HR-LC/MS detected the presence of several secondary metabolites. Afterward, molecular docking was used to verify the effective activity of the active ingredients against the prospective targets. Additionally, Peiminine and Imperialine-3-β-glucoside showed the highest binding energy score against AKT-1 (-12.99 kcal/mol and -12.08 kcal/mol). AKT1 with Peiminine and Imperialine-3-β-glucoside was further explored for MD simulations. During the MD simulation study at 100 nanoseconds, a stable complex formation of AKT1 + Peiminine and Imperialine-3-β-glucoside was observed. The binding free energy calculations using MM/GBSA showed significant binding of the ligand with protein (ΔG: -79.83 ± 3.0 kcal/mol) between AKT1 + Peiminine was observed. The principal component analysis exhibited a stable converged structure by achieving global motion. Lastly, F. cirrhosa extracts also exhibited momentous anticancer activity through in vitro studies. Therefore, present study revealed the molecular mechanism of F. cirrhosa constituents for the effective treatment of BC by deactivating various multiple gene targets, multiple pathways particularly the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway. These findings emphasized the momentous anti-BC activity of F. cirrhosa constituents.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Medicarpin suppresses proliferation and triggeres apoptosis by upregulation of BID, BAX, CASP3, CASP8, and CYCS in glioblastoma

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most malignant brain tumor and incurable. Medicarpin (MED), a flavonoid compound from the legume family, has multiple targets and anticancer properties. However, the role of MED in GBM remains unclear. The objective of this study was to explore the effects of MED on the apoptosis of GBM and to explain the potential molecular mechanisms. We found that the IC50 values of U251 and U-87 MG cells treated with MED for 24 h were 271 μg/mL and 175 μg/mL, and the IC50 values for 48 h were 154 μg/mL and 161 μg/mL, respectively. Additionally, the cell cycle of U251 and U-87 MG cells were arrested at the G2/M phase. Furthermore, the apoptosis rate of U251 and U-87 MG cells increased from 6.26% to 18.36% and 12.46% to 31.33% for 48 h, respectively. The migration rate of U251 and U-87 MG decreased from 20% to 5% and 25% to 15% for 12 h and these of U251 and U-87 MG decreased from 50% to 28% and 60% to 25% for 24 h. MED suppressed GBM tumorigenesis, and improved survival rate of tumor-bearing mice. Taken together, MED triggered GBM apoptosis through upregulation of pro-apoptotic proteins (BID, BAX, CASP3, CASP8, and CYCS), showed strong inhibitory effects on cell proliferation and cell migration, and displayed anti-tumor activity in nude mice.

Licochalcone D Inhibits Skin Epidermal Cells Transformation through the Regulation of AKT Signaling Pathways

Cell transformation induced by epidermal growth factor (EGF) and 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) is a critical event in cancer initiation and progression, and understanding the underlying mechanisms is essential for the development of new therapeutic strategies. Licorice extract contains various bioactive compounds, which have been reported to have anticancer and anti-inflammatory effects. This study investigated the cancer preventive efficacy of licochalcone D (LicoD), a chalcone derivative in licorice extract, in EGF and TPA-induced transformed skin keratinocyte cells. LicoD effectively suppressed EGF-induced cell proliferation and anchorage-independent colony growth. EGF and TPA promoted the S phase of cell cycle, while LicoD treatment caused G1 phase arrest and down-regulated cyclin D1 and up-regulated p21 expression associated with the G1 phase. LicoD also induced apoptosis and increased apoptosis-related proteins such as cleaved-caspase-3, cleaved-caspase-7, and Bax (Bcl-2-associated X protein). We further investigated the effect of LicoD on the AKT signaling pathway involved in various cellular processes and found decreased p-AKT, p-GSK3β, and p-NFκB expression. Treatment with MK-2206, an AKT pharmacological inhibitor, suppressed EGF-induced cell proliferation and transformed colony growth. In conclusion, this study demonstrated the potential of LicoD as a preventive agent for skin carcinogenesis.

Myricetin: a potential plant-derived anticancer bioactive compound-an updated overview

The globe is currently confronting a global fight against the deadliest cancer sickness. Chemotherapy, hormonal therapy, surgery, and radiation therapy are among cancer treatment options. Still, these treatments can induce patient side effects, including recurrence, multidrug resistance, fever, and weakness. As a result, the scientific community is always working on natural phytochemical substances. Numerous phytochemical compounds, including taxol analogues, vinca alkaloids such as vincristine and vinblastine, and podophyllotoxin analogues, are currently undergoing testing and have shown promising results against a number of the deadliest diseases, as well as considerable advantages due to their safety and low cost. According to research, secondary plant metabolites such as myricetin, a flavonoid in berries, herbs, and walnuts, have emerged as valuable bio-agents for cancer prevention. Myricetin and its derivatives have antiinflammatory, anticancer, apoptosis-inducing, and anticarcinogenic properties and can prevent cancer cell proliferation. Multiple studies have found that myricetin has anticancer characteristics in various malignancies, including colon, breast, prostate, bladder, and pancreatic cancers. Current knowledge of the anticancer effects of myricetin reveals its promise as a potentially bioactive chemical produced from plants for the prevention and treatment of cancer. This review aimed to study the numerous bioactivities, mode of action, and modification of several cellular processes that myricetin possesses to impede the spread of cancer cells. This review also addresses the challenges and future prospects of using myricetin as a anticancer drug.

Chitosan oligosaccharide suppresses osteosarcoma malignancy by inhibiting CEMIP via the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway

Osteosarcoma is a malignant bone tumor that is prone to metastasize early and primarily affects children and adolescents. Cell migration-inducing protein (CEMIP) plays a crucial role in the progression and malignancy of various tumor diseases, including osteosarcoma. Chitosan oligosaccharide (COS), an oligomer isolated from chitin, has been found to have significant anti-tumor activity in various cancers. This study investigates the effects of COS on CEMIP expression in osteosarcoma and explores the underlying mechanism. In present study, in vitro experiments were conducted to confirm the inhibitory activity of COS on human osteosarcoma cells. Our results demonstrate that COS possesses inhibitory effects against human osteosarcoma cells and significantly suppresses CEMIP expression in vitro. Next, we studied the inhibition of the expression of CEMIP by COS and then performed bioinformatics analysis to explore the potential inhibitory mechanism of COS against signaling pathways involved in regulating CEMIP expression. Bioinformatics analysis predicted a close association between the PI3K signaling pathway and CEMIP expression and that the inhibitory effect of COS on CEMIP expression may be related to PI3K signaling pathway regulation. The results of this study show that COS treatment significantly inhibits CEMIP expression and the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway, as observed both in vitro and in vivo. This study demonstrates that COS could inhibit the expression of CEMIP, which is closely related to osteosarcoma malignancy. This inhibitory effect may be attributed to the inhibition of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway in vitro and in vivo.

Functional immune boosters; the herb or its dead microbiome? Antigenic TLR4 agonist MAMPs found in 65 medicinal roots and algae's

Background

Humans have been consuming medicinal plants (as herbs/ spices) to combat illness for centuries while ascribing beneficial effects predominantly to the plant/phytochemical constituents, without recognizing the power of obligatory resident microorganism' communities (MOCs) (live/dead bacteria, fungus, yeast, molds etc.) which remain after industrial microbial reduction methods. Very little is known about the taxonomic identity of residual antigenic microbial associated molecular patterns (MAMPs) debris in our botanical over the counter (OTC) products, which if present would be recognized as foreign (non-self) antigenic matter by host pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) provoking a host immune response; this the basis of vaccine adjuvants. As of today, only few research groups have removed the herbal MAMP biomass from herbs, all suggesting that immune activation may not be from the plant but rather its microbial biomass; a hypothesis we corroborate.

Purpose

The purpose of this work was to conduct a high through put screening (HTPS) of over 2500 natural plants, OTC botanical supplements and phytochemicals to elucidate those with pro-inflammatory; toll like receptor 4 (TLR4) activating properties in macrophages.

Study Design

The HTPS was conducted on RAW 264.7 cells vs. lipopolysaccharide (LPS) E. coli 0111:B4, testing iNOS / nitric oxide production ( NO 2 - ) as a perimeter endpoint. The data show not a single drug/chemical/ phytochemical and approximately 98 % of botanicals to be immune idle (not effective) with only 65 pro-inflammatory (hits) in a potency range of LPS. Method validation studies eliminated the possibility of false artifact or contamination, and results were cross verified through multiple vendors/ manufacturers/lot numbers by botanical species. Lead botanicals were evaluated for plant concentration of LPS, 1,3:1,6-β-glucan, 1,3:1,4-β-D-glucan and α-glucans; where the former paralleled strength in vitro. LPS was then removed from plants using high-capacity endotoxin poly lysine columns, where bioactivity of LPS null "plant" extracts were lost. The stability of E.Coli 0111:B4 in an acid stomach mimetic model was confirmed. Last, we conducted a reverse culture on aerobic plate counts (APCs) from select hits, with subsequent isolation of gram-negative bacteria (MacConkey agar). Cultures were 1) heat destroyed (retested/ confirming bioactivity) and 2) subject to taxonomical identification by genetic sequencing 18S, ITS1, 5.8 s, ITS2 28S, and 16S.

Conclusion

The data show significant gram negative MAMP biomass dominance in A) roots (e.g. echinacea, yucca, burdock, stinging nettle, sarsaparilla, hydrangea, poke, madder, calamus, rhaponticum, pleurisy, aconite etc.) and B) oceanic plants / algae's (e.g. bladderwrack, chlorella, spirulina, kelp, and "OTC Seamoss-blends" (irish moss, bladderwrack, burdock root etc), as well as other random herbs (eg. corn silk, cleavers, watercress, cardamom seed, tribulus, duckweed, puffball, hordeum and pollen). The results show a dominance of gram negative microbes (e.g. Klebsilla aerogenes, Pantoae agglomerans, Cronobacter sakazakii), fungus (Glomeracaea, Ascomycota, Irpex lacteus, Aureobasidium pullulans, Fibroporia albicans, Chlorociboria clavula, Aspergillus_sp JUC-2), with black walnut hull, echinacea and burdock root also containing gram positive microbial strains (Fontibacillus, Paenibacillus, Enterococcus gallinarum, Bromate-reducing bacterium B6 and various strains of Clostridium).

Conclusion

This work brings attention to the existence of a functional immune bioactive herbal microbiome, independent from the plant. There is need to further this avenue of research, which should be carried out with consideration as to both positive or negative consequences arising from daily consumption of botanicals highly laden with bioactive MAMPS.

Assessment of Therapeutic Bio-Activity of Cinnamoyl Sulfonamide Hydroxamate in Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Background Cancer is the second most common cause of death. Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) represents the most frequent of all oral neoplasms. Many treatment modalities such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy, surgery, and immunotherapy are emerging but still, the patients' quality of life is questionable. Despite the advances in therapeutic approaches, the percentages of morbidity and mortality of OSCC have not improved significantly during the last 30 years. Treatment using natural products can act as a potent anti-cancer agent with reduced adverse effects. Cinnamic acid derivatives exhibit anti-cancer potential through histone deacetylase inhibitor (HDAC) enzyme inhibition. Methodology In an experimental study design, cinnamoyl hydroxamate derivatives were prepared. The structure was confirmed using ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), infrared spectroscopy, and mass spectrophotometry. An in-vitro antioxidant assay using nitric oxide scavenging and reducing power assay was done and an in-vitro cytotoxic (3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5 diphenyl tetrazolium bromide) (MTT) assay and viability assay were carried out using tryphan blue dye. Results Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS (IBM Corp. Released 2013. IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 22.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp). Cinnamoyl hydroxamate derivatives were obtained and named as compounds 3a (E)-N-Hydroxy-3-(4-(N-(phenyl bromo) sulfamoyl) phenyl) acrylamide-) and 3b ((E)-N-Hydroxy-3-(4-(N-(phenyl nitro) sulfamoyl) phenyl) acrylamide). In the nitric oxide scavenging assay, compound 3a showed good antioxidant activity than 3b. Reducing power assay was higher in 3a compared to 3b. Cell viability using tryphan blue exhibited a concentration decrease in % cell viability with an increase in the concentration of human oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma cell line (OECM 1), a unique head and neck squamous carcinoma cell line (UM SCC 6) & human oral squamous cell carcinoma forming metastatic foci (HSC 3) cell lines. Conclusion The results of the present study revealed that the study compounds play a vital role in the up-regulation of apoptotic pathways and regulation of terminal differentiation pathways. The compounds showed good anti-oxidant and anti-cancer activities in lesser concentrations, hence they can be used as a therapeutic agent for oral squamous cell carcinoma.

Plants against cancer: the immune-boosting herbal microbiome: not of the plant, but in the plant. Basic concepts, introduction, and future resource for vaccine adjuvant discovery

The presence of microorganism communities (MOCs) comprised of bacteria, fungi, archaea, algae, protozoa, viruses, and the like, are ubiquitous in all living tissue, including plant and animal. MOCs play a significant role in establishing innate and acquired immunity, thereby influencing susceptibility and resistance to disease. This understanding has fostered substantial advancements in several fields such as agriculture, food science/safety, and the development of vaccines/adjuvants, which rely on administering inactivated-attenuated MOC pathogens. Historical evidence dating back to the 1800s, including reports by Drs Busch, Coley, and Fehleisen, suggested that acute febrile infection in response to "specific microbes" could trigger spontaneous tumor remission in humans. This discovery led to the purposeful administration of the same attenuated strains, known as "Coley's toxin," marking the onset of the first microbial (pathogen) associated molecular pattern (MAMPs or PAMPs)-based tumor immunotherapy, used clinically for over four decades. Today, these same MAMPS are consumed orally by billions of consumers around the globe, through "specific" mediums (immune boosting "herbal supplements") as carriers of highly concentrated MOCs accrued in roots, barks, hulls, sea algae, and seeds. The American Herbal Products Association (AHPA) mandates microbial reduction in botanical product processing but does not necessitate the removal of dead MAMP laden microbial debris, which we ingest. Moreover, while existing research has focused on the immune-modulating role of plant phytochemicals, the actual immune-boosting properties might instead reside solely in the plant's MOC MAMP laden biomass. This assertion is logical, considering that antigenic immune-provoking epitopes, not phytochemicals, are known to stimulate immune response. This review explores a neglected area of research regarding the immune-boosting effects of the herbal microbiome - a presence which is indirectly corroborated by various peripheral fields of study and poses a fundamental question: Given that food safety focuses on the elimination of harmful pathogens and crop science acknowledges the existence of plant microbiomes, what precisely are the immune effects of ingesting MAMPs of diverse structural composition and concentration, and where are these distributed in our botanicals? We will discuss the topic of concentrated edible MAMPs as acid and thermally stable motifs found in specific herbs and how these would activate cognate pattern recognition receptors (PPRs) in the upper gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT), including Peyer's patches and the lamina propria, to boost antibody titers, CD8+ and CD4+ T cells, NK activity, hematopoiesis, and facilitating M2 to M1 macrophage phenotype transition in a similar manner as vaccines. This new knowledge could pave the way for developing bioreactor-grown/heat-inactivated MOC therapies to boost human immunity against infections and improve tumor surveillance.

Amelioration of Cancer Employing Chitosan, Its Derivatives, and Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles: Recent Updates

The limitations associated with the conventional treatment of cancer have necessitated the design and development of novel drug delivery systems based mainly on nanotechnology. These novel drug delivery systems include various kinds of nanoparticles, such as polymeric nanoparticles, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, hydrogels, and polymeric micelles. Among the various kinds of novel drug delivery systems, chitosan-based nanoparticles have attracted the attention of researchers to treat cancer. Chitosan is a polycationic polymer generated from chitin with various characteristics such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, non-toxicity, and mucoadhesiveness, making it an ideal polymer to fabricate drug delivery systems. However, chitosan is poorly soluble in water and soluble in acidic aqueous solutions. Furthermore, owing to the presence of reactive amino groups, chitosan can be chemically modified to improve its physiochemical properties. Chitosan and its modified derivatives can be employed to fabricate nanoparticles, which are used most frequently in the pharmaceutical sector due to their possession of various characteristics such as nanosize, appropriate pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties, non-immunogenicity, improved stability, and improved drug loading capacity. Furthermore, it is capable of delivering nucleic acids, chemotherapeutic medicines, and bioactives using modified chitosan. Chitosan and its modified derivative-based nanoparticles can be targeted to specific cancer sites via active and passive mechanisms. Based on chitosan drug delivery systems, many anticancer drugs now have better effectiveness, potency, cytotoxicity, or biocompatibility. The characteristics of chitosan and its chemically tailored derivatives, as well as their use in cancer therapy, will be examined in this review.

Selection of potential natural compounds for poly-ADP-ribose polymerase (PARP) inhibition in glioblastoma therapy by in silico screening methods

Glioblastoma (GBM), the most prevalent brain tumor, is one of the least treatable malignancies due to its propensity for intracranial spread, high proliferative potential, and innate resistance to radiation and chemotherapy. Current GBM therapy is limited due to unfavorable, non-specific therapeutic effects in healthy cells and the difficulty of small molecules to penetrate the blood brain barrier (BBB) and reach the tumor microenvironment. Adding PARP-1 inhibitors inhibit DNA repair enzymes thereby increasing the cytotoxicity of anticancer agents. Hence, we aimed to discover potential naturally occurring PARP-1 inhibitors that can be utilized in the treatment of glioma by using multiple in silico tools like molecular docking, absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) profile, pharmacophore modeling, and molecular dynamic (MD) simulations. Among 43 phytocompounds we screened, two of them (Ellagic acid and Naringin) were discovered to be bound to the catalytic site of PARP-1 with an affinity more remarkable than commercially available PARP-1 inhibitors (Talazoparib, Niraparib, and Rucaparib) except Olaparib. The molecular interactions were analyzed, and data shows that bound entity attained a conserved domain via hydrogen bond interactions, polar interactions, and π-π stacking. Pharmacophore modeling studies showed electronic and steric features of ligands responsible for supramolecular interaction with PARP-1. ADME properties were studied, to assess drug-likeness, hydrophilic nature, hydrophobicity, brain permeability, and oral bioavailability of the natural PARP-1 inhibitors. The simulation study demonstrated the development of a stable complex between Naringin, Ellagic acid, and PARP-1 protein. Moreover, cell culture studies and animal investigations are essential to determine pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics.

Pseudobombax parvifolium Hydroalcoholic Bark Extract: Chemical Characterisation and Cytotoxic, Mutagenic, and Preclinical Aspects Associated with a Protective Effect on Oxidative Stress

Plants have long been used in traditional medicine to treat illnesses. Nevertheless, their chemical diversity requires studies to establish the extract dosage and its safe use. Pseudobombax parvifolium, an endemic species of the Brazilian Caatinga biome, is commonly used in folk medicine, due to its anti-inflammatory properties related to cellular oxidative stress; however, its biological properties have scarcely been studied. In this study, we chemically characterized the P. parvifolium hydroalcoholic bark extract (EBHE) and evaluated its cytotoxic, mutagenic, and preclinical aspects, as well as its antioxidant effect. Our phytochemical analysis revealed a significative total polyphenol content and identified loliolide for the first time in this species. Cytotoxicity, mutagenicity, and acute oral and repeated dose indicated no toxic effects on cell culture, Drosophila melanogaster, and Wistar rat exposure to different EBHE concentrations, respectively. Furthermore, we observed a significant decrease in lipid peroxidation and a mild hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effect with repeated oral dosing of EBHE. Although there were no significant changes in glutathione content, we did observe a significant increase in superoxide dismutase at a dose of 400 mg/kg and in glutathione peroxidase at doses of 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg. These findings suggest that EBHE has potential as a source of bioactive molecules, and it can be used safely in traditional medicine and in the development of herbal medicines for application in the public health system.

Orbitrap Mass Spectrometry-Based Profiling of Secondary Metabolites in Two Unexplored Eminium Species and Bioactivity Potential

The study aimed at the metabolite profiling and evaluation of antioxidant and enzyme inhibitory properties of methanol extracts from flowers, leaves, and tubers of unexplored Eminium intortum (Banks & Sol.) Kuntze and E. spiculatum (Blume) Schott (Araceae). A total of 83 metabolites, including 19 phenolic acids, 46 flavonoids, 11 amino, and 7 fatty acids were identified by UHPLC-HRMS in the studied extracts for the first time. E. intortum flower and leaf extracts had the highest total phenolic and flavonoid contents (50.82 ± 0.71 mg GAE/g and 65.08 ± 0.38 RE/g, respectively). Significant radical scavenging activity (32.20 ± 1.26 and 54.34 ± 0.53 mg TE/g for DPPH and ABTS) and reducing power (88.27 ± 1.49 and 33.13 ± 0.68 mg TE/g for CUPRAC and FRAP) were observed in leaf extracts. E. intortum flowers showed the maximum anticholinesterase activity (2.72 ± 0.03 mg GALAE/g). E. spiculatum leaves and tubers exhibited the highest inhibition towards α-glucosidase (0.99 ± 0.02 ACAE/g) and tirosinase (50.73 ± 2.29 mg KAE/g), respectively. A multivariate analysis revealed that O-hydroxycinnamoylglycosyl-C-flavonoid glycosides mostly accounted for the discrimination of both species. Thus, E. intortum and E. spiculatum can be considered as potential candidates for designing functional ingredients in the pharmaceutical and nutraceutical industries.

Potential Chemopreventive Role of Pterostilbene in Its Modulation of the Apoptosis Pathway

Cancer incidence keeps increasing every year around the world and is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Cancer has imposed a major burden on the human population, including the deterioration of physical and mental health as well as economic or financial loss among cancer patients. Conventional cancer treatments including chemotherapy, surgery, and radiotherapy have improved the mortality rate. However, conventional treatments have many challenges; for example, drug resistance, side effects, and cancer recurrence. Chemoprevention is one of the promising interventions to reduce the burden of cancer together with cancer treatments and early detection. Pterostilbene is a natural chemopreventive compound with various pharmacological properties such as anti-oxidant, anti-proliferative, and anti-inflammatory properties. Moreover, pterostilbene, due to its potential chemopreventive effect on inducing apoptosis in eliminating the mutated cells or preventing the progression of premalignant cells to cancerous cells, should be explored as a chemopreventive agent. Hence, in the review, we discuss the role of pterostilbene as a chemopreventive agent against various types of cancer via its modulation of the apoptosis pathway at the molecular levels.

Isolation and identification of novel selective antitumor constituents, sidrin and sidroside, from Zizyphus spina-christi

Background

The leaves of Zizyphus spina-christi (L.) Willd contain several compounds exhibiting different pharmacologic activities. However, studies on the cytotoxic activity of these compounds are limited.

Objectives

We aimed to investigate and isolate cytotoxic compounds with selective antitumor effects from the leaves of Z. spina-christi using bioassay-guided fractionation of methanol extract.

Methods

Powdered, dried leaves were subjected to methanol extraction and fractionated using n-hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, and n-butanol. Fractions with positive cytotoxicity against HeLa and THP-1 cell lines were further fractionated and eluted using various concentrations of organic solvents. Active compounds were isolated using different chromatographic methods and their chemical structures were determined using extensive spectroscopic methods, such as 1D NMR (¹H NMR, ¹³C NMR, and DEPT), 2D NMR (COSY, HMBC, and HMQC), HRFAB-MS, and IR. Furthermore, the cytotoxic effects of the isolated compounds were evaluated against 62 tumor cell lines (including HeLa and THP-1) in addition to normal bone marrow cells.

Results

The chloroform and aqueous methanol fractions of the leaves showed cytotoxic activity. Two compounds were successfully isolated and named "sidrin" (13-β-hydroxy-lup-20(30)-ene-2,3-β-epoxy-28-carboxylate) and "sidroside" (3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1-3)-α-L-arabinopyranosyl-jujubogenin-20-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside). Sidrin exhibited cytotoxic activity against the human leukemia (Hl-60, RPMI-8226), lung cancer (A549, EKVX), breast cancer (BT-549, MDA-MB-231/ATCC), colon cancer (KM12), melanoma (M14, SK-MEL-5), and central nervous system (CNS) cancer (SF-295) cell lines, and selectivity was observed against the Hl-60, EKVX, BT-549, KM12, and SF-295 cell lines. In addition, sidrin was more active than sidroside and doxorubicin against the Hl-60 and EKVX cell lines. In contrast, sidrin had a similar effect to doxorubicin against the BT-549 and renal cancer (UO-31) cell lines. Sidroside was more selective against the leukemia (CCRF-CEM, MOLT-4), lung cancer (HOP-92, NCI-H322M), breast cancer (MDA-MB-468), melanoma (LOX IMVI), CNS cancer (SNB-19), ovarian cancer (OVCAR-8), renal cancer (UO-31, RXF 393), and prostate cancer (PC-3) cell lines. Both compounds exhibited similar activity against the breast cancer (MDA-MB-231, T-47D), colon cancer (HCC-2998, HCT-116), ovarian cancer (OVCAR-3), renal cancer (UO-31, 786-0, and SN 12C) cell lines. Normal bone marrow cells were unaffected at the same concentrations of sidrin and sidroside applied to tumor cells.

Conclusions

These results suggest tumor-selective cytotoxicity of sidrin and sidroside.

Farm or Lab? A Comparative Study of Oregano's Leaf and Callus Volatile Isolates Chemistry and Cytotoxicity

Oregano (Origanum vulgare, Lamiaceae plant family) is a well-known aromatic herb with great commercial value, thoroughly utilized by food and pharmaceutical industries. The present work regards the comparative assessment of in vitro propagated and commercially available oregano tissue natural products. This study includes their secondary metabolites' biosynthesis, antioxidant properties, and anticancer activities. The optimization of callus induction from derived oregano leaf explants and excessive oxidative browning was performed using various plant growth regulators, light conditions, and antioxidant compounds. The determination of oregano callus volatiles against the respective molecules in maternal herbal material was performed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) analysis. In total, the presence of twenty-seven phytochemicals was revealed in both leaf and callus extracts, from which thirteen molecules were biosynthesized in both tissues studied, seven compounds were present only in callus extracts, and seven metabolites only in leaf extracts. Carvacrol and sabinene hydrate were the prevailing volatiles in all tissues exploited, along with alkanes octacosane and triacontane and the trimethylsilyl (TMS) derivative of carvacrol that were detected in significant amounts only in callus extracts. The MTT assay was employed to assess the in vitro cytotoxic properties of oregano extracts against the epithelial human breast cancer MDA-MB-231 and the human neuroblastoma SK-N-SH cell lines. The extracts displayed concentration and time-dependent responses in cell proliferation rates.

Study of MDM2 as Prognostic Biomarker in Brain-LGG Cancer and Bioactive Phytochemicals Inhibit the p53-MDM2 Pathway: A Computational Drug Development Approach

An evaluation of the expression and predictive significance of the MDM2 gene in brain lower-grade glioma (LGG) cancer was carried out using onco-informatics pipelines. Several transcriptome servers were used to measure the differential expression of the targeted MDM2 gene and search mutations and copy number variations. GENT2, Gene Expression Profiling Interactive Analysis, Onco-Lnc, and PrognoScan were used to figure out the survival rate of LGG cancer patients. The protein-protein interaction networks between MDM2 gene and its co-expressed genes were constructed by Gene-MANIA tool. Identified bioactive phytochemicals were evaluated through molecular docking using Schrödinger Suite Software, with the MDM2 (PDB ID: 1RV1) target. Protein-ligand interactions were observed with key residues of the macromolecular target. A molecular dynamics simulation of the novel bioactive compounds with the targeted protein was performed. Phytochemicals targeting MDM2 protein, such as Taxifolin and (-)-Epicatechin, have been shown with more highly stable results as compared to the control drug, and hence, concluded that phytochemicals with bioactive potential might be alternative therapeutic options for the management of LGG patients. Our once informatics-based designed pipeline has indicated that the MDM2 gene may have been a predictive biomarker for LGG cancer and selected phytochemicals possessed outstanding interaction results within the macromolecular target's active site after utilizing in silico approaches. In vitro and in vivo experiments are recommended to confirm these outcomes.

Antitumor Effect of Iscador on Breast Cancer Cell Lines with Different Metastatic Potential

Studies were performed for the first time on the effect of Iscador Qu and Iscador M on phototoxicity, cytotoxicity, antiproliferative activity, changes in ξ-potential of cells, membrane lipid order, actin cytoskeleton organization and migration on three breast cancer lines with different metastatic potential: MCF10A (control), MCF-7 (low metastatic) and MDA-MB231 (high metastatic) cells. The tested Iscador Qu and M did not show any phototoxicity. The antiproliferative effect of Iscador species appeared to be dose-dependent and was related to the metastatic potential of the tested cell lines. A higher selectivity index was obtained for Iscador Qu and M towards the low metastatic MCF-7 cell line compared to the high metastatic MDA-MB-231. Iscador Qu demonstrated higher selectivity for both cancer cell lines compared to Iscador M. The malignant cell lines exhibited a decrease in fibril number and thickness regardless of the type of Iscador used. The strongest effect on migration potential was observed for the low metastatic cancer cell line MCF-7 after Iscador treatment. Both Iscador species induced a slight increase in the percentage of cells in early apoptosis for the low and high metastatic cell lines, MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231, unlike control cells. Changes in the zeta potential and membrane lipid order were observed for the low metastatic MCF-7 cell line in contrast to the high metastatic MDA-MB-231 cells. The presented results reveal a higher potential of Iscador as an antitumor agent for the low metastatic cancer cell line MCF-7 compared to the high metastatic one. Iscador Qu appears to be more potent compared to Iscador M, but at this point, the exact mechanism of action is still unclear and needs further investigations.

Comparison of In Vitro Antimelanoma and Antimicrobial Activity of 2,3-Indolo-betulinic Acid and Its Glycine Conjugates

Malignant melanoma is one of the most pressing problems in the developing world. New therapeutic agents that might be effective in treating malignancies that have developed resistance to conventional medications are urgently required. Semisynthesis is an essential method for improving the biological activity and the therapeutic efficacy of natural product precursors. Semisynthetic derivatives of natural compounds are valuable sources of new drug candidates with a variety of pharmacological actions, including anticancer ones. Two novel semisynthetic derivatives of betulinic acid-N-(2,3-indolo-betulinoyl)diglycylglycine (BA1) and N-(2,3-indolo-betulinoyl)glycylglycine (BA2)-were designed and their antiproliferative, cytotoxic, and anti-migratory activity against A375 human melanoma cells was determined in comparison with known N-(2,3-indolo-betulinoyl)glycine (BA3), 2,3-indolo-betulinic acid (BA4) and naturally occurring betulinic acid (BI). A dose-dependent antiproliferative effect with IC₅₀ values that ranged from 5.7 to 19.6 µM was observed in the series of all five compounds including betulinic acid. The novel compounds BA1 (IC₅₀ = 5.7 µM) and BA2 (IC₅₀ = 10.0 µM) were three times and two times more active than the parent cyclic structure B4 and natural BI. Additionally, compounds BA2, BA3, and BA4 possess antibacterial activity against Streptococcus pyogenes ATCC 19615 and Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923 with MIC values in the range of 13-16 µg/mL and 26-32 µg/mL, respectively. On the other hand, antifungal activity toward Candida albicans ATCC 10231 and Candida parapsilosis ATCC 22019 was found for compound BA3 with MIC 29 µg/mL. This is the first report of antibacterial and antifungal activity of 2,3-indolo-betulinic acid derivatives and also the first extended report on their anti-melanoma activity, which among others includes data on anti-migratory activity and shows the significance of amino acid side chain on the observed activity. The obtained data justify further research on the anti-melanoma and antimicrobial activity of 2,3-indolo-betulinic acid derivatives.

Codelivery of Phytochemicals with Conventional Anticancer Drugs in Form of Nanocarriers

Anticancer drugs in monotherapy are ineffective to treat various kinds of cancer due to the heterogeneous nature of cancer. Moreover, available anticancer drugs possessed various hurdles, such as drug resistance, insensitivity of cancer cells to drugs, adverse effects and patient inconveniences. Hence, plant-based phytochemicals could be a better substitute for conventional chemotherapy for treatment of cancer due to various properties: lesser adverse effects, action via multiple pathways, economical, etc. Various preclinical studies have demonstrated that a combination of phytochemicals with conventional anticancer drugs is more efficacious than phytochemicals individually to treat cancer because plant-derived compounds have lower anticancer efficacy than conventional anticancer drugs. Moreover, phytochemicals suffer from poor aqueous solubility and reduced bioavailability, which must be resolved for efficacious treatment of cancer. Therefore, nanotechnology-based novel carriers are employed for codelivery of phytochemicals and conventional anticancer drugs for better treatment of cancer. These novel carriers include nanoemulsion, nanosuspension, nanostructured lipid carriers, solid lipid nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, polymeric micelles, dendrimers, metallic nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes that provide various benefits of improved solubility, reduced adverse effects, higher efficacy, reduced dose, improved dosing frequency, reduced drug resistance, improved bioavailability and higher patient compliance. This review summarizes various phytochemicals employed in treatment of cancer, combination therapy of phytochemicals with anticancer drugs and various nanotechnology-based carriers to deliver the combination therapy in treatment of cancer.

Fractionation and Characterization of Triterpenoids from Vaccinium vitis-idaea L. Cuticular Waxes and Their Potential as Anticancer Agents

Fruit and leaf cuticular waxes are valuable source materials for the isolation of triterpenoids that can be applied as natural antioxidants and anticancer agents. The present study aimed at the semi-preparative fractionation of triterpenoids from cuticular wax extracts of Vaccinium vitis-idaea L. (lingonberry) leaves and fruits and the evaluation of their cytotoxic potential. Qualitative and quantitative characterization of obtained extracts and triterpenoid fractions was performed using HPLC-PDA method, followed by complementary analysis by GC-MS. For each fraction, cytotoxic activities towards the human colon adenocarcinoma cell line (HT-29), malignant melanoma cell line (IGR39), clear renal carcinoma cell line (CaKi-1), and normal endothelial cells (EC) were determined using MTT assay. Furthermore, the effect of the most promising samples on cancer spheroid growth and viability was examined. This study allowed us to confirm that particular triterpenoid mixtures from lingonberry waxes may possess stronger cytotoxic activities than crude unpurified extracts. Fractions containing triterpenoid acids plus fernenol, complexes of oleanolic:ursolic acids, and erythrodiol:uvaol were found to be the most potent therapeutic candidates in the management of cancer diseases. The specificity of cuticular wax extracts of lingonberry leaves and fruits, leading to different purity and anticancer potential of obtained counterpart fractions, was also enclosed. These findings contribute to the profitable utilization of lingonberry cuticular waxes and provide considerable insights into the anticancer effects of particular triterpenoids and pharmacological interactions.

Evaluation of Senna tora (L.) Roxb. leaves as source of bioactive molecules with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antibacterial potential

Senna tora (L.) Roxb. is an ethno-medicinal herb used by rural and tribal people of the Satpura region of Madhya Pradesh in India and the Phatthalung Province of Thailand for treating rheumatism, bronchitis, ringworm, itches, leprosy, dyspepsia, liver disorders and heart disorders. It is also used in Chinese and Ayurvedic medicine. This study was conducted to investigate the potential of Senna tora (L.) Roxb. as a source of drug candidates against oxidants, inflammation, and bacterial infection. Preliminary phytochemical screening (PPS) and GC-MS were performed to identify the phytochemicals in the ethyl acetate extract of Senna tora (L.) Roxb. leaves (EAESTL). The in vitro antioxidant activity was assessed by 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH)- and H₂O₂-scavenging tests; the in vitro anti-inflammatory activity was determined by bovine serum albumin (BSA) denaturation and red blood cell (RBC) hemolysis inhibition; and the antibacterial activity was evaluated by agar-well diffusion methods. Cytotoxicity was estimated by Artemia salina larvae lethality, while acute toxicity was evaluated by oral delivery of the extract to mice. In silico antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial activities were predicted by the Prediction of Activity Spectra for Substances (PASS) program. The pharmacokinetics related to ADME and toxicity tests were determined by the admetSAR2 and ADMETlab2 web servers, and drug-able properties were assessed by the SwissADME server. GC-MS detected fifty-nine phytochemicals that support the types of compounds (phenols, flavonoids, tannins, terpenoids, saponins, steroids, alkaloids, glycosides and reducing sugar) identified by phytochemical screening. EAESTL exhibited dose-dependent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial activities without any adverse effects or fluctuations in body weight. The PASS program predicted that the identified phytochemicals have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antibacterial activities. Among 51 phytochemicals, 16 showed good ADME, and 8 fulfilled drug-able properties without toxicity. Altogether, four phytochemicals, viz., benzyl alcohol, 3-(hydroxy-phenyl-methyl)-2,3-dimethyl-octan-4-one, phenylethyl alcohol and 2,6,6-trimethylbicyclo [3.1.1] heptane-3-ol, showed good pharmacokinetics and drug-able properties without toxicity, along with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial activities. The obtained results suggest that Senna tora (L.) Roxb. leaves contain bioactive phytochemicals that have the potential to fight against oxidants, inflammation, and bacterial infection as potential drug candidates.

Sericultural By-Products: The Potential for Alternative Therapy in Cancer Drug Design

Major progress has been made in cancer research; however, cancer remains one of the most important health-related burdens. Sericulture importance is no longer limited to the textile industry, but its by-products, such as silk fibroin or mulberry, exhibit great impact in the cancer research area. Fibroin, the pivotal compound that is found in silk, owns superior biocompatibility and biodegradability, representing one of the most important biomaterials. Numerous studies have reported its successful use as a drug delivery system, and it is currently used to develop three-dimensional tumor models that lead to a better understanding of cancer biology and play a great role in the development of novel antitumoral strategies. Moreover, sericin's cytotoxic effect on various tumoral cell lines has been reported, but also, it has been used as a nanocarrier for target therapeutic agents. On the other hand, mulberry compounds include various bioactive elements that are well known for their antitumoral activities, such as polyphenols or anthocyanins. In this review, the latest progress of using sericultural by-products in cancer therapy is discussed by highlighting their notable impact in developing novel effective drug strategies.

Cardioprotective Effect of Centaurea castriferrei Borbás & Waisb Extract against Doxorubicin-Induced Cardiotoxicity in H9c2 Cells

Doxorubicin (DOX) is one of the most used chemotherapeutic agents in the treatment of various types of cancer. However, a continual problem that is associated with its application in therapeutic regimens is the development of dose-dependent cardiotoxicity. The progression of this process is associated with a range of different mechanisms, but especially with the high level of oxidative stress. The aim of the study was to evaluate the effects of the water and methanol-water extracts from the plant Centaurea castriferrei (CAS) obtained by the ultrasound-assisted extraction method on the DOX-induced cardiotoxicity in the rat embryonic cardiomyocyte cell line H9c2. The H9c2 cells were treated for 48 h with the DOX and water or methanol-water extracts, or a combination (DOX + CAS H2O/CAS MeOH). The MTT assay, cell cycle analysis, and apoptosis detection revealed that both the tested extracts significantly abolished the cytotoxic effect caused by DOX. Moreover, the detection of oxidative stress by the CellROX reagent, the evaluation of the number of AP sites, and the expressions of the genes related to the oxidative stress defense showed substantial reductions in the oxidative stress levels in the H9c2 cells treated with the combination of DOX and CAS H2O/CAS MeOH compared with the DOX administered alone. The tested extracts did not affect the cytotoxic effect of DOX on the MCF-7 breast cancer cell line. The obtained results constitute the basis for further research in the context of the application of C. castriferrei extracts as adjuvants in the therapy regiments of cancer patients treated with DOX.

Preparation of rutin-loaded mesoporous silica nanoparticles and evaluation of its physicochemical, anticancer, and antibacterial properties

BACKGROUND

The studies have shown that rutin has great potential as an anticancer and antimicrobial plant base agent; nevertheless, poor bioavailability and low aqueous solubility of rutin limit its application. One of the beneficial routes to increase the solubility and bioavailability of rutin is the development of nanoparticulate material. This study aimed to assess the anticancer and antibacterial effects of rutin-loaded mesoporous silica nanoparticles (RUT-MSNs).

METHODS

RUT-MSNs were prepared and physicochemically characterized. The cytotoxicity of RUT-MSNs on the HN5 cells as head and neck cancer cells was evaluated. The expression level of apoptosis-related genes such as Bcl-2 and Bax genes were evaluated. In addition, ROS production of RUT-MSNs treated cells was assessed. In addition, minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), biofilm, and attachment inhibitory effects of RUT-MSNs compared with free rutin were assessed against different bacterial strains.

RESULTS

Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) showed mesoporous rod-shaped nanoparticles with an average particle size of less than 100 nm. RUT-MSNs displayed the cytotoxic effect with IC₅₀ of 20.23 µM in 48 h of incubation time (p < 0.05). The elevation in the ratio of Bax/Bcl-2 was displayed within the IC₅₀ concentration of RUT-MSNs in 48 h (p < 0.05). The antibacterial action of rutin was improved by loading rutin in MSNs to the nano-sized range in the MIC test.

CONCLUSION

The anticancer and antibacterial effects of RUT-MSNs were considerably more than rutin. RUT-MSNs inhibited the growth of HN5 cells by inducing apoptosis and producing ROS. These results suggest that RUT-MSNs may be useful in the treatment of cancers and infections.

Phytochemical Screening, Antifungal, and Anticancer Activities of Medicinal Plants Thymelaea Hirsuta, Urginea Maritima, and Plantago Albicans

Ethyl acetate, ethanol, and acetone extracts of the medicinal plants Thymelaea hirsuta L., Urginea maritima L., and Plantago albicans L. (aerial parts) were evaluated for their phytochemical compositions, antimycotic activity against dermatophytes, and antiproliferative activity against different human cancer cell lines. Among them, the ethanolic extracts showed the highest phytochemical contents along with hyperactivities and were then selected for gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy analysis. The Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy analysis confirmed the presence of different characteristic peak values with various functional chemical groups of the active components. However, U. maritima extracts through Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy analysis showed distinctive peaks related to phenolic, amines, amides, aromatic, alkanes, alkyne, cyclopentanone, conjugated aldehyde, nitro, methoxy, uronic acids, aromatic esters, tertiary alcohol or ester, secondary and primary alcohols, aliphatic ether, sulfoxide, vinylidene, and halo compounds. Many bioactive main compounds with reported biological activities were detected by GC/MS (%) in the ethanolic extract of T. hirsuta, U. maritima, and P. albicans. All studied dermatophytes included a diverse set of virulence factors, including phospholipase, protease, keratinase, hemolysis, and melanoid production, all of which play vital roles in dermatophytic infection. Ethanolic extract of P. albicans inhibited the growth of Trichophyton soudanense totally and Trichophyton erinacei in addition to all Microsporum species. In contrast, the ethanolic extract of Trichophyton hirsuta at concentrations of 25 g/mL totally prevented the growth of all Trichophyton species. EtOH extract of U. maritima completely prevented the growth (100% inhibition) of all dermatophytic strains under study at the lowest concentration of 12.5 μg/mL. Scanning electron microscope analysis revealed considerable morphological modifications and structural alterations in dermatophyte species exposed to ethanolic extract of these plants. The viability of HCT-116, HepG-2, MCF-7, and HeLa cell lines was reduced after treatment with the ethanolic extracts of T. hirsuta, U. maritima, and P. albicans individually with IC50 values (10.0, 9.97, 48.5, and 56.24 μg/mL), (26.98, 25.0, 17.11, and 9.52 μg/mL), and (9.32, 7.46, 12.50, and 16.32 μg/mL), respectively. Our work revealed the significance of these traditional ethnomedical plants as potent sources for biologically active pharmaceuticals with potential applicability for the treatment of fungal and cancer diseases.

Lead/Drug Discovery from Natural Resources

Natural products and their derivatives have been shown to be effective drug candidates against various diseases for many years. Over a long period of time, nature has produced an abundant and prosperous source pool for novel therapeutic agents with distinctive structures. Major natural-product-based drugs approved for clinical use include anti-infectives and anticancer agents. This paper will review some natural-product-related potent anticancer, anti-HIV, antibacterial and antimalarial drugs or lead compounds mainly discovered from 2016 to 2022. Structurally typical marine bioactive products are also included. Molecular modeling, machine learning, bioinformatics and other computer-assisted techniques that are very important in narrowing down bioactive core structural scaffolds and helping to design new structures to fight against key disease-associated molecular targets based on available natural products are considered and briefly reviewed.

Tillandsia usneoides Extract Decreases the Primary Tumor in a Murine Breast Cancer Model but Not in Melanoma

The main limits of current antitumor therapies are chemoresistance, relapses, and toxicity that impair patient quality of life. Therefore, the discovery of therapeutic alternatives, such as adjuvants to conventional therapy that modulate the intracellular oxidation state or the immune response, remains a challenge. Owing to traditional medicine, several uses of plants are known, indicating a promising antitumor and immunomodulatory effect. We evaluated the effect of ethanolic extract of T. usneoides in vitro and in vivo in models of 4T1 breast cancer and B16-F10 melanoma. In vitro evaluations with both cell lines showed that the extract has cytotoxic activity and induces apoptotic cell death. However, its effect on ROS production and glucose uptake was opposite. In vivo, only in the 4T1 model, a significant decrease in tumor size was found in animals treated with the extract, accompanied by an increase in dendritic cells and activated CD8⁺ T cells, and a decrease in myeloid-derived suppressor-like cells (MDSC-LC) and Tregs in the tumor microenvironment. These results suggest that T. usneoides extract antagonistically regulates tumor metabolism of 4T1 vs. B16-F10, impacting the tumor microenvironment and effective antitumor immune response, leading to a reduction in 4T1 tumor size but not on B16-F10.

Extracts of Spiraea hypericifolia L. and Spiraea crenata L.: The Phenolic Profile and Biological Activities

The comparative phytochemical analysis in this study revealed differences in the type and levels of phenolic compounds between Spiraea hypericifolia L. and Spiraea crenata L. The compounds in water-ethanol extracts of aerial parts of both species were identified by high-performance liquid chromatography as chlorogenic, gentisic, and cinnamic acids; quercetin; kaempferol; hyperoside; isoquercetin; nicotiflorin; and apigenin. In the extract of S. hypericifolia, p-coumaric acid and luteolin were also found, which were absent in the extract of S. crenata. Such compounds as avicularin, astragalin, and isorhamnetin-3-rutinoside proved to be specific to S. crenata (and were not found in the S. hypericifolia extract). The viability of liver cancer HepG2 cells and breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells significantly decreased after cultivation with the S. crenata extract. In addition, the S. crenata extract showed higher antioxidant activity than the S. hypericifolia extract. It is most likely that these effects can be explained by the higher content of individual flavonoids in the extract of S. crenata. Thus, the extract of S. crenata holds promise for more extensive research on the mechanism of its action on tumor cells.

Recent advances in the therapeutic potential of emodin for human health

Emodin (1,3,8-trihydroxy-6-methylanthraquinone) is a bioactive compound, a natural anthraquinone aglycone, present mainly in herbaceous species of the families Fabaceae, Polygonaceae and Rhamnaceae, with a physiological role in protection against abiotic stress in vegetative tissues. Emodin is mainly used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat sore throats, carbuncles, sores, blood stasis, and damp-heat jaundice. Pharmacological research in the last decade has revealed other potential therapeutic applications such as anticancer, neuroprotective, antidiabetic, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory. The present study aimed to summarize recent studies on bioavailability, preclinical pharmacological effects with evidence of molecular mechanisms, clinical trials and clinical pitfalls, respectively the therapeutic limitations of emodin. For this purpose, extensive searches were performed using the PubMed/Medline, Scopus, Google scholar, TRIP database, Springer link, Wiley and SciFinder databases as a search engines. The in vitro and in vivo studies included in this updated review highlighted the signaling pathways and molecular mechanisms of emodin. Because its bioavailability is low, there are limitations in clinical therapeutic use. In conclusion, for an increase in pharmacotherapeutic efficacy, future studies with carrier molecules to the target, thus opening up new therapeutic perspectives.