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Li Y, Zeng PM, Wu J, Luo ZG. Advances and Applications of Brain Organoids. Neurosci Bull 2023; 39:1703-1716. [PMID: 37222855 PMCID: PMC10603019 DOI: 10.1007/s12264-023-01065-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 04/02/2023] [Indexed: 05/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Understanding the fundamental processes of human brain development and diseases is of great importance for our health. However, existing research models such as non-human primate and mouse models remain limited due to their developmental discrepancies compared with humans. Over the past years, an emerging model, the "brain organoid" integrated from human pluripotent stem cells, has been developed to mimic developmental processes of the human brain and disease-associated phenotypes to some extent, making it possible to better understand the complex structures and functions of the human brain. In this review, we summarize recent advances in brain organoid technologies and their applications in brain development and diseases, including neurodevelopmental, neurodegenerative, psychiatric diseases, and brain tumors. Finally, we also discuss current limitations and the potential of brain organoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Li
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China
| | - Peng-Ming Zeng
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China
| | - Jian Wu
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China
| | - Zhen-Ge Luo
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China.
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2
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Schloo C, Kutscher LM. Modeling brain and neural crest neoplasms with human pluripotent stem cells. Neuro Oncol 2023; 25:1225-1235. [PMID: 36757217 PMCID: PMC10326493 DOI: 10.1093/neuonc/noad034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 02/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Pluripotent stem cells offer unique avenues to study human-specific aspects of disease and are a highly versatile tool in cancer research. Oncogenic processes and developmental programs often share overlapping transcriptomic and epigenetic signatures, which can be reactivated in induced pluripotent stem cells. With the emergence of brain organoids, the ability to recapitulate brain development and structure has vastly improved, making in vitro models more realistic and hence more suitable for biomedical modeling. This review highlights recent research and current challenges in human pluripotent stem cell modeling of brain and neural crest neoplasms, and concludes with a call for more rigorous quality control and for the development of models for rare tumor subtypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cedar Schloo
- Hopp Children’s Cancer Center (KiTZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- Division of Neuroblastoma Genomics, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Lena M Kutscher
- Hopp Children’s Cancer Center (KiTZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- Developmental Origins of Pediatric Cancer Junior Research Group, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
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3
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Dusing M, LaSarge CL, White A, Jerow LG, Gross C, Danzer SC. Neurovascular Development in Pten and Tsc2 Mouse Mutants. eNeuro 2023; 10:ENEURO.0340-22.2023. [PMID: 36759189 PMCID: PMC9953070 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0340-22.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2022] [Revised: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Hyperactivation of the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway is linked to more than a dozen neurologic diseases, causing a range of pathologies, including excess neuronal growth, disrupted neuronal migration, cortical dysplasia, epilepsy and autism. The mTOR pathway also regulates angiogenesis. For the present study, therefore, we queried whether loss of Pten or Tsc2, both mTOR negative regulators, alters brain vasculature in three mouse models: one with Pten loss restricted to hippocampal dentate granule cells [DGC-Pten knock-outs (KOs)], a second with widespread Pten loss from excitatory forebrain neurons (FB-Pten KOs) and a third with focal loss of Tsc2 from cortical excitatory neurons (f-Tsc2 KOs). Total hippocampal vessel length and volume per dentate gyrus were dramatically increased in DGC-Pten knock-outs. DGC-Pten knock-outs had larger dentate gyri overall, however, and when normalized to these larger structures, vessel density was preserved. In addition, tests of blood-brain barrier integrity did not reveal increased permeability. FB-Pten KOs recapitulated the findings in the more restricted DGC-Pten KOs, with increased vessel area, but preserved vessel density. FB-Pten KOs did, however, exhibit elevated levels of the angiogenic factor VegfA. In contrast to findings with Pten, focal loss of Tsc2 from cortical excitatory neurons produced a localized increase in vessel density. Together, these studies demonstrate that hypervascularization is not a consistent feature of mTOR hyperactivation models and suggest that loss of different mTOR pathway regulatory genes exert distinct effects on angiogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary Dusing
- Department of Anesthesia, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229
| | - Candi L LaSarge
- Department of Anesthesia, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229
- Departments of Anesthesia and Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45229
- Center for Pediatric Neuroscience, Cincinnati Children's Hospital, Cincinnati, OH 45229
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45219
| | - Angela White
- Division of Neurology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229
| | - Lilian G Jerow
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45219
| | - Christina Gross
- Division of Neurology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229
- Departments of Anesthesia and Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45229
- Center for Pediatric Neuroscience, Cincinnati Children's Hospital, Cincinnati, OH 45229
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45219
| | - Steve C Danzer
- Department of Anesthesia, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229
- Departments of Anesthesia and Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45229
- Center for Pediatric Neuroscience, Cincinnati Children's Hospital, Cincinnati, OH 45229
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45219
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4
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Li T, Yang Z, Li H, Zhu J, Wang Y, Tang Q, Shi Z. Phospholipase Cγ1 (PLCG1) overexpression is associated with tumor growth and poor survival in IDH wild-type lower-grade gliomas in adult patients. J Transl Med 2022; 102:143-153. [PMID: 34697421 PMCID: PMC8784314 DOI: 10.1038/s41374-021-00682-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2021] [Revised: 09/23/2021] [Accepted: 09/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Gliomas are the most common and recalcitrant intracranial tumors, approximately a quarter of which are classified as lower-grade gliomas (WHO II-III). Although the prognosis of lower-grade gliomas (LGGs) is significantly better than that of higher-grade gliomas, as a highly heterogeneous tumor type, the prognosis of LGGs varies greatly based on the molecular diagnosis. IDH wild-type used to be regarded as a dismal prognostic biomarker in LGGs; however, several studies revealed that IDH wild-type LGGs might not always be equivalent to glioblastoma (WHO IV). Hence, we hypothesize that underlying biological events in LGGs can result in different prognosis. In our study, transcriptome profiling was performed in 24 samples of LGG, and the results showed that the expression of phospholipase Cγ1 (PLCG1) was significantly correlated with IDH1/2 status and patients' clinical outcome. Furthermore, the cancer genome atlas (TCGA) and the Chinese glioma genome atlas (CGGA) databases verified that elevated PLCG1 expression was associated with tumor progression and poor survival in LGG patients. Moreover, PLCG1-targeted siRNA dramatically affected the growth, migration and invasiveness of IDH wild-type LGG cell lines. In in vitro and in vivo experiments, the PLC-targeted drug significantly suppressed the tumor growth of IDH wild-type LGG cell lines in vitro and tumors in mouse models. Taken together, our results demonstrated that higher PLCG1 expression was associated with tumor growth and worse prognosis in IDH wild-type LGGs and PLCG1 could serve as a potential therapeutic target for IDH wild-type LGG patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianwen Li
- Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- National Center for Neurological Disorders, Shanghai, China
- Institute of Neurosurgery, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhipeng Yang
- National Center for Neurological Disorders, Shanghai, China
- Institute of Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Haoyuan Li
- Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- National Center for Neurological Disorders, Shanghai, China
| | - Jingjing Zhu
- National Center for Neurological Disorders, Shanghai, China
- Department of Pathology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Ye Wang
- National Center for Neurological Disorders, Shanghai, China
- Institute of Neurosurgery, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Qisheng Tang
- National Center for Neurological Disorders, Shanghai, China.
- Institute of Neurosurgery, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Zhifeng Shi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.
- National Center for Neurological Disorders, Shanghai, China.
- Institute of Neurosurgery, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Neural Regeneration and Brain Function Restoration, Shanghai, China.
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5
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Hicks WH, Bird CE, Traylor JI, Shi DD, El Ahmadieh TY, Richardson TE, McBrayer SK, Abdullah KG. Contemporary Mouse Models in Glioma Research. Cells 2021; 10:cells10030712. [PMID: 33806933 PMCID: PMC8004772 DOI: 10.3390/cells10030712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Revised: 03/20/2021] [Accepted: 03/20/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite advances in understanding of the molecular pathogenesis of glioma, outcomes remain dismal. Developing successful treatments for glioma requires faithful in vivo disease modeling and rigorous preclinical testing. Murine models, including xenograft, syngeneic, and genetically engineered models, are used to study glioma-genesis, identify methods of tumor progression, and test novel treatment strategies. Since the discovery of highly recurrent isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) mutations in lower-grade gliomas, there is increasing emphasis on effective modeling of IDH mutant brain tumors. Improvements in preclinical models that capture the phenotypic and molecular heterogeneity of gliomas are critical for the development of effective new therapies. Herein, we explore the current status, advancements, and challenges with contemporary murine glioma models.
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Affiliation(s)
- William H. Hicks
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75235, USA; (W.H.H.); (C.E.B.); (J.I.T.); (T.Y.E.A.)
| | - Cylaina E. Bird
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75235, USA; (W.H.H.); (C.E.B.); (J.I.T.); (T.Y.E.A.)
| | - Jeffrey I. Traylor
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75235, USA; (W.H.H.); (C.E.B.); (J.I.T.); (T.Y.E.A.)
| | - Diana D. Shi
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA;
| | - Tarek Y. El Ahmadieh
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75235, USA; (W.H.H.); (C.E.B.); (J.I.T.); (T.Y.E.A.)
| | - Timothy E. Richardson
- Department of Pathology, Glenn Biggs Institute for Alzheimer’s and Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 75229, USA;
| | - Samuel K. McBrayer
- Children’s Medical Center Research Institute, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
- Harrold C. Simmons Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75235, USA
- Correspondence: (S.K.M.); (K.G.A.)
| | - Kalil G. Abdullah
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75235, USA; (W.H.H.); (C.E.B.); (J.I.T.); (T.Y.E.A.)
- Harrold C. Simmons Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75235, USA
- Peter O’Donnell Jr. Brain Institute, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75235, USA
- Correspondence: (S.K.M.); (K.G.A.)
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6
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Tarrant JC, Savickas P, Omodho L, Spinazzi M, Radaelli E. Spontaneous Incidental Brain Lesions in C57BL/6J Mice. Vet Pathol 2019; 57:172-182. [PMID: 31272300 DOI: 10.1177/0300985819859878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Genetically engineered mouse lines on a C57BL/6J background are widely employed as preclinical models to study neurodegenerative human disorders and brain tumors. However, because of the lack of comprehensive data on the spontaneous background neuropathology of the C57BL/6J strain, discriminating between naturally occurring changes and lesions caused by experimental mutations can be challenging. In this context, this study aims at defining the spectrum and frequency of spontaneous brain changes in a large cohort of C57BL/6J mice and their association with specific biological variables, including age and sex. Brains from 203 experimentally naive and clinically unremarkable C57BL/6J mice were collected and analyzed by means of histopathology and immunohistochemistry. Mice ranged in age from 3 to 110 weeks with 89 females, 111 males, and 3 unknowns. Sixteen different spontaneous lesion categories were described in this cohort. Age-related neurodegenerative and/or neuroinflammatory findings represented the most common pathologic changes and included (1) Hirano-like inclusions in the thalamic neurons, (2) neuroaxonal dystrophy in the medulla oblongata, (3) periodic acid-Schiff-positive granular deposits in the neuropil of the hippocampus, and (4) progressive neuroinflammation characterized by microgliosis and astrogliosis. Neoplastic conditions, developmental abnormalities, and circulatory disorders were rarely observed incidental findings. In conclusion, this study describes spontaneous age-related brain lesions of the C57BL/6J mouse and provides a reference for evaluating and interpreting the neuropathological phenotype in genetically engineered mouse models developed and maintained on this congenic background.
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Affiliation(s)
- James C Tarrant
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Patrick Savickas
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Lorna Omodho
- VIB Center for the Biology of Disease and KU Leuven Center for Human Genetics, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Marco Spinazzi
- Centre de Référence des Maladies Neuromusculaires, Service de Neurologie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire d' Angers, Angers, France
| | - Enrico Radaelli
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,VIB Center for the Biology of Disease and KU Leuven Center for Human Genetics, Leuven, Belgium
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7
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Rahrmann EP, Wolf NK, Otto GM, Heltemes-Harris L, Ramsey LB, Shu J, LaRue RS, Linden MA, Rathe SK, Starr TK, Farrar MA, Moriarity BS, Largaespada DA. Sleeping Beauty Screen Identifies RREB1 and Other Genetic Drivers in Human B-cell Lymphoma. Mol Cancer Res 2019; 17:567-582. [PMID: 30355676 DOI: 10.1158/1541-7786.mcr-18-0582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2018] [Revised: 08/13/2018] [Accepted: 10/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Follicular lymphoma and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) are the most common non-Hodgkin lymphomas distinguishable by unique mutations, chromosomal rearrangements, and gene expression patterns. Here, it is demonstrated that early B-cell progenitors express 2',3'-cyclic-nucleotide 3' phosphodiesterase (CNP) and that when targeted with Sleeping Beauty (SB) mutagenesis, Trp53R270H mutation or Pten loss gave rise to highly penetrant lymphoid diseases, predominantly follicular lymphoma and DLBCL. In efforts to identify the genetic drivers and signaling pathways that are functionally important in lymphomagenesis, SB transposon insertions were analyzed from splenomegaly specimens of SB-mutagenized mice (n = 23) and SB-mutagenized mice on a Trp53R270H background (n = 7) and identified 48 and 12 sites with statistically recurrent transposon insertion events, respectively. Comparison with human data sets revealed novel and known driver genes for B-cell development, disease, and signaling pathways: PI3K-AKT-mTOR, MAPK, NFκB, and B-cell receptor (BCR). Finally, functional data indicate that modulating Ras-responsive element-binding protein 1 (RREB1) expression in human DLBCL cell lines in vitro alters KRAS expression, signaling, and proliferation; thus, suggesting that this proto-oncogene is a common mechanism of RAS/MAPK hyperactivation in human DLBCL. IMPLICATIONS: A forward genetic screen identified new genetic drivers of human B-cell lymphoma and uncovered a RAS/MAPK-activating mechanism not previously appreciated in human lymphoid disease. Overall, these data support targeting the RAS/MAPK pathway as a viable therapeutic target in a subset of human patients with DLBCL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric P Rahrmann
- Department of Genetics, Cell Biology, and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota.
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Natalie K Wolf
- Department of Genetics, Cell Biology, and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - George M Otto
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Lynn Heltemes-Harris
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
- Lab Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Division of Hematopathology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Laura B Ramsey
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Division of Hematopathology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Jingmin Shu
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Rebecca S LaRue
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Michael A Linden
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
- Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Susan K Rathe
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Timothy K Starr
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
- Department of Ob-Gyn and Women's Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Michael A Farrar
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
- Lab Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Division of Hematopathology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Branden S Moriarity
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
- Center for Genome Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - David A Largaespada
- Department of Genetics, Cell Biology, and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
- Center for Genome Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
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8
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Beckmann PJ, Larson JD, Larsson AT, Ostergaard JP, Wagner S, Rahrmann EP, Shamsan GA, Otto GM, Williams RL, Wang J, Lee C, Tschida BR, Das P, Dubuc AM, Moriarity BS, Picard D, Wu X, Rodriguez FJ, Rosemarie Q, Krebs RD, Molan AM, Demer AM, Frees MM, Rizzardi AE, Schmechel SC, Eberhart CG, Jenkins RB, Wechsler-Reya RJ, Odde DJ, Huang A, Taylor MD, Sarver AL, Largaespada DA. Sleeping Beauty Insertional Mutagenesis Reveals Important Genetic Drivers of Central Nervous System Embryonal Tumors. Cancer Res 2019; 79:905-917. [PMID: 30674530 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-18-1261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2018] [Revised: 11/07/2018] [Accepted: 12/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Medulloblastoma and central nervous system primitive neuroectodermal tumors (CNS-PNET) are aggressive, poorly differentiated brain tumors with limited effective therapies. Using Sleeping Beauty (SB) transposon mutagenesis, we identified novel genetic drivers of medulloblastoma and CNS-PNET. Cross-species gene expression analyses classified SB-driven tumors into distinct medulloblastoma and CNS-PNET subgroups, indicating they resemble human Sonic hedgehog and group 3 and 4 medulloblastoma and CNS neuroblastoma with FOXR2 activation. This represents the first genetically induced mouse model of CNS-PNET and a rare model of group 3 and 4 medulloblastoma. We identified several putative proto-oncogenes including Arhgap36, Megf10, and Foxr2. Genetic manipulation of these genes demonstrated a robust impact on tumorigenesis in vitro and in vivo. We also determined that FOXR2 interacts with N-MYC, increases C-MYC protein stability, and activates FAK/SRC signaling. Altogether, our study identified several promising therapeutic targets in medulloblastoma and CNS-PNET. SIGNIFICANCE: A transposon-induced mouse model identifies several novel genetic drivers and potential therapeutic targets in medulloblastoma and CNS-PNET.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pauline J Beckmann
- Masonic Cancer Center, Department of Pediatrics, and Center for Genome Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Jon D Larson
- Masonic Cancer Center, Department of Pediatrics, and Center for Genome Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Alex T Larsson
- Masonic Cancer Center, Department of Pediatrics, and Center for Genome Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Jason P Ostergaard
- Masonic Cancer Center, Department of Pediatrics, and Center for Genome Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Sandra Wagner
- Masonic Cancer Center, Department of Pediatrics, and Center for Genome Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Eric P Rahrmann
- Masonic Cancer Center, Department of Pediatrics, and Center for Genome Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota.,Cancer Research UK, Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, England, United Kingdom
| | - Ghaidan A Shamsan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - George M Otto
- Masonic Cancer Center, Department of Pediatrics, and Center for Genome Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota.,Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California
| | - Rory L Williams
- Masonic Cancer Center, Department of Pediatrics, and Center for Genome Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota.,Department of Bioengineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California
| | - Jun Wang
- Tumor Initiation and Maintenance Program, NCI-Designated Cancer Center, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, California
| | - Catherine Lee
- Tumor Initiation and Maintenance Program, NCI-Designated Cancer Center, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, California
| | - Barbara R Tschida
- Masonic Cancer Center, Department of Pediatrics, and Center for Genome Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Paramita Das
- Masonic Cancer Center, Department of Pediatrics, and Center for Genome Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Adrian M Dubuc
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Branden S Moriarity
- Masonic Cancer Center, Department of Pediatrics, and Center for Genome Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Daniel Picard
- Department of Pediatric Neuro-Oncogenomics, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) and German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Heidelberg, Germany.,Department of Pediatric Oncology, Hematology, and Clinical Immunology, Medical Faculty, University Hospital Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Xiaochong Wu
- Division of Neurosurgery, Arthur and Sonia Labatt Brain Tumor Research Center, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - Quincy Rosemarie
- Masonic Cancer Center, Department of Pediatrics, and Center for Genome Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota.,McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Ryan D Krebs
- Masonic Cancer Center, Department of Pediatrics, and Center for Genome Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Amy M Molan
- Masonic Cancer Center, Department of Pediatrics, and Center for Genome Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota.,Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, and Biophysics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Addison M Demer
- Masonic Cancer Center, Department of Pediatrics, and Center for Genome Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Michelle M Frees
- Masonic Cancer Center, Department of Pediatrics, and Center for Genome Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Anthony E Rizzardi
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Stephen C Schmechel
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota.,Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Medicine, Florida State University, Sarasota, Florida
| | - Charles G Eberhart
- Department of Pathology, Ophthalmology and Oncology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Robert B Jenkins
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Mayo Clinic and Foundation, 200 First Street Southwest, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Robert J Wechsler-Reya
- Tumor Initiation and Maintenance Program, NCI-Designated Cancer Center, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, California
| | - David J Odde
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Annie Huang
- Division of Hematology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Michael D Taylor
- Division of Neurosurgery, Arthur and Sonia Labatt Brain Tumor Research Center, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Aaron L Sarver
- Masonic Cancer Center, Department of Pediatrics, and Center for Genome Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - David A Largaespada
- Masonic Cancer Center, Department of Pediatrics, and Center for Genome Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota.
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9
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Lopez Perez R, Nicolay NH, Wolf JC, Frister M, Schmezer P, Weber KJ, Huber PE. DNA damage response of clinical carbon ion versus photon radiation in human glioblastoma cells. Radiother Oncol 2019; 133:77-86. [PMID: 30935585 DOI: 10.1016/j.radonc.2018.12.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2018] [Revised: 12/14/2018] [Accepted: 12/30/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Carbon ion radiotherapy is a promising therapeutic option for glioblastoma patients due to its high physical dose conformity and greater biological effectiveness than photons. However, the biological effects of carbon ion radiation are still incompletely understood. Here, we systematically compared the biological effects of clinically used carbon ion radiation to photon radiation with emphasis on DNA repair. MATERIALS AND METHODS Two human glioblastoma cell lines (U87 and LN229) were irradiated with carbon ions or photons and DNA damage response was systematically analyzed, including clonogenic survival, induction and repair of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), cell cycle arrest and apoptosis or autophagy. γH2AX foci were analyzed by flow cytometry, conventional light microscopy and 3D superresolution microscopy. RESULTS DSBs were repaired delayed and with slower kinetics after carbon ions versus photons. Carbon ions caused stronger and longer-lasting cell cycle delays, predominantly in G2 phase, and a higher rate of apoptosis. Compared to photons, the effectiveness of carbon ions was less cell cycle-dependent. Homologous recombination (HR) appeared to be more important for DSB repair after carbon ions versus photons in phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN)-deficient U87 cells, as opposed to PTEN-proficient LN229 cells. CONCLUSION Carbon ions induced more severe DSB damage than photons, which was repaired less efficiently in both cell lines. Thus, carbon ion radiotherapy may help to overcome resistance mechanisms of glioblastoma associated with DNA repair for example in combination with repair pathway-specific drugs in the context of personalized radiotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramon Lopez Perez
- CCU Molecular and Radiation Oncology, German Cancer Research Center and Department of Radiation Oncology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Germany.
| | - Nils H Nicolay
- CCU Molecular and Radiation Oncology, German Cancer Research Center and Department of Radiation Oncology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Germany; Department of Radiation Oncology, Freiburg University Medical Center, Germany
| | - Jörg-Christian Wolf
- CCU Molecular and Radiation Oncology, German Cancer Research Center and Department of Radiation Oncology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Germany
| | - Moritz Frister
- CCU Molecular and Radiation Oncology, German Cancer Research Center and Department of Radiation Oncology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Germany
| | - Peter Schmezer
- Epigenomics and Cancer Risk Factors, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Klaus-Josef Weber
- CCU Molecular and Radiation Oncology, German Cancer Research Center and Department of Radiation Oncology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Germany
| | - Peter E Huber
- CCU Molecular and Radiation Oncology, German Cancer Research Center and Department of Radiation Oncology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Germany.
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Animal Models in Glioblastoma: Use in Biology and Developing Therapeutic Strategies. ADVANCES IN BIOLOGY AND TREATMENT OF GLIOBLASTOMA 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-56820-1_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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11
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miRNA-regulated cancer stem cells: understanding the property and the role of miRNA in carcinogenesis. Tumour Biol 2016; 37:13039-13048. [DOI: 10.1007/s13277-016-5156-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2016] [Accepted: 07/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
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12
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Dorr C, Janik C, Weg M, Been RA, Bader J, Kang R, Ng B, Foran L, Landman SR, O'Sullivan MG, Steinbach M, Sarver AL, Silverstein KAT, Largaespada DA, Starr TK. Transposon Mutagenesis Screen Identifies Potential Lung Cancer Drivers and CUL3 as a Tumor Suppressor. Mol Cancer Res 2015; 13:1238-47. [PMID: 25995385 PMCID: PMC4543426 DOI: 10.1158/1541-7786.mcr-14-0674-t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2014] [Accepted: 04/30/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Non-small cell lung cancers (NSCLC) harbor thousands of passenger events that hide genetic drivers. Even highly recurrent events in NSCLC, such as mutations in PTEN, EGFR, KRAS, and ALK, are detected, at most, in only 30% of patients. Thus, many unidentified low-penetrant events are causing a significant portion of lung cancers. To detect low-penetrance drivers of NSCLC, a forward genetic screen was performed in mice using the Sleeping Beauty (SB) DNA transposon as a random mutagen to generate lung tumors in a Pten-deficient background. SB mutations coupled with Pten deficiency were sufficient to produce lung tumors in 29% of mice. Pten deficiency alone, without SB mutations, resulted in lung tumors in 11% of mice, whereas the rate in control mice was approximately 3%. In addition, thyroid cancer and other carcinomas, as well as the presence of bronchiolar and alveolar epithelialization, in mice deficient for Pten were also identified. Analysis of common transposon insertion sites identified 76 candidate cancer driver genes. These genes are frequently dysregulated in human lung cancers and implicate several signaling pathways. Cullin3 (Cul3), a member of a ubiquitin ligase complex that plays a role in the oxidative stress response pathway, was identified in the screen and evidence demonstrates that Cul3 functions as a tumor suppressor. IMPLICATIONS This study identifies many novel candidate genetic drivers of lung cancer and demonstrates that CUL3 acts as a tumor suppressor by regulating oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Casey Dorr
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Women's Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota. Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota. Minneapolis Medical Research Foundation, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Callie Janik
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Women's Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Madison Weg
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Women's Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Raha A Been
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota. Department of Comparative and Molecular Biosciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota
| | - Justin Bader
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Ryan Kang
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Women's Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Brandon Ng
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Women's Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Lindsey Foran
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Women's Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Sean R Landman
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - M Gerard O'Sullivan
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota. Comparative Pathology Shared Resource, Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Michael Steinbach
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Aaron L Sarver
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Women's Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | | | - David A Largaespada
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota. Department of Genetic, Cell Biology and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Timothy K Starr
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Women's Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota. Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota. Department of Genetic, Cell Biology and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota.
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13
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Moriarity BS, Otto GM, Rahrmann EP, Rathe SK, Wolf NK, Weg MT, Manlove LA, LaRue RS, Temiz NA, Molyneux SD, Choi K, Holly KJ, Sarver AL, Scott MC, Forster CL, Modiano JF, Khanna C, Hewitt SM, Khokha R, Yang Y, Gorlick R, Dyer MA, Largaespada DA. A Sleeping Beauty forward genetic screen identifies new genes and pathways driving osteosarcoma development and metastasis. Nat Genet 2015; 47:615-24. [PMID: 25961939 DOI: 10.1038/ng.3293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 176] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2014] [Accepted: 04/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Osteosarcomas are sarcomas of the bone, derived from osteoblasts or their precursors, with a high propensity to metastasize. Osteosarcoma is associated with massive genomic instability, making it problematic to identify driver genes using human tumors or prototypical mouse models, many of which involve loss of Trp53 function. To identify the genes driving osteosarcoma development and metastasis, we performed a Sleeping Beauty (SB) transposon-based forward genetic screen in mice with and without somatic loss of Trp53. Common insertion site (CIS) analysis of 119 primary tumors and 134 metastatic nodules identified 232 sites associated with osteosarcoma development and 43 sites associated with metastasis, respectively. Analysis of CIS-associated genes identified numerous known and new osteosarcoma-associated genes enriched in the ErbB, PI3K-AKT-mTOR and MAPK signaling pathways. Lastly, we identified several oncogenes involved in axon guidance, including Sema4d and Sema6d, which we functionally validated as oncogenes in human osteosarcoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Branden S Moriarity
- 1] Department of Pediatrics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA. [2] Center for Genome Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA. [3] Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - George M Otto
- 1] Department of Pediatrics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA. [2] Center for Genome Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA. [3] Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA. [4] Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Eric P Rahrmann
- 1] Department of Pediatrics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA. [2] Center for Genome Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA. [3] Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA. [4] Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Susan K Rathe
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Natalie K Wolf
- 1] Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA. [2] Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Madison T Weg
- 1] Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA. [2] Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Luke A Manlove
- Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Rebecca S LaRue
- 1] Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA. [2] Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Nuri A Temiz
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | | | - Kwangmin Choi
- Division of Experimental Hematology and Cancer Biology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Research Foundation, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Kevin J Holly
- Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Aaron L Sarver
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Milcah C Scott
- 1] Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA. [2] Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Colleen L Forster
- BioNet, Academic Health Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Jaime F Modiano
- 1] Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA. [2] Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA. [3] Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Chand Khanna
- Tumor and Metastasis Biology Section, Pediatric Oncology Branch, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Stephen M Hewitt
- Tissue Array Research Program (TARP), Laboratory of Pathology, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Rama Khokha
- Ontario Cancer Institute, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Yi Yang
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Musculoskeletal Tumor Center, People's Hospital, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Richard Gorlick
- 1] Department of Pediatrics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine and Children's Hospital at Montefiore, Bronx, New York, USA. [2] Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine and Children's Hospital at Montefiore, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - Michael A Dyer
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - David A Largaespada
- 1] Department of Pediatrics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA. [2] Center for Genome Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA. [3] Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA. [4] Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
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14
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Kegelman TP, Hu B, Emdad L, Das SK, Sarkar D, Fisher PB. In vivo modeling of malignant glioma: the road to effective therapy. Adv Cancer Res 2015; 121:261-330. [PMID: 24889534 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-800249-0.00007-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Despite an increased emphasis on developing new therapies for malignant gliomas, they remain among the most intractable tumors faced today as they demonstrate a remarkable ability to evade current treatment strategies. Numerous candidate treatments fail at late stages, often after showing promising preclinical results. This disconnect highlights the continued need for improved animal models of glioma, which can be used to both screen potential targets and authentically recapitulate the human condition. This review examines recent developments in the animal modeling of glioma, from more established rat models to intriguing new systems using Drosophila and zebrafish that set the stage for higher throughput studies of potentially useful targets. It also addresses the versatility of mouse modeling using newly developed techniques recreating human protocols and sophisticated genetically engineered approaches that aim to characterize the biology of gliomagenesis. The use of these and future models will elucidate both new targets and effective combination therapies that will impact on disease management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy P Kegelman
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Bin Hu
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Luni Emdad
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA; VCU Institute of Molecular Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA; VCU Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Swadesh K Das
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA; VCU Institute of Molecular Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Devanand Sarkar
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA; VCU Institute of Molecular Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA; VCU Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Paul B Fisher
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA; VCU Institute of Molecular Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA; VCU Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA.
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15
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Carnero A, Paramio JM. The PTEN/PI3K/AKT Pathway in vivo, Cancer Mouse Models. Front Oncol 2014; 4:252. [PMID: 25295225 PMCID: PMC4172058 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2014.00252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2014] [Accepted: 09/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
When PI3K (phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase) is activated by receptor tyrosine kinases, it phosphorylates PIP2 to generate PIP3 and activates the signaling pathway. Phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome 10 dephosphorylates PIP3 to PIP2, and thus, negatively regulates the pathway. AKT (v-akt murine thymoma viral oncogene homolog; protein kinase B) is activated downstream of PIP3 and mediates physiological processes. Furthermore, substantial crosstalk exists with other signaling networks at all levels of the PI3K pathway. Because of its diverse array, gene mutations, and amplifications and also as a consequence of its central role in several signal transduction pathways, the PI3K-dependent axis is frequently activated in many tumors and is an attractive therapeutic target. The preclinical testing and analysis of these novel therapies requires appropriate and well-tailored systems. Mouse models in which this pathway has been genetically modified have been essential in understanding the role that this pathway plays in the tumorigenesis process. Here, we review cancer mouse models in which the PI3K/AKT pathway has been genetically modified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amancio Carnero
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla (IBiS), Hospital Universitario Virgen del Rocio/CSIC/Universidad de Sevilla , Seville , Spain
| | - Jesus M Paramio
- Molecular Oncology Unit, Division of Biomedicine, CIEMAT , Madrid , Spain ; Oncogenomics Unit, Biomedical Research Institute, "12 de Octubre" University Hospital , Madrid , Spain
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16
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McNeill RS, Schmid RS, Bash RE, Vitucci M, White KK, Werneke AM, Constance BH, Huff B, Miller CR. Modeling astrocytoma pathogenesis in vitro and in vivo using cortical astrocytes or neural stem cells from conditional, genetically engineered mice. J Vis Exp 2014:e51763. [PMID: 25146643 DOI: 10.3791/51763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Current astrocytoma models are limited in their ability to define the roles of oncogenic mutations in specific brain cell types during disease pathogenesis and their utility for preclinical drug development. In order to design a better model system for these applications, phenotypically wild-type cortical astrocytes and neural stem cells (NSC) from conditional, genetically engineered mice (GEM) that harbor various combinations of floxed oncogenic alleles were harvested and grown in culture. Genetic recombination was induced in vitro using adenoviral Cre-mediated recombination, resulting in expression of mutated oncogenes and deletion of tumor suppressor genes. The phenotypic consequences of these mutations were defined by measuring proliferation, transformation, and drug response in vitro. Orthotopic allograft models, whereby transformed cells are stereotactically injected into the brains of immune-competent, syngeneic littermates, were developed to define the role of oncogenic mutations and cell type on tumorigenesis in vivo. Unlike most established human glioblastoma cell line xenografts, injection of transformed GEM-derived cortical astrocytes into the brains of immune-competent littermates produced astrocytomas, including the most aggressive subtype, glioblastoma, that recapitulated the histopathological hallmarks of human astrocytomas, including diffuse invasion of normal brain parenchyma. Bioluminescence imaging of orthotopic allografts from transformed astrocytes engineered to express luciferase was utilized to monitor in vivo tumor growth over time. Thus, astrocytoma models using astrocytes and NSC harvested from GEM with conditional oncogenic alleles provide an integrated system to study the genetics and cell biology of astrocytoma pathogenesis in vitro and in vivo and may be useful in preclinical drug development for these devastating diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert S McNeill
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina School of Medicine
| | - Ralf S Schmid
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina School of Medicine
| | - Ryan E Bash
- Division of Neuropathology, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina School of Medicine
| | - Mark Vitucci
- Curriculum in Genetics and Molecular Biology, University of North Carolina School of Medicine
| | - Kristen K White
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina School of Medicine
| | - Andrea M Werneke
- Division of Neuropathology, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina School of Medicine
| | - Brian H Constance
- Biological and Biomedical Sciences Program, University of North Carolina School of Medicine
| | - Byron Huff
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Emory University School of Medicine
| | - C Ryan Miller
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina School of Medicine; Division of Neuropathology, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina School of Medicine; Department of Neurology, Neurosciences Center, University of North Carolina School of Medicine;
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17
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Janbazian L, Karamchandani J, Das S. Mouse models of glioblastoma: lessons learned and questions to be answered. J Neurooncol 2014; 118:1-8. [PMID: 24522719 DOI: 10.1007/s11060-014-1401-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2013] [Accepted: 01/31/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Glioblastoma is the most common primary brain tumour in adults. While many patients achieve disease remission following treatment with surgical resection, radiation therapy and chemotherapy, this remission is brief and invariably followed by tumour recurrence and progression. Recent work using mouse models of the disease, coupled with data generated by The Cancer Genome Atlas, have given us new insights into the mechanisms that underlie gliomagenesis and result in glioblastoma heterogeneity. These findings suggest that the treatment of glioblastoma will require a more nuanced understanding of their biology and the employment of targeted therapeutic approaches. In this review, we will summarize the current state of mouse modeling in glioma, with a focus on how these models may inform our understanding of this disease and its treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loury Janbazian
- Arthur and Sonia Labatt Brain Tumour Research Centre, Hospital for SickKids, University of Toronto, 30 Bond St, Toronto, ON, M5B 1W8, Canada
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18
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Mouse models of cancer: Sleeping Beauty transposons for insertional mutagenesis screens and reverse genetic studies. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2014; 27:86-95. [PMID: 24468652 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2014.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2013] [Revised: 11/01/2013] [Accepted: 01/07/2014] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The genetic complexity and heterogeneity of cancer has posed a problem in designing rationally targeted therapies effective in a large proportion of human cancer. Genomic characterization of many cancer types has provided a staggering amount of data that needs to be interpreted to further our understanding of this disease. Forward genetic screening in mice using Sleeping Beauty (SB) based insertional mutagenesis is an effective method for candidate cancer gene discovery that can aid in distinguishing driver from passenger mutations in human cancer. This system has been adapted for unbiased screens to identify drivers of multiple cancer types. These screens have already identified hundreds of candidate cancer-promoting mutations. These can be used to develop new mouse models for further study, which may prove useful for therapeutic testing. SB technology may also hold the key for rapid generation of reverse genetic mouse models of cancer, and has already been used to model glioblastoma and liver cancer.
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19
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Co-targeting the MAPK and PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathways in two genetically engineered mouse models of schwann cell tumors reduces tumor grade and multiplicity. Oncotarget 2014; 5:1502-14. [PMID: 24681606 PMCID: PMC4039227 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.1609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors (MPNSTs) are soft tissue sarcomas that occur spontaneously, or from benign plexiform neurofibromas, in the context of the genetic disorder Neurofibromatosis Type 1 (NF1). The current standard treatment includes surgical resection, high-dose chemotherapy, and/or radiation. To date, most targeted therapies have failed to demonstrate effectiveness against plexiform neurofibromas and MPNSTs. Recently, several studies suggested that the mTOR and MAPK pathways are involved in the formation and progression of MPNSTs. Everolimus (RAD001) inhibits the mTOR and is currently FDA approved for several types of solid tumors. PD-0325901 (PD-901) inhibits MEK, a component of the MAPK pathway, and is currently in clinical trials. Here, we show in vitro than MPNST cell lines are more sensitive to inhibition of cellular growth by Everolimus and PD-901 than immortalized human Schwann cells. In combination, these drugs synergistically inhibit cell growth and induce apoptosis. In two genetically engineered mouse models of MPNST formation, modeling both sporadic and NF1-associated MPNSTs, Everolimus, or PD-901 treatment alone each transiently reduced tumor burden and size, and extended lifespan. However, prolonged treatment of each single agent resulted in the development of resistance and reactivation of target pathways. Combination therapy using Everolimus and PD-901 had synergistic effects on reducing tumor burden and size, and increased lifespan. Combination therapy allowed persistent and prolonged reduction in signaling through both pathways. These data suggest that co-targeting mTOR and MEK may be effective in patients with sporadic or NF1-associated MPNSTs.
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20
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Lee DY, Gutmann DH. Cancer stem cells and brain tumors: uprooting the bad seeds. Expert Rev Anticancer Ther 2014; 7:1581-90. [DOI: 10.1586/14737140.7.11.1581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM), the most common brain malignancy, remains fatal with no effective treatment. Analyses of common aberrations in GBM suggest major regulatory pathways associated with disease etiology. However, 90% of GBMs are diagnosed at an advanced stage (primary GBMs), providing no access to early disease stages for assessing disease progression events. As such, both understanding of disease mechanisms and the development of biomarkers and therapeutics for effective disease management are limited. Here, we describe an adult-inducible astrocyte-specific system in genetically engineered mice that queries causation in disease evolution of regulatory networks perturbed in human GBM. Events yielding disease, both engineered and spontaneous, indicate ordered grade-specific perturbations that yield high-grade astrocytomas (anaplastic astrocytomas and GBMs). Impaired retinoblastoma protein RB tumor suppression yields grade II histopathology. Additional activation of v-Ki-ras2 Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene homolog (KRAS) network drives progression to grade III disease, and further inactivation of phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) yields GBM. Spontaneous missense mutation of tumor suppressor Trp53 arises subsequent to KRAS activation, but before grade III progression. The stochastic appearance of mutations identical to those observed in humans, particularly the same spectrum of p53 amino acid changes, supports the validity of engineered lesions and the ensuing interpretations of etiology. Absence of isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 (IDH1) mutation, asymptomatic low grade disease, and rapid emergence of GBM combined with a mesenchymal transcriptome signature reflect characteristics of primary GBM and provide insight into causal relationships.
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22
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Xiao H, Liu M. Atypical protein kinase C in cell motility. Cell Mol Life Sci 2013; 70:3057-66. [PMID: 23096778 PMCID: PMC11113714 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-012-1192-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2012] [Revised: 09/03/2012] [Accepted: 10/08/2012] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Cell motility is defined as cell movement in the three-dimensional space leading to repositioning of the cell. Atypical protein kinase C (aPKC, including ζ and λ/ι) are a subfamily of PKC. Different from classic PKC and novel PKC, the activation of atypical PKC is not dependent on diacylglycerol or calcium. PKCζ can be activated by lipid components, such as phosphatidylinositols, phosphatidic acid, arachidonic acid, and ceramide. Both phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-trisphosphate and PDK1 are necessary for the complete and stable activation of PKCζ. Atypical PKC is involved in the regulation of cell polarization, directional sensing, formation of filopodia, and cell motility. It is essential for migration and invasion of multiple cancer cell types. Particularly, atypical PKC has been found in the regulation of the motility of hematopoietic cells. It also participates in the regulation of proteolytic activity of podosomes and invadopodia. It has been found that atypical PKC can work coordinately with other PKC subfamily members and other signaling pathways. Research on the roles of atypical PKC in cell motility may lead to new therapeutic strategies for cancer and other diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helan Xiao
- Latner Thoracic Surgery Research Laboratories, Toronto General Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada.
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23
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Henriquez NV, Forshew T, Tatevossian R, Ellis M, Richard-Loendt A, Rogers H, Jacques TS, Reitboeck PG, Pearce K, Sheer D, Grundy RG, Brandner S. Comparative expression analysis reveals lineage relationships between human and murine gliomas and a dominance of glial signatures during tumor propagation in vitro. Cancer Res 2013; 73:5834-44. [PMID: 23887970 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-13-1299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Brain tumors are thought to originate from stem/progenitor cell populations that acquire specific genetic mutations. Although current preclinical models have relevance to human pathogenesis, most do not recapitulate the histogenesis of the human disease. Recently, a large series of human gliomas and medulloblastomas were analyzed for genetic signatures of prognosis and therapeutic response. Using a mouse model system that generates three distinct types of intrinsic brain tumors, we correlated RNA and protein expression levels with human brain tumors. A combination of genetic mutations and cellular environment during tumor propagation defined the incidence and phenotype of intrinsic murine tumors. Importantly, in vitro passage of cancer stem cells uniformly promoted a glial expression profile in culture and in brain tumors. Gene expression profiling revealed that experimental gliomas corresponded to distinct subclasses of human glioblastoma, whereas experimental supratentorial primitive neuroectodermal tumors (sPNET) correspond to atypical teratoid/rhabdoid tumor (AT/RT), a rare childhood tumor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nico V Henriquez
- Authors' Affiliations: Division of Neuropathology, Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, University College London (UCL) Institute of Neurology; Blizard Institute, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London; Department of Histopathology, Neural Development Unit, and UCL Genomics, UCL Institute of Child Health, Great Ormond Street Hospital, London; and Children's Brain Tumour Research Centre, Queen's Medical Centre, Nottingham, United Kingdom
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24
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Vitucci M, Karpinich NO, Bash RE, Werneke AM, Schmid RS, White KK, McNeill RS, Huff B, Wang S, Van Dyke T, Miller CR. Cooperativity between MAPK and PI3K signaling activation is required for glioblastoma pathogenesis. Neuro Oncol 2013; 15:1317-29. [PMID: 23814263 DOI: 10.1093/neuonc/not084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Glioblastoma (GBM) genomes feature recurrent genetic alterations that dysregulate core intracellular signaling pathways, including the G1/S cell cycle checkpoint and the MAPK and PI3K effector arms of receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) signaling. Elucidation of the phenotypic consequences of activated RTK effectors is required for the design of effective therapeutic and diagnostic strategies. METHODS Genetically defined, G1/S checkpoint-defective cortical murine astrocytes with constitutively active Kras and/or Pten deletion mutations were used to systematically investigate the individual and combined roles of these 2 RTK signaling effectors in phenotypic hallmarks of glioblastoma pathogenesis, including growth, migration, and invasion in vitro. A novel syngeneic orthotopic allograft model system was used to examine in vivo tumorigenesis. RESULTS Constitutively active Kras and/or Pten deletion mutations activated both MAPK and PI3K signaling. Their combination led to maximal growth, migration, and invasion of G1/S-defective astrocytes in vitro and produced progenitor-like transcriptomal profiles that mimic human proneural GBM. Activation of both RTK effector arms was required for in vivo tumorigenesis and produced highly invasive, proneural-like GBM. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that cortical astrocytes can be transformed into GBM and that combined dysregulation of MAPK and PI3K signaling revert G1/S-defective astrocytes to a primitive gene expression state. This genetically-defined, immunocompetent model of proneural GBM will be useful for preclinical development of MAPK/PI3K-targeted, subtype-specific therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Vitucci
- Corresponding Author: C. Ryan Miller, MD, PhD, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, 6109B Neurosciences Research Building, Campus Box 7250, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7250.
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Vertebrate animal models of glioma: understanding the mechanisms and developing new therapies. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2013; 1836:158-65. [PMID: 23618720 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2013.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2013] [Revised: 04/14/2013] [Accepted: 04/15/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Glioblastoma Multiforme (GBM) is recognized as one of the most deadly cancers characterized by cellular atypia, severe necrosis, and high rate of angiogenesis. In this review, we discuss a diversified group of GBM xenograft models and compare them with the genetically engineered mouse (GEM) model systems. Next, we describe common genetic defects observed in GBM and numerous GEM models that recapitulate these abnormalities. Finally, we focus on the clinical value of other vertebrate animal models such as the canine model by examining their contributions to GBM research.
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Conditional Inactivation of Pten with EGFR Overexpression in Schwann Cells Models Sporadic MPNST. Sarcoma 2012; 2012:620834. [PMID: 23319880 PMCID: PMC3539440 DOI: 10.1155/2012/620834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2012] [Accepted: 11/02/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The genetic mechanisms involved in the transformation from a benign neurofibroma to a malignant sarcoma in patients with neurofibromatosis-type-1- (NF1-)associated or sporadic malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors (MPNSTs) remain unclear. It is hypothesized that many genetic changes are involved in transformation. Recently, it has been shown that both phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) play important roles in the initiation of peripheral nerve sheath tumors (PNSTs). In human MPNSTs, PTEN expression is often reduced, while EGFR expression is often induced. We tested if these two genes cooperate in the evolution of PNSTs. Transgenic mice were generated carrying conditional floxed alleles of Pten, and EGFR was expressed under the control of the 2',3'-cyclic nucleotide 3'phosphodiesterase (Cnp) promoter and a desert hedgehog (Dhh) regulatory element driving Cre recombinase transgenic mice (Dhh-Cre). Complete loss of Pten and EGFR overexpression in Schwann cells led to the development of high-grade PNSTs. In vitro experiments using immortalized human Schwann cells demonstrated that loss of PTEN and overexpression of EGFR cooperate to increase cellular proliferation and anchorage-independent colony formation. This mouse model can rapidly recapitulate PNST onset and progression to high-grade PNSTs, as seen in sporadic MPNST patients.
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Rankin SL, Zhu G, Baker SJ. Review: insights gained from modelling high-grade glioma in the mouse. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2012; 38:254-70. [PMID: 22035336 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2990.2011.01231.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
High-grade gliomas (HGGs) are devastating primary brain tumours with poor outcomes. Advances towards effective treatments require improved understanding of pathogenesis and relevant model systems for preclinical testing. Mouse models for HGG provide physiologically relevant experimental systems for analysis of HGG pathogenesis. There are advantages and disadvantages to the different methodologies used to generate such models, including implantation, genetic engineering or somatic gene transfer approaches. This review highlights how mouse models have provided insights into the contribution of specific mutations to tumour initiation, progression and phenotype, the influence of tumour micro-environment, and the analysis of cell types that can give rise to glioma. HGGs are a heterogeneous group of tumours, and the complexity of diverse mutations within common signalling pathways as well as the developmental and cell-type context of transformation contributes to the overall diversity of glioma phenotype. Enhanced understanding of the mutations and cell types giving rise to HGG, along with the ability to design increasingly complex mouse models that more closely simulate the process of human gliomagenesis will continue to provide improved experimental systems for dissecting mechanisms of disease pathogenesis and for preclinical testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- S L Rankin
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
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28
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Keng VW, Rahrmann EP, Watson AL, Tschida BR, Moertel CL, Jessen WJ, Rizvi TA, Collins MH, Ratner N, Largaespada DA. PTEN and NF1 inactivation in Schwann cells produces a severe phenotype in the peripheral nervous system that promotes the development and malignant progression of peripheral nerve sheath tumors. Cancer Res 2012; 72:3405-13. [PMID: 22700876 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-11-4092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The genetic evolution from a benign neurofibroma to a malignant sarcoma in patients with neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) syndrome remains unclear. Schwann cells and/or their precursor cells are believed to be the primary pathogenic cell in neurofibromas because they harbor biallelic neurofibromin 1 (NF1) gene mutations. However, the phosphatase and tensin homolog (Pten) and neurofibromatosis 1 (Nf1) genes recently were found to be comutated in high-grade peripheral nerve sheath tumors (PNST) in mice. In this study, we created transgenic mice that lack both Pten and Nf1 in Schwann cells and Schwann cell precursor cells to validate the role of these two genes in PNST formation in vivo. Haploinsufficiency or complete loss of Pten dramatically accelerated neurofibroma development and led to the development of higher grade PNSTs in the context of Nf1 loss. Pten dosage, together with Nf1 loss, was sufficient for the progression from low-grade to high-grade PNSTs. Genetic analysis of human malignant PNSTs (MPNST) also revealed downregulation of PTEN expression, suggesting that Pten-regulated pathways are major tumor-suppressive barriers to neurofibroma progression. Together, our findings establish a novel mouse model that can rapidly recapitulate the onset of human neurofibroma tumorigenesis and the progression to MPNSTs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent W Keng
- Masonic Cancer Center, Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, USA
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Cloughesy TF, Mischel PS. New strategies in the molecular targeting of glioblastoma: how do you hit a moving target? Clin Cancer Res 2011; 17:6-11. [PMID: 21208902 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-09-2268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Cancer is a molecularly complex, genomically unstable disease. Selection for drug-resistant mutations, activation of feedback loops, and upregulation of cross-talk pathways provide escape routes by which cancer cells maintain signal flux through critical downstream effectors to promote therapeutic resistance. Attempts to target signal transduction pathways in cancer may therefore require investigators to aim at a moving target. We need to anticipate the routes of resistance to guide the selection of drugs that will lead to durable therapeutic response. In this New Strategies article, we discuss the challenges imposed by the complexity and adaptive capacity of cancer and suggest potential new diagnostic strategies to more effectively guide targeted cancer therapy. We focus on glioblastoma, the most common malignant primary brain tumor of adults. Glioblastoma is a model for a pathway-driven, molecularly heterogeneous cancer for which new genomic insights obtained through The Cancer Genome Atlas are ripe for integration with functional biology and incorporation into new molecular diagnostic assays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy F Cloughesy
- Department of Neurology, David Geffen UCLA School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California 90095-1732, USA
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30
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Abstract
INTRODUCTION High-grade gliomas are among the most deadly of all cancer types and are also the most common malignant primary tumors of the CNS. Large-scale studies that have analyzed the transcriptional and translational expression patterns of glioma have found that the majority of these tumors can be categorized based on specific genomic anomalies. Genetically engineered mouse models (GEMMs) that represent the molecular subgroups of the human disease harbor a variety of molecular alterations that have been proven to drive gliomagenesis. These models provide an opportunity to assess the effects of novel therapies in the presence of specific molecular defects. Research using GEMMs, which are associated with these subclasses, allow researchers to assess drug efficacy by subclass. AREAS COVERED In this review, the authors discuss the histological and molecular characteristics of malignant gliomas, the therapies used to treat them and the animal models that closely recapitulate them. EXPERT OPINION It is likely that GEMMs that recapitulate the molecular character of human tumors will provide a more accurate prediction of individuals who may be more or less likely to benefit from specific therapies. This knowledge can be then used to drive clinical trial design and this, in turn, could lead to better therapeutic outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terreia S Jones
- University of Tennessee Health Science Center , Department of Clinical Pharmacy , 19 S. Manassas, Memphis, TN, 39103 , USA +901 448 1136 ; +901 448 6064 ;
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Nieto-Sampedro M, Valle-Argos B, Gómez-Nicola D, Fernández-Mayoralas A, Nieto-Díaz M. Inhibitors of Glioma Growth that Reveal the Tumour to the Immune System. Clin Med Insights Oncol 2011; 5:265-314. [PMID: 22084619 PMCID: PMC3201112 DOI: 10.4137/cmo.s7685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Treated glioblastoma patients survive from 6 to 14 months. In the first part of this review, we describe glioma origins, cancer stem cells and the genomic alterations that generate dysregulated cell division, with enhanced proliferation and diverse response to radiation and chemotherapy. We review the pathways that mediate tumour cell proliferation, neo-angiogenesis, tumor cell invasion, as well as necrotic and apoptotic cell death. Then, we examine the ability of gliomas to evade and suppress the host immune system, exhibited at the levels of antigen recognition and immune activation, limiting the effective signaling between glioma and host immune cells.The second part of the review presents current therapies and their drawbacks. This is followed by a summary of the work of our laboratory during the past 20 years, on oligosaccharide and glycosphingolipid inhibitors of astroblast and astrocytoma division. Neurostatins, the O-acetylated forms of gangliosides GD1b and GT1b naturally present in mammalian brain, are cytostatic for normal astroblasts, but cytotoxic for rat C6 glioma cells and human astrocytoma grades III and IV, with ID50 values ranging from 200 to 450 nM. The inhibitors do not affect neurons or fibroblasts up to concentrations of 4 μM or higher.At least four different neurostatin-activated, cell-mediated antitumoral processes, lead to tumor destruction: (i) inhibition of tumor neovascularization; (ii) activation of microglia; (iii) activation of natural killer (NK) cells; (iv) activation of cytotoxic lymphocytes (CTL). The enhanced antigenicity of neurostatin-treated glioma cells, could be related to their increased expression of connexin 43. Because neurostatins and their analogues show specific activity and no toxicity for normal cells, a clinical trial would be the logical next step.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Nieto-Sampedro
- Instituto Cajal de Neurobiología, CSIC, 28002 Madrid, Spain
- Hospital Nacional de Parapléjicos, SESCAM, 45071 Toledo, Spain
| | - Beatriz Valle-Argos
- Instituto Cajal de Neurobiología, CSIC, 28002 Madrid, Spain
- Hospital Nacional de Parapléjicos, SESCAM, 45071 Toledo, Spain
| | - Diego Gómez-Nicola
- Instituto Cajal de Neurobiología, CSIC, 28002 Madrid, Spain
- Hospital Nacional de Parapléjicos, SESCAM, 45071 Toledo, Spain
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32
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Genetically engineered mouse models of diffuse gliomas. Brain Res Bull 2011; 88:72-9. [PMID: 21684324 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2011.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2011] [Accepted: 06/05/2011] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Over the last decade, genetically engineered mouse models have been extensively used to dissect the genetic requirements for neoplastic initiation and progression of diffuse gliomas. While these models faithfully recapitulate the histopathological features of human gliomas, comparative genomic analyses are increasingly being utilized to comprehensively assess their fidelity to recently identified molecular subtypes of these tumors. Future progress with these models will rely on incorporating insights not only from oncogenomics studies of cancer, but also from the developmental neuroscience and stem cell biology fields to design accurate and experimentally tractable models for use in translational cancer research, particularly for experimental therapeutics studies of molecularly defined subtypes of gliomas.
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Lei L, Sonabend AM, Guarnieri P, Soderquist C, Ludwig T, Rosenfeld S, Bruce JN, Canoll P. Glioblastoma models reveal the connection between adult glial progenitors and the proneural phenotype. PLoS One 2011; 6:e20041. [PMID: 21625383 PMCID: PMC3100315 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0020041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2011] [Accepted: 04/11/2011] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tumor heterogeneity is a major obstacle for finding effective treatment of Glioblastoma (GBM). Based on global expression analysis, GBM can be classified into distinct subtypes: Proneural, Neural, Classical and Mesenchymal. The signatures of these different tumor subtypes may reflect the phenotypes of cells giving rise to them. However, the experimental evidence connecting any specific subtype of GBM to particular cells of origin is lacking. In addition, it is unclear how different genetic alterations interact with cells of origin in determining tumor heterogeneity. This issue cannot be addressed by studying end-stage human tumors. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS To address this issue, we used retroviruses to deliver transforming genetic lesions to glial progenitors in adult mouse brain. We compared the resulting tumors to human GBM. We found that different initiating genetic lesions gave rise to tumors with different growth rates. However all mouse tumors closely resembled the human Proneural GBM. Comparative analysis of these mouse tumors allowed us to identify a set of genes whose expression in humans with Proneural GBM correlates with survival. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE This study offers insights into the relationship between adult glial progenitors and Proneural GBM, and allows us to identify molecular alterations that lead to more aggressive tumor growth. In addition, we present a new preclinical model that can be used to test treatments directed at a specific type of GBM in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang Lei
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York,
New York, United States of America
- Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University, New
York, New York, United States of America
| | - Adam M. Sonabend
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Columbia University, New York, New
York, United States of America
| | - Paolo Guarnieri
- Biomedical Informatics Shared Resources, Bioinformatics Division,
Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America
- Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University, New
York, New York, United States of America
| | - Craig Soderquist
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York,
New York, United States of America
| | - Thomas Ludwig
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York,
New York, United States of America
- Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University, New
York, New York, United States of America
| | - Steven Rosenfeld
- Department of Neurology, Columbia University, New York, New York, United
States of America
- Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University, New
York, New York, United States of America
| | - Jeffrey N. Bruce
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Columbia University, New York, New
York, United States of America
- Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University, New
York, New York, United States of America
| | - Peter Canoll
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York,
New York, United States of America
- Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University, New
York, New York, United States of America
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Kurian KM. The impact of neural stem cell biology on CNS carcinogenesis and tumor types. PATHOLOGY RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2011; 2011:685271. [PMID: 21660278 PMCID: PMC3108550 DOI: 10.4061/2011/685271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2011] [Accepted: 03/14/2011] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The incidence of gliomas is on the increase, according to epidemiological data. This increase is a conundrum because the brain is in a privileged protected site behind the blood-brain barrier, and therefore partially buffered from environmental factors. In addition the brain also has a very low proliferative potential compared with other parts of the body. Recent advances in neural stem cell biology have impacted on our understanding of CNS carcinogenesis and tumor types. This article considers the cancer stem cell theory with regard to CNS cancers, whether CNS tumors arise from human neural stem cells and whether glioma stem cells can be reprogrammed.
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Affiliation(s)
- K M Kurian
- Department of Neuropathology, Frenchay Hospital, Bristol BS16 1LE, UK
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35
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Chow LM, Endersby R, Zhu X, Rankin S, Qu C, Zhang J, Broniscer A, Ellison DW, Baker SJ. Cooperativity within and among Pten, p53, and Rb pathways induces high-grade astrocytoma in adult brain. Cancer Cell 2011; 19:305-16. [PMID: 21397855 PMCID: PMC3060664 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2011.01.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 203] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2010] [Revised: 11/23/2010] [Accepted: 01/10/2011] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in the PTEN, TP53, and RB1 pathways are obligate events in the pathogenesis of human glioblastomas. We induced various combinations of deletions in these tumor suppressors in astrocytes and neural precursors in mature mice, resulting in astrocytomas ranging from grade III to grade IV (glioblastoma). There was selection for mutation of multiple genes within a pathway, shown by somatic amplifications of genes in the PI3K or Rb pathway in tumors in which Pten or Rb deletion was an initiating event. Despite multiple mutations within PI3K and Rb pathways, elevated Mapk activation was not consistent. Gene expression profiling revealed striking similarities to subclasses of human diffuse astrocytoma. Astrocytomas were found within and outside of proliferative niches in the adult brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lionel M.L. Chow
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105
| | - Raelene Endersby
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105
| | - Xiaoyan Zhu
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105
| | - Sherri Rankin
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105
| | - Chunxu Qu
- Hartwell Center for Bioinformatics and Biotechnology, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105
| | - Junyuan Zhang
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105
| | - Alberto Broniscer
- Department of Oncology, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105
| | - David W. Ellison
- Department of Pathology, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105
| | - Suzanne J. Baker
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105
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Hambardzumyan D, Parada LF, Holland EC, Charest A. Genetic modeling of gliomas in mice: new tools to tackle old problems. Glia 2011; 59:1155-68. [PMID: 21305617 DOI: 10.1002/glia.21142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2010] [Accepted: 12/17/2010] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The recently published comprehensive profiles of genomic alterations in glioma have led to a refinement in our understanding of the molecular events that underlie this cancer. Using state-of-the-art genomic tools, several laboratories have created and characterized accurate genetically engineered mouse models of glioma based on specific genetic alterations observed in human tumors. These in vivo brain tumor models faithfully recapitulate the histopathology, etiology, and biology of gliomas and provide an exceptional experimental system to discover novel therapeutic targets and test therapeutic agents. This review focuses on mouse models of glioma with a special emphasis on genetically engineered models developed around key genetic glioma signature mutations in the PDGFR, EGFR, and NF1 genes and pathways. The resulting animal models have provided insight into many fundamental and mechanistic facets of tumor initiation, maintenance and resistance to therapeutic intervention and will continue to do so in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dolores Hambardzumyan
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Cleveland Clinic, Ohio, USA.
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Charles N, Holland EC. The perivascular niche microenvironment in brain tumor progression. Cell Cycle 2010; 9:3012-21. [PMID: 20714216 DOI: 10.4161/cc.9.15.12710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma, the most frequent and aggressive malignant brain tumor, has a very poor prognosis of approximately 1-year. The associated aggressive phenotype and therapeutic resistance of glioblastoma is postulated to be due to putative brain tumor stem-like cells (BTSC). The best hope for improved therapy lies in the ability to understand the molecular biology that controls BTSC behavior. The tumor vascular microenvironment of brain tumors has emerged as important regulators of BTSC behavior. Emerging data have identified the vascular microenvironment as home to a multitude of cell types engaged in various signaling that work collectively to foster a supportive environment for BTSCs. Characterization of the signaling pathways and intercellular communication between resident cell types in the microvascular niche of brain tumors is critical to the identification of potential BTSC-specific targets for therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikki Charles
- Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
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Abstract
Malignant glial tumors are the most aggressive and difficult to treat neoplasms arising in the brain. More than 22,000 people in the United States are diagnosed with a malignant glioma annually, and most will die within the first two years from diagnosis. Traditionally, gliomas have been categorized based solely on tumor histological features. However, expression studies have found that molecular signatures can be used to categorize these tumors into subclasses that more effectively predict patient outcome. The heterogeneity between tumors as well as within individual tumors makes understanding the molecular aspects of tumorigenesis extremely important. Several genetically engineered mouse models (GEMMs) of glioma have been developed that recapitulate the molecular alterations observed in the human disease. GEMMs of glioma have allowed researchers to more closely study the role of cancer stem cells (CSC) in gliomagenesis as well as the relevance of signaling within the CSC microenvironment. Knowledge of the underlying molecular signatures of malignant glial tumors coupled with the existence of a variety of human disease-relevant GEMMs of this tumor type provide researchers and clinicians with valuable resources for the discovery of new drug targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terreia S Jones
- Departments of Clinical Pharmacy, Neurosurgery, and Center for Cancer Research, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA
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Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common primary tumor of the CNS in the adult. It is characterized by exponential growth and diffuse invasiveness. Among many different genetic alterations in GBM, e.g., mutations of PTEN, EGFR, p16/p19 and p53 and their impact on aberrant signaling have been thoroughly characterized. A major barrier to develop a common therapeutic strategy is founded on the fact that each tumor has its individual genetic fingerprint. Nonetheless, the PI3K pathway may represent a common therapeutic target to most GBM due to its central position in the signaling cascade affecting proliferation, apoptosis and migration. The read-out of blocking PI3K alone or in combination with other cancer pathways should mainly focus, besides the cytostatic effect, on cell death induction since sublethal damage may induce selection of more malignant clones. Targeting more than one pathway instead of a single agent approach may be more promising to kill GBM cells.
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Achanta P, Sedora Roman NI, Quiñones-Hinojosa A. Gliomagenesis and the use of neural stem cells in brain tumor treatment. Anticancer Agents Med Chem 2010; 10:121-30. [PMID: 20184546 DOI: 10.2174/187152010790909290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2009] [Accepted: 12/29/2009] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The role of neural stem cells (NSCs) in both the physiological and pathological processes in the brain has been refined through recent studies within the neuro-oncological field. Alterations in NSC regulatory mechanisms may be fundamental for the development and progression of malignant gliomas. A subpopulation of cells within the tumor known as brain tumor stem cells (BTSCs) have been shown to share key properties with NSCs. The BTSC hypothesis has significantly contributed to a potential understanding as to why brain tumors hold such dismal prognosis. On the other hand, the normal NSCs possess the capacity to migrate extensively towards the tumor bulk as well as to lingering neoplastic regions of the brain. The tropism of NSCs towards brain tumors may provide an additional tool for the treatment of brain cancer. The creation of potential therapies through the use of NSCs has been studied and includes the delivery of gene products to specific locations of the central nervous system selectively targeting malignant brain tumor cells and maximizing the efficiency of their delivery. Here, the proposed mechanisms of how brain tumors emerge, the molecular pathways interrupted in NSC pathogenesis and the most recent preclinical results in the use of NSCs for glioma treatment are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pragathi Achanta
- Department of Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, CRB II, Room 272, 1550 Orleans Street, Baltimore, MD 21231, USA
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Akhavan D, Cloughesy TF, Mischel PS. mTOR signaling in glioblastoma: lessons learned from bench to bedside. Neuro Oncol 2010; 12:882-9. [PMID: 20472883 PMCID: PMC2940679 DOI: 10.1093/neuonc/noq052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Phosphatidyl-inositol-3 kinases (PI3Ks) constitute a family of intracellular lipid kinases that are frequently hyperactivated in glioblastoma. The PI3K complex links growth factor signaling with cellular proliferation, differentiation, metabolism, and survival. Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) acts both as a downstream effector and upstream regulator of PI3K, thus highlighting its importance in glioblastoma. This review highlights laboratory and clinical evidence of mTOR's role in glioblastoma. Mechanisms of escape from mTOR inhibition are also discussed, as well as future clinical strategies of mTOR inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Akhavan
- The David Geffen UCLA School of Medicine, 10833 Le Conte Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1732, USA
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Huse JT, Holland EC. Targeting brain cancer: advances in the molecular pathology of malignant glioma and medulloblastoma. Nat Rev Cancer 2010; 10:319-31. [PMID: 20414201 DOI: 10.1038/nrc2818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 530] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Malignant brain tumours continue to be the cause of a disproportionate level of morbidity and mortality across a wide range of individuals. The most common variants in the adult and paediatric populations - malignant glioma and medulloblastoma, respectively - have been the subject of increasingly intensive research over the past two decades that has led to considerable advances in the understanding of their basic biology and pathogenesis. This Review summarizes these developments in the context of the evolving notion of molecular pathology and discusses the implications that this work has on the design of new treatment regimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason T Huse
- Departments of Pathology, 408 East 69th Street (Z1304), New York, NY 10065, USA
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Abstract
Alterations in various developmental pathways are common themes in cancer. The early B-cell factors (EBF) are a family of four highly conserved DNA-binding transcription factors with an atypical zinc-finger and helix-loop-helix motif. They are involved in the differentiation and maturation of several cell lineages including B-progenitor lymphoblasts, neuronal precursors, and osteoblast progenitors. During B-cell development, EBF1 is required for the expression of Pax5, an essential factor for the production of antibody-secreting cells. Accumulating evidence indicates that genomic deletion of the EBF1 gene contributes to the pathogenesis, drug resistance, and relapse of B-progenitor acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). Epigenetic silencing and genomic deletion of the EBF3 locus in chromosome 10q are very frequent in glioblastoma (GBM). Strikingly, the frequency of EBF3 loss in GBM is similar to that of the loss of Pten, a key suppressor of gliomagenesis. Cancer-specific somatic mutations were detected in EBF3 in GBM and in both EBF1 and EBF3 in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma. These missense mutations occur in the DNA-binding domain or the conserved IPT/TIG domain, suggesting that they might disrupt the functions of these two proteins. Functional studies revealed that EBF3 represses the expression of genes required for cell proliferation [e.g., cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK)] and survival (e.g., Mcl-1 and Daxx) but activates those involved in cell cycle arrest (e.g., p21 and p27), leading to growth suppression and apoptosis. Therefore, EBFs represent new tumor suppressors whose inactivation blocks normal development and contributes to tumorigenesis of diverse types of human cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daiqing Liao
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, UF Shands Cancer Center, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-3633, USA.
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Jacques TS, Swales A, Brzozowski MJ, Henriquez NV, Linehan JM, Mirzadeh Z, O' Malley C, Naumann H, Alvarez-Buylla A, Brandner S. Combinations of genetic mutations in the adult neural stem cell compartment determine brain tumour phenotypes. EMBO J 2009; 29:222-35. [PMID: 19927122 DOI: 10.1038/emboj.2009.327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2009] [Accepted: 10/14/2009] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
It has been suggested that intrinsic brain tumours originate from a neural stem/progenitor cell population in the subventricular zone of the post-natal brain. However, the influence of the initial genetic mutation on the phenotype as well as the contribution of mature astrocytes to the formation of brain tumours is still not understood. We deleted Rb/p53, Rb/p53/PTEN or PTEN/p53 in adult subventricular stem cells; in ectopically neurografted stem cells; in mature parenchymal astrocytes and in transplanted astrocytes. We found that only stem cells, but not astrocytes, gave rise to brain tumours, independent of their location. This suggests a cell autonomous mechanism that enables stem cells to generate brain tumours, whereas mature astrocytes do not form brain tumours in adults. Recombination of PTEN/p53 gave rise to gliomas whereas deletion of Rb/p53 or Rb/p53/PTEN generated primitive neuroectodermal tumours (PNET), indicating an important role of an initial Rb loss in driving the PNET phenotype. Our study underlines an important role of stem cells and the relevance of initial genetic mutations in the pathogenesis and phenotype of brain tumours.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas S Jacques
- Neural Development Unit, UCL-Institute of Child Health and Department of Histopathology, Great Ormond Street Hospital, London, UK
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Sughrue ME, Yang I, Kane AJ, Rutkowski MJ, Fang S, James CD, Parsa AT. Immunological considerations of modern animal models of malignant primary brain tumors. J Transl Med 2009; 7:84. [PMID: 19814820 PMCID: PMC2768693 DOI: 10.1186/1479-5876-7-84] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2009] [Accepted: 10/08/2009] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent advances in animal models of glioma have facilitated a better understanding of biological mechanisms underlying gliomagenesis and glioma progression. The limitations of existing therapy, including surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy, have prompted numerous investigators to search for new therapeutic approaches to improve quantity and quality of survival from these aggressive lesions. One of these approaches involves triggering a tumor specific immune response. However, a difficulty in this approach is the the scarcity of animal models of primary CNS neoplasms which faithfully recapitulate these tumors and their interaction with the host's immune system. In this article, we review the existing methods utilized to date for modeling gliomas in rodents, with a focus on the known as well as potential immunological aspects of these models. As this review demonstrates, many of these models have inherent immune system limitations, and the impact of these limitations on studies on the influence of pre-clinical therapeutics testing warrants further attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael E Sughrue
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA.
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Origins and clinical implications of the brain tumor stem cell hypothesis. J Neurooncol 2009; 93:49-60. [PMID: 19430882 DOI: 10.1007/s11060-009-9856-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2008] [Accepted: 03/16/2009] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
With the advent of the cancer stem cell hypothesis, the field of cancer research has experienced a revolution in how we think of and approach cancer. The discovery of "brain tumor stem cells" has offered an explanation for several long-standing conundrums on why brain tumors behave the way they do to treatment. Despite the great amount of research that has been done in order to understand the molecular aspects of malignant gliomas, the prognosis of brain tumors remains dismal. The slow progress in extending the survival of patients with malignant CNS neoplasms is very likely due to poor understanding of the cell of origin in these tumors. This review article discusses the progress in our understanding of brain tumor stem cells as the cell of origin in brain cancers. We review the different proposed mechanisms of how brain tumor stem cells may originate, the intracellular pathways disrupted in the pathogenesis of BTSCs, the molecular markers used to identify BTSCs, the molecular mechanisms of cancer initiation and progression, and finally the clinical implications of this research.
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Wiesner SM, Decker SA, Larson JD, Ericson K, Forster C, Gallardo JL, Long C, Demorest ZL, Zamora EA, Low WC, SantaCruz K, Largaespada DA, Ohlfest JR. De novo induction of genetically engineered brain tumors in mice using plasmid DNA. Cancer Res 2009; 69:431-9. [PMID: 19147555 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-08-1800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Spontaneous mouse models of cancer show promise to more accurately recapitulate human disease and predict clinical efficacy. Transgenic mice or viral vectors have been required to generate spontaneous models of glioma, a lethal brain tumor, because nonviral gene transfer is typically transient. To overcome this constraint, we used the Sleeping Beauty transposable element to achieve chromosomal integration of human oncogenes into endogenous brain cells of immunocompetent mice. Genetically engineered, spontaneous brain tumors were induced with plasmid DNA in a matter of weeks in three separate mouse strains. The phenotype of tumors was influenced by the combination of oncogenes delivered, resembling human astrocytoma or glioblastoma in the majority of cases. At least five different genes can be cotransfected simultaneously including reporters, allowing measurement of tumor viability by in vivo imaging. This model can accelerate brain tumor research in a variety of ways such as generation of "humanized" models for high throughput drug screening and candidate gene validation with exceptional speed and flexibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen M Wiesner
- Departments of Pediatrics, Center for Allied Health Programs, Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, and Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, USA
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Huse JT, Holland EC. Genetically engineered mouse models of brain cancer and the promise of preclinical testing. Brain Pathol 2009; 19:132-43. [PMID: 19076778 PMCID: PMC2659383 DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3639.2008.00234.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent improvements in the understanding of brain tumor biology have opened the door to a number of rational therapeutic strategies targeting distinct oncogenic pathways. The successful translation of such “designer drugs” to clinical application depends heavily on effective and expeditious screening methods in relevant disease models. By recapitulating both the underlying genetics and the characteristic tumor‐stroma microenvironment of brain cancer, genetically engineered mouse models (GEMMs) may offer distinct advantages over cell culture and xenograft systems in the preclinical testing of promising therapies. This review focuses on recently developed GEMMs for both glioma and medulloblastoma, and discusses their potential use in preclinical trials. Examples showcasing the use of GEMMs in the testing of molecularly targeted therapeutics are given, and relevant topics, such as stem cell biology, in vivo imaging technology and radiotherapy, are also addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason T Huse
- Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10021, USA
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Renner O, Blanco-Aparicio C, Carnero A. Genetic modelling of the PTEN/AKT pathway in cancer research. Clin Transl Oncol 2009; 10:618-27. [PMID: 18940742 DOI: 10.1007/s12094-008-0262-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The focus on targeted therapies has been fuelled by extensive research on molecular pathways and their role in tumorigenesis. Novel models of human cancer have been created to evaluate the role of specific genes in the different stages of cancer. Currently, mouse modelling of human cancer is possible through the expression of oncogenes, specific genetic mutations or the inactivation of tumour suppressor genes, and these models have begun to provide us with an understanding of the molecular pathways involved in tumour initiation and progression at the physiological level. Additionally, these mouse models serve as an excellent system to evaluate the efficacy of currently developed molecular targeted therapies and identify new potential targets for future therapies. The PTEN/AKT pathway is implicated in signal transduction through tyrosine kinase receptors and heterotrimeric G protein-linked receptors. Deregulation of the PTEN/AKT pathway is a common event in human cancer. Despite the abundant literature, the physiological role of each element of the pathway has begun to be uncovered thanks to genetically engineered mice. This review will summarise some of the key animal models which have helped us to understand this signalling network and its contribution to tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Renner
- Experimental Therapeutics Programme, Spanish National Cancer Centre (CNIO), Madrid, Spain
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Canoll P, Goldman JE. The interface between glial progenitors and gliomas. Acta Neuropathol 2008; 116:465-77. [PMID: 18784926 PMCID: PMC2759726 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-008-0432-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2008] [Revised: 08/29/2008] [Accepted: 08/29/2008] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The mammalian brain and spinal cord contain heterogeneous populations of cycling, immature cells. These include cells with stem cell-like properties as well as progenitors in various stages of early glial differentiation. This latter population is distributed widely throughout gray and white matter and numerically represents an extremely large cell pool. In this review, we discuss the possibility that the glial progenitors that populate the adult CNS are one source of gliomas. Indeed, the marker phenotypes, morphologies, and migratory properties of cells in gliomas strongly resemble glial progenitors in many ways. We review briefly some salient features of normal glial development and then examine the similarities and differences between normal progenitors and cells in gliomas, focusing on the phenotypic plasticity of glial progenitors and the responses to growth factors in promoting proliferation and migration of normal and glioma cells, and discussing known mutational changes in gliomas in the context of how these might affect the proliferative and migratory behaviors of progenitors. Finally, we will discuss the "cancer stem cell" hypothesis in light of the possibility that glial progenitors can generate gliomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Canoll
- Department of Pathology, Division of Neuropathology, Columbia University, 630 W. 168th St., New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - James E. Goldman
- Department of Pathology, Division of Neuropathology, Columbia University, 630 W. 168th St., New York, NY 10032, USA
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