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Aktary Z, Raymond JH, Pouteaux M, Delmas V, Petit V, Larue L. Derivation and Use of Cell Lines from Mouse Models of Melanoma. J Invest Dermatol 2023; 143:538-544.e2. [PMID: 36958885 DOI: 10.1016/j.jid.2023.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Revised: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 01/07/2023] [Indexed: 03/25/2023]
Abstract
The establishment of consistent genetically modified mouse melanoma models and cell lines is of paramount importance for prevention and treatment. In this study, we review the different mouse melanoma cell lines that have been established. After careful molecular characterization of the established mouse melanoma cell lines, modification of the genome, microenvironment, or even the environment using appropriate in cellulo and in vivo assays may reveal novel genetic and nongenetic changes. These murine melanoma cell lines with defined genetic mutations allow the testing of innovative therapies based on chemistry, physics, and biology using alternative methods. In addition to the fundamental aspects, these results are important for humans because of the relevance of these murine melanoma cell lines to human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zackie Aktary
- INSERM U1021, Normal and Pathological Development of Melanocytes, Institut Curie, PSL Research University, Orsay, France; CNRS UMR3347, Paris-Sud University, University Paris-Saclay, Orsay, France.
| | - Jeremy H Raymond
- INSERM U1021, Normal and Pathological Development of Melanocytes, Institut Curie, PSL Research University, Orsay, France; CNRS UMR3347, Paris-Sud University, University Paris-Saclay, Orsay, France
| | - Marie Pouteaux
- INSERM U1021, Normal and Pathological Development of Melanocytes, Institut Curie, PSL Research University, Orsay, France; CNRS UMR3347, Paris-Sud University, University Paris-Saclay, Orsay, France
| | - Véronique Delmas
- INSERM U1021, Normal and Pathological Development of Melanocytes, Institut Curie, PSL Research University, Orsay, France; CNRS UMR3347, Paris-Sud University, University Paris-Saclay, Orsay, France
| | - Valérie Petit
- INSERM U1021, Normal and Pathological Development of Melanocytes, Institut Curie, PSL Research University, Orsay, France; CNRS UMR3347, Paris-Sud University, University Paris-Saclay, Orsay, France
| | - Lionel Larue
- INSERM U1021, Normal and Pathological Development of Melanocytes, Institut Curie, PSL Research University, Orsay, France; CNRS UMR3347, Paris-Sud University, University Paris-Saclay, Orsay, France.
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Baker SJ, Poulikakos PI, Irie HY, Parekh S, Reddy EP. CDK4: a master regulator of the cell cycle and its role in cancer. Genes Cancer 2022; 13:21-45. [PMID: 36051751 PMCID: PMC9426627 DOI: 10.18632/genesandcancer.221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2022] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The cell cycle is regulated in part by cyclins and their associated serine/threonine cyclin-dependent kinases, or CDKs. CDK4, in conjunction with the D-type cyclins, mediates progression through the G1 phase when the cell prepares to initiate DNA synthesis. Although Cdk4-null mutant mice are viable and cell proliferation is not significantly affected in vitro due to compensatory roles played by other CDKs, this gene plays a key role in mammalian development and cancer. This review discusses the role that CDK4 plays in cell cycle control, normal development and tumorigenesis as well as the current status and utility of approved small molecule CDK4/6 inhibitors that are currently being used as cancer therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stacey J. Baker
- Department of Oncological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Levy Place, NY 10029, USA
| | - Poulikos I. Poulikakos
- Department of Oncological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Levy Place, NY 10029, USA
- Tisch Cancer Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Levy Place, NY 10029, USA
| | - Hanna Y. Irie
- Department of Oncological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Levy Place, NY 10029, USA
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Levy Place, NY 10029, USA
| | - Samir Parekh
- Tisch Cancer Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Levy Place, NY 10029, USA
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Levy Place, NY 10029, USA
| | - E. Premkumar Reddy
- Department of Oncological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Levy Place, NY 10029, USA
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Levy Place, NY 10029, USA
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Ferguson B, Handoko HY, Mukhopadhyay P, Chitsazan A, Balmer L, Morahan G, Walker GJ. Different genetic mechanisms mediate spontaneous versus UVR-induced malignant melanoma. eLife 2019; 8:e42424. [PMID: 30681412 PMCID: PMC6428585 DOI: 10.7554/elife.42424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2018] [Accepted: 01/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Genetic variation conferring resistance and susceptibility to carcinogen-induced tumorigenesis is frequently studied in mice. We have now turned this idea to melanoma using the collaborative cross (CC), a resource of mouse strains designed to discover genes for complex diseases. We studied melanoma-prone transgenic progeny across seventy CC genetic backgrounds. We mapped a strong quantitative trait locus for rapid onset spontaneous melanoma onset to Prkdc, a gene involved in detection and repair of DNA damage. In contrast, rapid onset UVR-induced melanoma was linked to the ribosomal subunit gene Rrp15. Ribosome biogenesis was upregulated in skin shortly after UVR exposure. Mechanistically, variation in the 'usual suspects' by which UVR may exacerbate melanoma, defective DNA repair, melanocyte proliferation, or inflammatory cell infiltration, did not explain melanoma susceptibility or resistance across the CC. Instead, events occurring soon after exposure, such as dysregulation of ribosome function, which alters many aspects of cellular metabolism, may be important.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blake Ferguson
- Drug Discovery GroupQIMR Berghofer Medical Research InstituteHerstonAustralia
| | - Herlina Y Handoko
- Drug Discovery GroupQIMR Berghofer Medical Research InstituteHerstonAustralia
| | - Pamela Mukhopadhyay
- Drug Discovery GroupQIMR Berghofer Medical Research InstituteHerstonAustralia
| | - Arash Chitsazan
- Drug Discovery GroupQIMR Berghofer Medical Research InstituteHerstonAustralia
| | - Lois Balmer
- Centre for Diabetes ResearchHarry Perkins Institute of Medical ResearchPerthAustralia
- School of Medical and Health SciencesEdith Cowan UniversityJoondalupAustralia
| | - Grant Morahan
- Centre for Diabetes ResearchHarry Perkins Institute of Medical ResearchPerthAustralia
| | - Graeme J Walker
- Drug Discovery GroupQIMR Berghofer Medical Research InstituteHerstonAustralia
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Potez M, Trappetti V, Bouchet A, Fernandez-Palomo C, Güç E, Kilarski WW, Hlushchuk R, Laissue J, Djonov V. Characterization of a B16-F10 melanoma model locally implanted into the ear pinnae of C57BL/6 mice. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0206693. [PMID: 30395629 PMCID: PMC6218054 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0206693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2018] [Accepted: 10/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The common experimental use of B16-F10 melanoma cells focuses on exploring their metastatic potential following intravenous injection into mice. In this study, B16-F10 cells are used to develop a primary tumor model by implanting them directly into the ears of C57BL/6J mice. The model represents a reproducible and easily traceable tool for local tumor growth and for making additional in vivo observations, due to the localization of the tumors. This model is relatively simple and involves (i) surgical opening of the ear skin, (ii) removal of a square-piece of cartilage followed by (iii) the implantation of tumor cells with fibrin gel. The remodeling of the fibrin gel within the cartilage chamber, accompanying tumor proliferation, results in the formation of blood vessels, lymphatics and tissue matrix that can be readily distinguished from the pre-existing skin structures. Moreover, this method avoids the injection-enforced artificial spread of cells into the pre-existing lymphatic vessels. The tumors have a highly reproducible exponential growth pattern with a tumor doubling time of around 1.8 days, reaching an average volume of 85mm3 16 days after implantation. The melanomas are densely cellular with proliferative indices of between 60 and 80%. The induced angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis resulted in the development of well-vascularized tumors. Different populations of immunologically active cells were also present in the tumor; the population of macrophages decreases with time while the population of T cells remained quasi constant. The B16-F10 tumors in the ear frequently metastasized to the cervical lymph nodes, reaching an incidence of 75% by day 16. This newly introduced B16-F10 melanoma model in the ear is a powerful tool that provides a new opportunity to study the local tumor growth and metastasis, the associated angiogenesis, lymphangiogenesis and tumor immune responses. It could potentially be used to test different treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marine Potez
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | | | - Audrey Bouchet
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | | | - Esra Güç
- Institute of Bioengineering and Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Witold W. Kilarski
- Institute of Bioengineering and Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | | | - Jean Laissue
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Valentin Djonov
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
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Chagani S, Wang R, Carpenter EL, Löhr CV, Ganguli-Indra G, Indra AK. Ablation of epidermal RXRα in cooperation with activated CDK4 and oncogenic NRAS generates spontaneous and acute neonatal UVB induced malignant metastatic melanomas. BMC Cancer 2017; 17:736. [PMID: 29121869 PMCID: PMC5679438 DOI: 10.1186/s12885-017-3714-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2016] [Accepted: 10/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Understanding the underlying molecular mechanisms involved in the formation of cutaneous malignant melanoma is critical for improved diagnosis and treatment. Keratinocytic nuclear receptor Retinoid X Receptor α (RXRα) has a protective role against melanomagenesis and is involved in the regulation of keratinocyte and melanocyte homeostasis subsequent acute ultraviolet (UV) irradiation. METHODS We generated a trigenic mouse model system (RXRα ep-/- | Tyr-NRAS Q61K | CDK4 R24C/R24C ) harboring an epidermal knockout of Retinoid X Receptor α (RXRα ep-/- ), combined with oncogenic NRAS Q61K (constitutively active RAS) and activated CDK4 R24C/R24C (constitutively active CDK4). Those mice were subjected to a single neonatal dose of UVB treatment and the role of RXR α was evaluated by characterizing the molecular and cellular changes that took place in the untreated and UVB treated trigenic RXRα ep-/- mice compared to the control mice with functional RXRα. RESULTS Here we report that the trigenic mice develops spontaneous melanoma and exposure to a single neonatal UVB treatment reduces the tumor latency in those mice compared to control mice with functional RXRα. Melanomas from the trigenic RXRα ep-/- mice are substantial in size, show increased proliferation, exhibit increased expression of malignant melanoma markers and exhibit enhanced vascularization. Altered expression of several biomarkers including increased expression of activated AKT, p21 and cyclin D1 and reduced expression of pro-apoptotic marker BAX was observed in the tumor adjacent normal (TAN) skin of acute ultraviolet B treated trigenic RXRα ep-/- mice. Interestingly, we observed a significant increase in p21 and Cyclin D1 in the TAN skin of un-irradiated trigenic RXRα ep-/- mice, suggesting that those changes might be consequences of loss of functional RXRα in the melanoma microenvironment. Loss of RXRα in the epidermal keratinocytes in combination with oncogenic NRAS Q61K and CDK4 R24C/R24C mutations in trigenic mice led to significant melanoma invasion into the draining lymph nodes as compared to controls with functional RXRα. CONCLUSIONS Our study demonstrates the protective role of keratinocytic RxRα in (1) suppressing spontaneous and acute UVB-induced melanoma, and (2) preventing progression of the melanoma to malignancy in the presence of driver mutations like activated CDK4 R24C/R24C and oncogenic NRAS Q61K .
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharmeen Chagani
- Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, OSU, Corvallis, 97331, OR, USA
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, OSU, Corvallis, 97331, OR, USA
| | - Rong Wang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, OSU, Corvallis, 97331, OR, USA
- Linus Pauling Institute, OSU, Corvallis, OR, USA
| | - Evan L Carpenter
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, OSU, Corvallis, 97331, OR, USA
| | - Christiane V Löhr
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, 97331, USA
| | - Gitali Ganguli-Indra
- Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, OSU, Corvallis, 97331, OR, USA
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, OSU, Corvallis, 97331, OR, USA
- Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health & Science University (OHSU), Portland, 97239, OR, USA
| | - Arup K Indra
- Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, OSU, Corvallis, 97331, OR, USA.
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, OSU, Corvallis, 97331, OR, USA.
- Linus Pauling Institute, OSU, Corvallis, OR, USA.
- Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health & Science University (OHSU), Portland, 97239, OR, USA.
- Department of Dermatology, OHSU, Portland, 97239, OR, USA.
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Mouse models of UV-induced melanoma: genetics, pathology, and clinical relevance. J Transl Med 2017; 97:698-705. [PMID: 28092363 PMCID: PMC5514606 DOI: 10.1038/labinvest.2016.155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2016] [Revised: 12/14/2016] [Accepted: 12/15/2016] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Melanocytes, a neural crest cell derivative, produce pigment to protect keratinocytes from ultraviolet radiation (UVR). Although melanocytic lesions such as nevi and cutaneous malignant melanomas are known to be associated with sun exposure, the role of UVR in oncogenesis is complex and has yet to be clearly elucidated. UVR appears to have a direct mutational role in inducing or promoting melanoma formation as well as an indirect role through microenvironmental changes. Recent advances in the modeling of human melanoma in animals have built platforms upon which prospective studies can begin to investigate these questions. This review will focus exclusively on genetically engineered mouse models of UVR-induced melanoma. The role that UVR has in mouse models depends on multiple factors, including the waveband, timing, and dose of UVR, as well as the nature of the oncogenic agent(s) driving melanomagenesis in the model. Work in the field has examined the role of neonatal and adult UVR, interactions between UVR and common melanoma oncogenes, the role of sunscreen in preventing melanoma, and the effect of UVR on immune function within the skin. Here we describe relevant mouse models and discuss how these models can best be translated to the study of human skin and cutaneous melanoma.
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Co-targeting BRAF and cyclin dependent kinases 4/6 for BRAF mutant cancers. Pharmacol Ther 2014; 149:139-49. [PMID: 25550229 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2014.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2014] [Accepted: 12/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Selective BRAF inhibitors have demonstrated significant clinical benefit in melanoma patients harboring oncogenic BRAF mutations. However, the majority of such patients either exhibit de novo resistance from the beginning of the treatment or acquire resistance and eventually relapse. Despite tremendous progress in understanding the underlying mechanisms of resistance, overcoming resistance to BRAF inhibitors remains an unmet medical need. Constitutive activation of cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK) 4/6 as a result of genetic aberrations including CDKN2A inactivation and CCND1 amplification is common across many cancer types and frequently co-occurs with oncogenic BRAF mutations. Also, cyclin D1 overexpression is a common feature of resistance to BRAF inhibitors. Here we review CDK4/6 as a therapeutic target in BRAF mutant cancers and discuss emerging evidence supporting a critical role of cyclin D1/CDK4/6 axis in de novo and acquired resistance to BRAF inhibitors. Co-targeting CDK4/6 and BRAF could be a more effective therapy to augment clinical response of BRAF inhibitors and overcome resistance in BRAF mutant cancers.
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Yadav V, Burke TF, Huber L, Van Horn RD, Zhang Y, Buchanan SG, Chan EM, Starling JJ, Beckmann RP, Peng SB. The CDK4/6 inhibitor LY2835219 overcomes vemurafenib resistance resulting from MAPK reactivation and cyclin D1 upregulation. Mol Cancer Ther 2014; 13:2253-63. [PMID: 25122067 DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-14-0257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
B-RAF selective inhibitors, including vemurafenib, were recently developed as effective therapies for melanoma patients with B-RAF V600E mutation. However, most patients treated with vemurafenib eventually develop resistance largely due to reactivation of MAPK signaling. Inhibitors of MAPK signaling, including MEK1/2 inhibitor trametinib, failed to show significant clinical benefit in patients with acquired resistance to vemurafenib. Here, we describe that cell lines with acquired resistance to vemurafenib show reactivation of MAPK signaling and upregulation of cyclin D1 and are sensitive to inhibition of LY2835219, a selective inhibitor of cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) 4/6. LY2835219 was demonstrated to inhibit growth of melanoma A375 tumor xenografts and delay tumor recurrence in combination with vemurafenib. Furthermore, we developed an in vivo vemurafenib-resistant model by continuous administration of vemurafenib in A375 xenografts. Consistently, we found that MAPK is reactivated and cyclin D1 is elevated in vemurafenib-resistant tumors, as well as in the resistant cell lines derived from these tumors. Importantly, LY2835219 exhibited tumor growth regression in a vemurafenib-resistant model. Mechanistic analysis revealed that LY2835219 induced apoptotic cell death in a concentration-dependent manner in vemurafenib-resistant cells whereas it primarily mediated cell-cycle G1 arrest in the parental cells. Similarly, RNAi-mediated knockdown of cyclin D1 induced significantly higher rate of apoptosis in the resistant cells than in parental cells, suggesting that elevated cyclin D1 activity is important for the survival of vemurafenib-resistant cells. Altogether, we propose that targeting cyclin D1-CDK4/6 signaling by LY2835219 is an effective strategy to overcome MAPK-mediated resistance to B-RAF inhibitors in B-RAF V600E melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vipin Yadav
- Oncology Discovery Research, Lilly Research Laboratories, Indianapolis, Indiana
| | - Teresa F Burke
- Oncology Discovery Research, Lilly Research Laboratories, Indianapolis, Indiana
| | - Lysiane Huber
- Oncology Discovery Research, Lilly Research Laboratories, Indianapolis, Indiana
| | - Robert D Van Horn
- Oncology Discovery Research, Lilly Research Laboratories, Indianapolis, Indiana
| | - Youyan Zhang
- Oncology Discovery Research, Lilly Research Laboratories, Indianapolis, Indiana
| | - Sean G Buchanan
- Oncology Discovery Research, Lilly Research Laboratories, Indianapolis, Indiana
| | - Edward M Chan
- Oncology Business Unit, Eli Lilly and Company, Indianapolis, Indiana
| | - James J Starling
- Oncology Discovery Research, Lilly Research Laboratories, Indianapolis, Indiana
| | - Richard P Beckmann
- Oncology Discovery Research, Lilly Research Laboratories, Indianapolis, Indiana.
| | - Sheng-Bin Peng
- Oncology Discovery Research, Lilly Research Laboratories, Indianapolis, Indiana.
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Young RJ, Waldeck K, Martin C, Foo JH, Cameron DP, Kirby L, Do H, Mitchell C, Cullinane C, Liu W, Fox SB, Dutton-Regester K, Hayward NK, Jene N, Dobrovic A, Pearson RB, Christensen JG, Randolph S, McArthur GA, Sheppard KE. Loss of CDKN2A expression is a frequent event in primary invasive melanoma and correlates with sensitivity to the CDK4/6 inhibitor PD0332991 in melanoma cell lines. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res 2014; 27:590-600. [PMID: 24495407 DOI: 10.1111/pcmr.12228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2013] [Accepted: 01/30/2014] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
We have investigated the potential for the p16-cyclin D-CDK4/6-retinoblastoma protein pathway to be exploited as a therapeutic target in melanoma. In a cohort of 143 patients with primary invasive melanoma, we used fluorescence in situ hybridization to detect gene copy number variations (CNVs) in CDK4, CCND1, and CDKN2A and immunohistochemistry to determine protein expression. CNVs were common in melanoma, with gain of CDK4 or CCND1 in 37 and 18% of cases, respectively, and hemizygous or homozygous loss of CDKN2A in 56%. Three-quarters of all patients demonstrated a CNV in at least one of the three genes. The combination of CCND1 gain with either a gain of CDK4 and/or loss of CDKN2A was associated with poorer melanoma-specific survival. In 47 melanoma cell lines homozygous loss, methylation or mutation of CDKN2A gene or loss of protein (p16(INK) (4A) ) predicted sensitivity to the CDK4/6 inhibitor PD0332991, while RB1 loss predicted resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Young
- Research Division, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Vic., Australia
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Abstract
The American Cancer Society estimates that skin cancer is the most prevalent of all cancers with over 2 million cases of nonmelanoma skin cancer each year and 75,000 melanoma cases in 2012. Representative animal cancer models are important for understanding the underlying molecular pathogenesis of these cancers and the development of novel targeted anticancer therapeutics. In this review, we will discuss some of the important animal models that have been useful to identify important pathways involved in basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael D Gober
- Department of Dermatology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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Kim KN, Ahn G, Heo SJ, Kang SM, Kang MC, Yang HM, Kim D, Roh SW, Kim SK, Jeon BT, Park PJ, Jung WK, Jeon YJ. Inhibition of tumor growth in vitro and in vivo by fucoxanthin against melanoma B16F10 cells. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2013; 35:39-46. [PMID: 23228706 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2012.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2012] [Revised: 10/02/2012] [Accepted: 10/05/2012] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The present study was designed to evaluate the molecular mechanisms of fucoxanthin against melanoma cell lines (B16F10 cells). Fucoxanthin reduced the proliferation of B16F10 cells in a dose-dependent manner accompanied by the induction of cell cycle arrest during the G(0)/G(1) phase and apoptosis. Fucoxanthin-induced G(0)/G(1) arrest was associated with a marked decrease in the protein expressions of phosphorylated-Rb (retinoblastoma protein), cyclin D (1 and 2) and cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) 4 and up-regulation of the protein levels of p15(INK4B) and p27(Kip1). Fucoxanthin-induced apoptosis was accompanied with the down-regulation of the protein levels of Bcl-xL, an inhibitor of apoptosis proteins (IAPs), resulting in a sequential activation of caspase-9, caspase-3, and PARP. Furthermore, the anti-tumor effect of fucoxanthin was assessed in vivo in Balb/c mice. Intraperitoneal administration of fucoxanthin significantly inhibited the growth of tumor mass in B16F10 cells implanted mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kil-Nam Kim
- Marine Bio Research Team, Korea Basic Science Institute (KBSI), Jeju 690-140, Republic of Korea
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Ultraviolet radiation effects on the proteome of skin cells. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2013; 990:111-9. [PMID: 23378007 DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-5896-4_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Proteomic studies to date have had limited use as an investigative tool in the skin's response to UV radiation. These studies used cell lines and reconstructed skin and have shown evidence of cell injury with oxidative damage and stress induced heat shock proteins. Others changes included altered cytokeratin and cytoskeletal proteins with enhanced expression of TRIM29 as the keratinocytes regenerate. The associated DNA repair requires polη, Rad18/Rad16 and Rev1. In the whole animal these events would be associated with inflammation, remodelling of the epidermis and modulation of the immune response. Longer term changes include ageing and skin cancers such as melanoma, squamous cell carcinoma and basal cell carcinoma. In the future proteomics will be used to explore these important aspects of photobiology. Better characterisation of the proteins involved should lead to a greater understanding of the skin's response to UV radiation.
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Abstract
The cell cycle is regulated in part by cyclins and their associated serine/threonine cyclin-dependent kinases, or CDKs. CDK4, in conjunction with the D-type cyclins, mediates progression through the G1 phase when the cell prepares to initiate DNA synthesis. Although CDK4-null mutant mice are viable and cell proliferation is not significantly affected in vitro due to compensatory roles played by other CDKs, this gene plays a key role in mammalian development and cancer. This review discusses the role that CDK4 plays in cell cycle control, normal development, and tumorigenesis as well as how small molecule inhibitors of CDK4 can be used to treat disease.
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Jalili A, Wagner C, Pashenkov M, Pathria G, Mertz KD, Widlund HR, Lupien M, Brunet JP, Golub TR, Stingl G, Fisher DE, Ramaswamy S, Wagner SN. Dual suppression of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors CDKN2C and CDKN1A in human melanoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 2012; 104:1673-9. [PMID: 22997239 PMCID: PMC3490842 DOI: 10.1093/jnci/djs373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Resistance to BRAFV600E inhibitors is associated with reactivation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling at different levels in melanoma. To identify downstream effectors of MAPK signaling that could be used as potential additional therapeutic targets for BRAFV600E inhibitors, we used hTERT/CDK4R24C/p53DD-immortalized primary human melanocytes genetically modified to ectopically express BRAFV600E or NRASG12D and observed induction of the AP-1 transcription factor family member c-Jun. Using a dominant negative approach, in vitro cell proliferation assays, western blots, and flow cytometry showed that MAPK signaling via BRAFV600E promotes melanoma cell proliferation at G1 through AP-1-mediated negative regulation of the INK4 family member, cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 2C (CDKN2C), and the CIP/KIP family member, cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1A (CDKN1A). These effects were antagonized by pharmacological inhibition of CDKN2C and CDKN1A targets CDK2 and CDK4 in vitro. In contrast to BRAFV600E or NRASG12D-expressing melanocytes, melanoma cells have an inherent resistance to suppression of AP-1 activity by BRAFV600E- or MEK-inhibitors. Here, CDK2/4 inhibition statistically significantly augmented the effects of BRAFV600E- or MEK-inhibitors on melanoma cell viability in vitro and growth in athymic nude Foxn1nu mice (P = .03 when mean tumor volume at day 13 was compared for BRAFV600E inhibitor vs BRAFV600E inhibitor plus CDK2/4 inhibition; P = .02 when mean tumor volume was compared for MEK inhibitor vs MEK inhibitor plus CDK2/4 inhibition; P values were calculated by a two-sided Welch t test; n = 4–8 mice per group).
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad Jalili
- Division of Immunology, Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Guertel 18-20, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
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Noonan FP, Zaidi MR, Wolnicka-Glubisz A, Anver MR, Bahn J, Wielgus A, Cadet J, Douki T, Mouret S, Tucker MA, Popratiloff A, Merlino G, De Fabo EC. Melanoma induction by ultraviolet A but not ultraviolet B radiation requires melanin pigment. Nat Commun 2012; 3:884. [PMID: 22673911 PMCID: PMC3621412 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms1893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 193] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2012] [Accepted: 05/08/2012] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Malignant melanoma of the skin (CMM) is associated with ultraviolet radiation exposure, but the mechanisms and even the wavelengths responsible are unclear. Here we use a mammalian model to investigate melanoma formed in response to precise spectrally defined ultraviolet wavelengths and biologically relevant doses. We show that melanoma induction by ultraviolet A (320-400 nm) requires the presence of melanin pigment and is associated with oxidative DNA damage within melanocytes. In contrast, ultraviolet B radiation (280-320 nm) initiates melanoma in a pigment-independent manner associated with direct ultraviolet B DNA damage. Thus, we identified two ultraviolet wavelength-dependent pathways for the induction of CMM and describe an unexpected and significant role for melanin within the melanocyte in melanomagenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frances P. Noonan
- Laboratory of Photobiology and Photoimmunology, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Tropical Medicine, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, The George Washington University, Washington, District of Columbia 20037, USA
| | - M. Raza Zaidi
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
| | - Agnieszka Wolnicka-Glubisz
- Laboratory of Photobiology and Photoimmunology, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Tropical Medicine, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, The George Washington University, Washington, District of Columbia 20037, USA
- Present address: Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, ul. Gronostajowa 7, Krakow 30-348, Poland (A.W.-G.)
| | - Miriam R. Anver
- Pathology/Histotechnology Laboratory, SAIC-Frederick, National Cancer Institute-Frederick, Frederick, Maryland 21702, USA
| | - Jesse Bahn
- Laboratory of Photobiology and Photoimmunology, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Tropical Medicine, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, The George Washington University, Washington, District of Columbia 20037, USA
| | - Albert Wielgus
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, USA
- Present address: Duke Eye Center, 2351 Erwin Road, Durham, North Carolina 27705, USA (A.W.)
| | - Jean Cadet
- DSM/INAC/SCIB UMR-E 3 CEA/UJF FRE CNRS 3200/Laboratoire 'Lésions des Acides Nucléiques', CEA-Grenoble 38054, France
| | - Thierry Douki
- DSM/INAC/SCIB UMR-E 3 CEA/UJF FRE CNRS 3200/Laboratoire 'Lésions des Acides Nucléiques', CEA-Grenoble 38054, France
| | - Stephane Mouret
- DSM/INAC/SCIB UMR-E 3 CEA/UJF FRE CNRS 3200/Laboratoire 'Lésions des Acides Nucléiques', CEA-Grenoble 38054, France
- Present address: Department of Toxicology and Chemical Risk, Army Institute for Biomedical Research, La Tronche 38700, France (S.M.)
| | - Margaret A. Tucker
- Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
| | - Anastas Popratiloff
- Center for Microscopy and Image Analysis, Office of the Vice-President, The George Washington University, Washington, District of Columbia 20037, USA
| | - Glenn Merlino
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
| | - Edward C. De Fabo
- Laboratory of Photobiology and Photoimmunology, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Tropical Medicine, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, The George Washington University, Washington, District of Columbia 20037, USA
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17
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Kadekaro AL, Chen J, Yang J, Chen S, Jameson J, Swope VB, Cheng T, Kadakia M, Abdel-Malek Z. Alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone suppresses oxidative stress through a p53-mediated signaling pathway in human melanocytes. Mol Cancer Res 2012; 10:778-86. [PMID: 22622028 DOI: 10.1158/1541-7786.mcr-11-0436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Epidermal melanocytes are skin cells specialized in melanin production. Activation of the melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) on melanocytes by α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH) induces synthesis of the brown/black pigment eumelanin that confers photoprotection from solar UV radiation (UVR). Contrary to keratinocytes, melanocytes are slow proliferating cells that persist in the skin for decades, in an environment with high levels of UVR-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS). We previously reported that in addition to its role in pigmentation, α-MSH also reduces oxidative stress and enhances the repair of DNA photoproducts in melanocytes, independent of melanin synthesis. Given the significance of ROS in carcinogenesis, here we investigated the mechanisms by which α-MSH exerts antioxidant effects in melanocytes. We show that activation of the MC1R by α-MSH contributes to phosphorylation of p53 on serine 15, a known requirement for stabilization and activation of p53, a major sensor of DNA damage. This effect is mediated by the cAMP/PKA pathway and by the activation of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) ATR and DNA protein kinase (DNA-PK). α-MSH increases the levels of 8-oxoguanine DNA glycosylase (OGG1) and apurinic apyrimidinic endonuclease 1 (APE-1/Ref-1), enzymes essential for base excision repair. Nutlin-3, an HDM2 inhibitor, mimicked the effects of α-MSH resulting in reduced phosphorylation of H2AX (γ-H2AX), a marker of DNA damage. Conversely, the p53 inhibitor pifithrin-α or silencing of p53 abolished the effects of α-MSH and augmented oxidative stress. These results show that p53 is an important target of the downstream MC1R signaling that reduces oxidative stress and possibly malignant transformation of melanocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Luisa Kadekaro
- Department of Dermatology, University of Cincinnati, 231 Albert Sabin Way, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA.
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18
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Gaffal E, Landsberg J, Bald T, Sporleder A, Kohlmeyer J, Tüting T. Neonatal UVB exposure accelerates melanoma growth and enhances distant metastases in Hgf-Cdk4(R24C) C57BL/6 mice. Int J Cancer 2011; 129:285-94. [PMID: 21207411 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.25913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2010] [Accepted: 12/20/2010] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Genetically engineered mouse models offer new opportunities to experimentally investigate the impact of UV on melanoma pathogenesis. Here we irradiated a cohort of newborn 15 Hgf-Cdk4(R24C) mice on the pigmented C57BL/6 background with one erythemogenic dose of 6 kJ/m(2) UVB and compared the development of nevi and melanoma with a cohort of 30 untreated Hgf-Cdk4(R24C) mice. Neonatal UVB exposure decreased the latency and accelerated the growth of primary melanomas resulting in a significantly decreased time from melanoma onset to melanoma-related death (61 days vs. 96 days). Interestingly, we did not observe differences in the development of melanocytic nevi. Histopathological investigations revealed that UVB irradiation shifted the spectrum of melanomas toward a more aggressive phenotype with increased tumor cell proliferation, invasive growth and enhanced angiogenesis. Accordingly, we observed distal melanoma metastases in the lungs more frequently in the UV-irradiated than in the untreated cohort of Hgf-Cdk4(R24C) mice (73% vs. 47%). UVB-induced melanomas only contained very few infiltrating immune cells and expressed very low levels of proinflammatory chemokines. Taken together, our results demonstrate that neonatal UVB exposure promoted the early appearance of rapidly enlarging primary melanomas in Hgf-Cdk4(R24C) C57BL/6 mice which showed enhanced invasive and metastatic behaviour without a persistent tumor-associated inflammatory response. The preferential impact of UVB irradiation on the progression of melanoma without an effect on the development of nevi supports the hypothesis that the molecular targets of UVB are involved in bypassing the proliferative arrest of transformed melanocytes without alerting a cellular immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evelyn Gaffal
- Department of Dermatology and Allergy, Laboratory of Experimental Dermatology, University of Bonn, Germany
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19
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McKinney AJ, Holmen SL. Animal models of melanoma: a somatic cell gene delivery mouse model allows rapid evaluation of genes implicated in human melanoma. CHINESE JOURNAL OF CANCER 2011; 30:153-62. [PMID: 21352692 PMCID: PMC4013311 DOI: 10.5732/cjc.011.10007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2011] [Revised: 01/10/2011] [Accepted: 01/26/2011] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The increasing incidence and mortality associated with advanced stages of melanoma are cause for concern. Few treatment options are available for advanced melanoma and the 5-year survival rate is less than 15%. Targeted therapies may revolutionize melanoma treatment by providing less toxic and more effective strategies. However, maximizing effectiveness requires further understanding of the molecular alterations that drive tumor formation, progression, and maintenance, as well as elucidating the mechanisms of resistance. Several different genetic alterations identified in human melanoma have been recapitulated in mice. This review outlines recent progress made in the development of mouse models of melanoma and summarizes what these findings reveal about the human disease. We begin with a discussion of traditional models and conclude with the recently developed RCAS/TVA somatic cell gene delivery mouse model of melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea J McKinney
- Department of Drug and Target Discovery, Nevada Cancer Institute, Las Vegas, NV 89135, USA
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20
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Terzian T, Torchia EC, Dai D, Robinson SE, Murao K, Stiegmann RA, Gonzalez V, Boyle GM, Powell MB, Pollock PM, Lozano G, Robinson WA, Roop DR, Box NF. p53 prevents progression of nevi to melanoma predominantly through cell cycle regulation. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res 2011; 23:781-94. [PMID: 20849464 DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-148x.2010.00773.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
p53 is the central member of a critical tumor suppressor pathway in virtually all tumor types, where it is silenced mainly by missense mutations. In melanoma, p53 predominantly remains wild type, thus its role has been neglected. To study the effect of p53 on melanocyte function and melanomagenesis, we crossed the ‘high-p53’Mdm4+/− mouse to the well-established TP-ras0/+ murine melanoma progression model. After treatment with the carcinogen dimethylbenzanthracene (DMBA), TP-ras0/+ mice on the Mdm4+/− background developed fewer tumors with a delay in the age of onset of melanomas compared to TP-ras0/+ mice. Furthermore, we observed a dramatic decrease in tumor growth, lack of metastasis with increased survival of TP-ras0/+: Mdm4+/− mice. Thus, p53 effectively prevented the conversion of small benign tumors to malignant and metastatic melanoma. p53 activation in cultured primary melanocyte and melanoma cell lines using Nutlin-3, a specific Mdm2 antagonist, supported these findings. Moreover, global gene expression and network analysis of Nutlin-3-treated primary human melanocytes indicated that cell cycle regulation through the p21WAF1/CIP1 signaling network may be the key anti-melanomagenic activity of p53.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamara Terzian
- Department of Dermatology and Charles C Gates Center for Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Biology, UC Denver, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
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21
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Affiliation(s)
- William E Damsky
- Department of Dermatology, Yale School of Medicine, 15 York Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
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22
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Wang Z, Coleman DJ, Bajaj G, Liang X, Ganguli-Indra G, Indra AK. RXRα ablation in epidermal keratinocytes enhances UVR-induced DNA damage, apoptosis, and proliferation of keratinocytes and melanocytes. J Invest Dermatol 2010; 131:177-87. [PMID: 20944655 DOI: 10.1038/jid.2010.290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
We show here that keratinocytic nuclear receptor retinoid X receptor-α (RXRα) regulates mouse keratinocyte and melanocyte homeostasis following acute UVR. Keratinocytic RXRα has a protective role in UVR-induced keratinocyte and melanocyte proliferation/differentiation, oxidative stress-mediated DNA damage, and cellular apoptosis. We discovered that keratinocytic RXRα, in a cell-autonomous manner, regulates mitogenic growth responses in skin epidermis through secretion of heparin-binding EGF-like growth factor, GM-CSF, IL-1α, and cyclooxygenase-2 and activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways. We identified altered expression of several keratinocyte-derived mitogenic paracrine growth factors such as endothelin 1, hepatocyte growth factor, α-melanocyte stimulating hormone, stem cell factor, and fibroblast growth factor-2 in skin of mice lacking RXRα in epidermal keratinocytes (RXRα(ep-/-) mice), which in a non-cell-autonomous manner modulated melanocyte proliferation and activation after UVR. RXRα(ep-/-) mice represent a unique animal model in which UVR induces melanocyte proliferation/activation in both epidermis and dermis. Considered together, the results of our study suggest that RXR antagonists, together with inhibitors of cell proliferation, can be effective in preventing solar UVR-induced photocarcinogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhixing Wang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
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23
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Ferguson B, Konrad Muller H, Handoko HY, Khosrotehrani K, Beermann F, Hacker E, Soyer HP, Bosenberg M, Walker GJ. Differential roles of the pRb and Arf/p53 pathways in murine naevus and melanoma genesis. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res 2010; 23:771-80. [PMID: 20718941 DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-148x.2010.00752.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
We report on a systematic analysis of genotype-specific melanocyte (MC) UVR responses in transgenic mouse melanoma models along with tumour penetrance and comparative histopathology. pRb or p53 pathway mutations cooperated with Nras(Q61K) to transform MCs. We previously reported that MCs migrate from the follicular outer root sheath into the epidermis after neonatal UVR. Here, we found that Arf or p53 loss markedly diminished this response. Despite this, mice carrying these mutations developed melanoma with very early age of onset after neonatal UVR. Cdk4(R24C) did not affect the MC migration. Instead, independent of UVR exposure, interfollicular dermal MCs were more prevalent in Cdk4(R24C) mice. Subsequently, in adulthood, these mutants developed dermal MC proliferations reminiscent of superficial congenital naevi. Two types of melanoma were observed in this model. The location and growth pattern of the first was consistent with derivation from the naevi, while the second appeared to be of deep dermal origin. In animals carrying the Arf or p53 defects, no naevi were detected, with all tumours ostensibly skipping the benign precursor stage in progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blake Ferguson
- Skin Carcinogenesis Laboratory, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Herston, Qld, Australia
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24
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Chawla R, Procknow JA, Tantravahi RV, Khurana JS, Litvin J, Reddy EP. Cooperativity of Cdk4R24C and Ras in melanoma development. Cell Cycle 2010; 9:3305-14. [PMID: 20703083 DOI: 10.4161/cc.9.16.12632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The importance of the CDK4 protein in human cancer first became evident following the identification of a germ line mutation in the Cdk4 locus that predisposes humans to melanoma. This mutation results in substitution of arginine with cysteine at position 24 (R24C). In an earlier study, we introduced the R24C mutation into the Cdk4 locus of mice using Cre-loxP-mediated "knock-in" technology and observed a very low incidence of spontaneous melanomas in Cdk4(R24C/R24C) mice. This suggested that additional oncogenic mutations might be required for development of melanomas. Here we report an increased incidence of spontaneous cutaneous melanoma in mice expressing the oncogene HRAS(G12V) in melanocytes on a Cdk4(R24C) background. Treatment of Tyr-HRas:Cdk4(R24C/R24C) mice with the carcinogen, DMBA/TPA resulted in a further increase in the number of nevi and melanomas developed when compared with Tyr-HRas:Cdk4(+/+) mice. In summary, in Tyr-HRas:Cdk4(R24C/R24C) mice, we observed that activated CDK4 cooperates with the oncogenic HRAS(G12V) protein to increase the susceptibility of melanoma development in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachna Chawla
- Temple University School of Medicine, Fels Institute of Cancer Research and Molecular Biology, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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25
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Hyter S, Bajaj G, Liang X, Barbacid M, Ganguli-Indra G, Indra AK. Loss of nuclear receptor RXRα in epidermal keratinocytes promotes the formation of Cdk4-activated invasive melanomas. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res 2010; 23:635-48. [PMID: 20629968 DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-148x.2010.00732.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Keratinocytes contribute to melanocyte transformation by affecting their microenvironment, in part through the secretion of paracrine factors. Here we report a loss of expression of nuclear receptor RXRα in epidermal keratinocytes during human melanoma progression. In the absence of keratinocytic RXRα, in combination with mutant Cdk4, cutaneous melanoma was generated that metastasized to lymph nodes in a bigenic mouse model. Expression of several keratinocyte-derived mitogenic growth factors (Et-1, Hgf, Scf, α-MSH and Fgf 2 ) was elevated in skin of bigenic mice, whereas Fas, E-cadherin and Pten, implicated in apoptosis, cellular invasion and melanomagenesis, respectively, were downregulated within the microdissected melanocytic tumors. We demonstrated that RXRα is recruited on the proximal promoter of both Et-1 and Hgf, possibly directly regulating their transcription in keratinocytes. These studies demonstrate the contribution of keratinocytic paracrine signaling during the cellular transformation and malignant conversion of melanocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Hyter
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
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26
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Zeng Z, Richardson J, Verduzco D, Mitchell DL, Patton EE. Zebrafish have a competent p53-dependent nucleotide excision repair pathway to resolve ultraviolet B-induced DNA damage in the skin. Zebrafish 2009; 6:405-15. [PMID: 20047468 PMCID: PMC2804931 DOI: 10.1089/zeb.2009.0611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Ultraviolet (UV) light is a primary environmental risk factor for melanoma, a deadly form of skin cancer derived from the pigmented cells called melanocytes. UVB irradiation causes DNA damage, mainly in the form of pyrimidine dimers (cis-syn cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers and pyrimidine (6-4) pyrimidone photoproducts), and organisms have developed complex multiprotein repair processes to cope with the DNA damage. Zebrafish is becoming an important model system to study the effects of UV light in animals, in part because the embryos are easily treated with UV irradiation, and the DNA damage repair pathways appear to be conserved in zebrafish and mammals. We are interested in exploring the effects of UV irradiation in young adult zebrafish, so that we can apply them to the study of gene-environment interactions in models of skin cancer. Using the Xiphophorus UV melanoma model as a starting point, we have developed a UV irradiation treatment chamber, and established UV treatment conditions at different ages of development. By translating the Xiphophorus UV treatment methodology to the zebrafish system, we show that the adult zebrafish skin is competent for nucleotide excision DNA damage repair, and that like in mammalian cells, UV treatment promotes phosphorylation of H2AX and a p53-dependent response. These studies provide the groundwork for exploring the role of UV light in melanoma development in zebrafish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiqiang Zeng
- Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, MRC Human Genetics Unit, Edinburgh Cancer Research Centre, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Jennifer Richardson
- Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, MRC Human Genetics Unit, Edinburgh Cancer Research Centre, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel Verduzco
- Departments of Pediatrics and Molecular Biology, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas
| | - David L. Mitchell
- Science Park/Research Division, Department of Carcinogenesis, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Smithville, Texas
| | - E. Elizabeth Patton
- Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, MRC Human Genetics Unit, Edinburgh Cancer Research Centre, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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27
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Hacker E, Muller HK, Hayward N, Fahey P, Walker G. Enhancement of DNA repair using topical T4 endonuclease V does not inhibit melanoma formation in Cdk4(R24C/R24C)/Tyr-Nras(Q61K) mice following neonatal UVR. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res 2009; 23:121-8. [PMID: 19788533 DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-148x.2009.00643.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
To further investigate the use of DNA repair-enhancing agents for skin cancer prevention, we treated Cdk4(R24C/R24C)/Nras(Q61K) mice topically with the T4 endonuclease V DNA repair enzyme (known as Dimericine) immediately prior to neonatal ultraviolet radiation (UVR) exposure, which has a powerful effect in exacerbating melanoma development in the mouse model. Dimericine has been shown to reduce the incidence of basal-cell and squamous cell carcinoma. Unexpectedly, we saw no difference in penetrance or age of onset of melanoma after neonatal UVR between Dimericine-treated and control animals, although the drug reduced DNA damage and cellular proliferation in the skin. Interestingly, epidermal melanocytes removed cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs) more efficiently than surrounding keratinocytes. Our study indicates that neonatal UVR-initiated melanomas may be driven by mechanisms other than solely that of a large CPD load and/or their inefficient repair. This is further suggestive of different mechanisms by which UVR may enhance the transformation of keratinocytes and melanocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elke Hacker
- Genetics & Population Health Division, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane, Qld, Australia.
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28
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Liu S, Yamauchi H. p27-Associated G1 arrest induced by hinokitiol in human malignant melanoma cells is mediated via down-regulation of pRb, Skp2 ubiquitin ligase, and impairment of Cdk2 function. Cancer Lett 2009; 286:240-9. [PMID: 19631451 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2009.05.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2009] [Revised: 05/27/2009] [Accepted: 05/27/2009] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Increasing evidence has confirmed that hinokitiol (beta-thujaplicin), a tropolone-related compound, exhibits anticancer activity in a variety of cancers through inhibition of cell proliferation. The present study indicates that hinokitiol selectively inhibits cell growth and DNA synthesis in FEM human melanoma cells. Hinokitiol-induced growth inhibition was associated with strong G1 cell cycle arrest. Consistent with blocking the G1-S-phase transition, hinokitiol markedly increased p27 protein levels, but caused only a moderate increase in p21, in addition to a decrease in Cdk2, cyclin E, and phosphorylated Rb. In addition, hinokitiol increased the stability of the p27 protein by inhibiting p27 phosphorylation at Thr(187) and by down-regulating Skp2 expression. siRNA knockdown of p27 abrogated hinokitiol-mediated growth inhibition, while knockdown of Skp2 exacerbated the G1 arrest. In addition to increasing Cdk inhibitor levels and decreasing cyclin A expression, hinokitiol also impaired Cdk2 function by inhibiting Cdk2 kinase activity, impeding cyclin E or A/Cdk2 binding, and inducing translocation of the Cdk2 protein complex. Taken together, our data demonstrate that the novel anticancer mechanism of hinokitiol involves accumulation of p27, down-regulation of Skp2, and impairment of Cdk2 function in FEM human melanoma cells. The therapeutic potential of hinokitiol may lead to novel cell-cycle-based anticancer strategies for malignant melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shicheng Liu
- Research and Development Department, Nipro Patch Co., Ltd., Kasukabe, Saitama 344-0057, Japan.
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29
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UVB and UVA initiate different pathways to p53-dependent apoptosis in melanocytes. J Invest Dermatol 2009; 129:1608-10. [PMID: 19521408 DOI: 10.1038/jid.2009.116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The incidence of cutaneous malignant melanoma (CMM) has more than doubled in the past 25 years and continues to increase at over 3% per year across all age groups (Linos et al., this issue), and invasive and disseminated melanoma in young women has increased by almost 10% since 1992 (Purdue et al., 2008). Early detection and excision of CMM can result in successful treatment, but disseminated disease is resistant to current therapies and has a very poor prognosis (Garbe and Eigentler, 2007). Sunlight exposure is a major risk factor for melanoma. In this issue, Waster and llinger investigate the effects of UVB and UVA on melanocytes.
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30
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Ibrahim N, Haluska FG. Molecular pathogenesis of cutaneous melanocytic neoplasms. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PATHOLOGY-MECHANISMS OF DISEASE 2009; 4:551-79. [PMID: 19400696 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.pathol.3.121806.151541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Melanoma is the deadliest form of skin cancer without an effective treatment. An understanding of the genetic basis of melanoma has recently shed light on some of the mechanisms of melanomagenesis. This review explores the major genes involved in familial and sporadic cutaneous melanoma with an emphasis on CDKN2A, CDK4, MC1R, and MAPK pathway targets (e.g., RAS and BRAF), apoptosis regulators (e.g., BCL-2, AKT, and APAF-1), and the tumor-suppressor genes TP53 and PTEN. New directions for therapeutics based on our current knowledge of the genes implicated in melanoma are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nageatte Ibrahim
- Massachusetts General Hospital Cancer Center, Boston, MA 02114, USA.
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31
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Bedogni B, Powell MB. Hypoxia, melanocytes and melanoma - survival and tumor development in the permissive microenvironment of the skin. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res 2009; 22:166-74. [PMID: 19222803 DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-148x.2009.00553.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The tissue microenvironment plays a critical role in cell survival and growth and can contribute to cell transformation and tumor development. Cellular interactions with the stroma and with other cells provide key signals that control cellular arrest or division, survival or death, and entrance or exit from a quiescent state. Together, these decisions are essential for maintenance of tissue homeostasis. Tissue oxygenation is an important component of the microenvironment that can acutely alter the behavior of a cell through the direct regulation of genes involved in cell survival, apoptosis, glucose metabolism, and angiogenesis. Loss of tissue homeostasis due to, for example, oncogene activation leads to the disruption of these signals and eventually can lead to cell transformation and tumor development. Here we review the role of tissue oxygenation, and in particular physiologic skin hypoxia, on cell survival and senescence and how it contributes to melanocyte transformation and melanoma development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Bedogni
- Division of Radiation and Cancer Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
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Gibbons SJ, De Giorgio R, Faussone Pellegrini MS, Garrity-Park MM, Miller SM, Schmalz PF, Young-Fadok TM, Larson DW, Dozois EJ, Camilleri M, Stanghellini V, Szurszewski JH, Farrugia G. Apoptotic cell death of human interstitial cells of Cajal. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2009; 21:85-93. [PMID: 18798796 PMCID: PMC2627790 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2982.2008.01185.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC) are specialized mesenchyme-derived cells that regulate contractility and excitability of many smooth muscles with loss of ICC seen in a variety of gut motility disorders. Maintenance of ICC numbers is tightly regulated, with several factors known to regulate proliferation. In contrast, the fate of ICC is not established. The aim of this study was to investigate whether apoptosis plays a role in the regulation of ICC numbers in the normal colon. ICC were identified by immunolabelling for the c-Kit receptor tyrosine kinase and by electron microscopy. Apoptosis was detected in colon tissue by immunolabelling for activated caspase-3, terminal dUTP nucleotide end labelling and by ultrastructural changes in the cells. Apoptotic ICC were identified and counted in double-labelled tissue sections. They were identified in all layers of the colonic muscle. In the muscularis propria 1.5 +/- 0.2% of ICC were positive for activated caspase-3 and in the circular muscle layer 2.1 +/- 0.9% of ICC were positive for TUNEL. Apoptotic ICC were identified by electron microscopy. Apoptotic cell death is a continuing process in ICC. The level of apoptosis in ICC in healthy colon indicates that these cells must be continually regenerated to maintain intact networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon J. Gibbons
- Enteric NeuroScience Program, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA,Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA,Miles and Shirley Fiterman Center for Digestive Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Roberto De Giorgio
- Department of Internal Medicine & Gastroenterology, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | | | - Megan M. Garrity-Park
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Steven M. Miller
- Enteric NeuroScience Program, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA,Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA,Miles and Shirley Fiterman Center for Digestive Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Philip F. Schmalz
- Enteric NeuroScience Program, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA,Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA,Miles and Shirley Fiterman Center for Digestive Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | | | - David W. Larson
- Division of Colon and Rectal Surgery Mayo Clinic Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Eric J. Dozois
- Division of Colon and Rectal Surgery Mayo Clinic Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Michael Camilleri
- Enteric NeuroScience Program, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA,Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA,Miles and Shirley Fiterman Center for Digestive Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Vincenzo Stanghellini
- Department of Internal Medicine & Gastroenterology, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Joseph H. Szurszewski
- Enteric NeuroScience Program, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA,Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA,Miles and Shirley Fiterman Center for Digestive Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Gianrico Farrugia
- Enteric NeuroScience Program, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA,Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA,Miles and Shirley Fiterman Center for Digestive Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
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Walker G. Cutaneous melanoma: how does ultraviolet light contribute to melanocyte transformation? Future Oncol 2008; 4:841-56. [DOI: 10.2217/14796694.4.6.841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Ascribing a causal role to ultraviolet radiation in melanoma induction is problematic, as the relationship between total lifetime sun exposure and melanoma risk is not as strong as for some other skin cancers. Epidemiological studies show that heightened melanoma risk is most associated with intermittent sunburns. Despite this, lesions can develop on anatomical locations receiving intermittent (e.g., the trunk) or chronic exposures (e.g., the head and neck). Individuals developing melanoma on truncal sites tend to have more nevi, suggesting that in addition to the differences in forms of sun exposure, there may also be innate variation that makes one more susceptible to one or other mechanism of melanoma development. Such differences may depend upon different responses at the time of exposure (e.g., pigmentation characteristics, DNA repair capability and melanocyte proliferative response), and/or the role of the skin microenvironment in limiting proliferation of a ‘primed’ or mutated melanocyte during the latent period leading up to the appearance of a melanocytic lesion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graeme Walker
- Oncogenomics Laboratory, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, 300 Herston Rd, Herston, 4029, Queensland, Australia
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Smalley KSM, Lioni M, Dalla Palma M, Xiao M, Desai B, Egyhazi S, Hansson J, Wu H, King AJ, Van Belle P, Elder DE, Flaherty KT, Herlyn M, Nathanson KL. Increased cyclin D1 expression can mediate BRAF inhibitor resistance in BRAF V600E-mutated melanomas. Mol Cancer Ther 2008; 7:2876-83. [PMID: 18790768 DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-08-0431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 236] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies have shown that there is a considerable heterogeneity in the response of melanoma cell lines to MEK and BRAF inhibitors. In the current study, we address whether dysregulation of cyclin-dependent kinase 4 (CDK4) and/or cyclin D1 contribute to the BRAF inhibitor resistance of melanoma cells. Mutational screening identified a panel of melanoma cell lines that harbored both a BRAF V600E mutation and a CDK4 mutation: K22Q (1205Lu), R24C (WM39, WM46, and SK-Mel-28), and R24L (WM902B). Pharmacologic studies showed that the presence of a CDK4 mutation did not alter the sensitivity of these cell lines to the BRAF inhibitor. The only cell line with significant BRAF inhibitor resistance was found to harbor both a CDK4 mutation and a CCND1 amplification. Array comparative genomic hybridization analysis showed that CCND1 was amplified in 17% of BRAF V600E-mutated human metastatic melanoma samples, indicating the clinical relevance of this finding. As the levels of CCND1 amplification in cell lines are lower than those seen in clinical specimens, we overexpressed cyclin D1 alone and in the presence of CDK4 in a drug-sensitive melanoma line. Cyclin D1 overexpression alone increased resistance and this was enhanced when cyclin D1 and CDK4 were concurrently overexpressed. In conclusion, increased levels of cyclin D1, resulting from genomic amplification, may contribute to the BRAF inhibitor resistance of BRAF V600E-mutated melanomas, particularly when found in the context of a CDK4 mutation/overexpression.
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Walker GJ, Kimlin MG, Hacker E, Ravishankar S, Muller HK, Beermann F, Hayward NK. Murine neonatal melanocytes exhibit a heightened proliferative response to ultraviolet radiation and migrate to the epidermal basal layer. J Invest Dermatol 2008; 129:184-93. [PMID: 18633434 DOI: 10.1038/jid.2008.210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Melanocytes respond to UVR not only by producing melanin, but also by proliferating. This is essentially a protective response. We have studied the melanocyte proliferative response after a single UVR exposure to neonatal mice. At 3 days post-UVR in wild-type neonates we observed a marked melanocyte activation not seen in adults. Melanocytes migrated to the epidermal basal layer, their numbers peaking at 3-5 days after UVR then diminishing. They appeared to emanate from the hair follicle, migrating to the epidermis via the outer root sheath. In melanoma-prone mice with melanocyte-specific overexpression of Hras(G12V), basal layer melanocytes were increased in size and dendricity compared to UVR-treated wild-type mice. Melanocytes in mice carrying a pRb pathway cell-cycle defect (oncogenic Cdk4(R24C)) did not show an enhanced response to UVR such as those carrying Hras(G12V). The exquisite sensitivity to UVR-induced proliferation and migration that characterizes neonatal mouse melanocytes may partly explain the utility of this form of exposure for inducing melanoma in mice that carry oncogenic mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graeme J Walker
- Oncogenomic Laboratory, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Herston, Queensland, Australia.
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Hacker E, Muller K, Whiteman DC, Pavey S, Hayward N, Walker G. Reduced expression of IL-18 is a marker of ultraviolet radiation-induced melanomas. Int J Cancer 2008; 123:227-31. [PMID: 18386818 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.23389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
We previously showed that mice carrying an activated Cdk4 mutation together with melanocyte-specific mutant Hras (Cdk4(R24C/R24C)/TPras) develop melanoma spontaneously, but penetrance is increased and age of onset reduced after neonatal ultraviolet radiation (UVR) exposure. UVR-treated mice were more likely to develop multiple primary lesions, and these melanomas more often expressed Trp53, and less often expressed c-Myc, than melanomas from nonirradiated mice (Hacker et al., Cancer Res 2006;66:2946-52). These data suggest differences in mechanisms of tumorigenesis between melanomas developing spontaneously, or as a result of UVR exposure. To further delineate these differences, we compared global gene expression between spontaneous and UVR-induced melanomas from these mice using microarrays. We found 264 genes differentially expressed between these groups (ANOVA, p < 0.05). Selected candidate genes were validated using qRT-PCR, which confirmed upregulation of Gpr155 and Bmp7, and downregulation of Plagl1, Akap12 and Il18 in UVR-induced mouse melanomas. In humans, epidemiological studies suggest that there may be 2 predominant pathways to melanoma development. One characterized by chronic UVR exposure and which leads mainly to melanomas on sun-exposed sites; the other associated with low UVR exposure and leading predominantly to melanomas on less-exposed body sites. We found by immunohistochemical analysis that, comparing a series of human melanomas from the head (a chronically sun-exposed site; N = 82) with a set from the trunk (an intermittently exposed site; N = 65), the prevalence of IL-18 expression was significantly lower in melanomas on the head (16%) than on truncal melanomas (34%, p = 0.011). We conclude that loss of IL-18 is a marker of UVR-induced melanoma, both in animal models and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elke Hacker
- Oncogenomics Laboratory, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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Muller HK, Malley RC, McGee HM, Scott DK, Wozniak T, Woods GM. Effect of UV Radiation on the Neonatal Skin Immune System- Implications for Melanoma†. Photochem Photobiol 2007; 84:47-54. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.2007.00246.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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Abstract
Cell for cell, probably no human cancer is as aggressive as melanoma. It is among a handful of cancers whose dimensions are reported in millimeters. Tumor thickness approaching 4 mm presents a high risk of metastasis, and a diagnosis of metastatic melanoma carries with it an abysmal median survival of 6-9 mo. What features of this malignancy account for such aggressive behavior? Is it the migratory history of its cell of origin or the programmed adaptation of its differentiated progeny to environmental stress, particularly ultraviolet radiation? While the answers to these questions are far from complete, major strides have been made in our understanding of the cellular, molecular, and genetic underpinnings of melanoma. More importantly, these discoveries carry profound implications for the development of therapies focused directly at the molecular engines driving melanoma, suggesting that we may have reached the brink of an unprecedented opportunity to translate basic science into clinical advances. In this review, we attempt to summarize our current understanding of the genetics and biology of this disease, drawing from expanding genomic information and lessons from development and genetically engineered mouse models. In addition, we look forward toward how these new insights will impact on therapeutic options for metastatic melanoma in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynda Chin
- Melanoma Program, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA.
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Abstract
Melanoma is the most lethal of human skin cancers and its incidence is increasing worldwide [L.K. Dennis (1999). Arch. Dermatol. 135, 275; C. Garbe et al. (2000). Cancer 89, 1269]. Melanomas often metastasize early during the course of the disease and are then highly intractable to current therapeutic regimens [M.F. Demierre and G. Merlino (2004). Curr. Oncol. Rep. 6, 406]. Consequently, understanding the factors that maintain melanocyte homeostasis and prevent their neoplastic transformation into melanoma is of utmost interest from the perspective of therapeutic interdiction. This review will focus on the role of the pocket proteins (PPs), Rb1 (retinoblastoma protein), retinoblastoma-like 1 (Rbl1 also known as p107) and retinoblastoma-like 2 (Rbl2 also known as p130), in melanocyte homeostasis, with particular emphasis on their functions in the cell cycle and the DNA damage repair response. The potential mechanisms of PP deregulation in melanoma and the possibility of PP-independent pathways to melanoma development will also be considered. Finally, the role of the PP family in ultraviolet radiation (UVR)-induced melanoma and the precise contribution that each PP family member makes to melanocyte homeostasis will be discussed in the context of a number of genetically engineered mouse models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian D Tonks
- Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Herston, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
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