MMP11: a novel target antigen for cancer immunotherapy

Mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate-induced downregulation of MMP11 in foreskin fibroblasts contributes to the pathogenesis of hypospadias

Hypospadias is one of the most common congenital anomalies of the male urogenital system, and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), a widely used endocrine-disrupting chemical (EDC), is considered a significant risk factor for this condition. Mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (MEHP), the toxic active metabolite of DEHP, has been proven to affect penile development and ultimately result in the hypospadias phenotype. However, while it is acknowledged that hypospadias arises from the aberrant development of multiple penile tissues, the specific impact of MEHP on human foreskin tissue development and its underlying molecular mechanisms of action remain unclear. In this study, we constructed an in vitro toxicity assay for MEHP using human foreskin fibroblasts and employed high-throughput RNA sequencing to investigate the molecular mechanisms subserving the defects in cellular function. We subsequently conducted multi-omics data analysis using public databases to analyze key target genes, and identified MMP11 as a chief downstream gene responsible for the effects of MEHP on HFF-1 cell migration. Through molecular docking analysis and molecular biology experiments, we further demonstrated that the nuclear receptor PPAR-gamma was activated upon binding with MEHP, leading to the suppression of MMP11 expression. Additionally, we found that epigenetic modifications induced by MEHP were also involved in its pathogenic effects on hypospadias. Our research highlights the crucial role of impaired cellular proliferation and migration in MEHP-induced hypospadias. We identified the MEHP/PPAR-gamma/MMP11 pathway as a novel pathogenic mechanism, providing important potential targets for future preventive strategies with respect to hypospadias.

Sex dimorphism of IL-17-secreting peripheral blood mononuclear cells in ankylosing spondylitis based on bioinformatics analysis and machine learning

BACKGROUND

Ankylosing spondylitis (AS) with radiographic damage is more prevalent in men than in women. IL-17, which is mainly secreted from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), plays an important role in the development of AS. Its expression is different between male and female. However, it is still unclear whether sex dimorphism of IL-17 contribute to sex differences in AS.

METHODS

GSE221786, GSE73754, GSE25101, GSE181364 and GSE205812 datasets were collected from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. Differential expressed genes (DEGs) were analyzed with the Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA), Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) methods. CIBERSORTx and EcoTyper algorithms were used for immune infiltration analyses. Machine learning based on the XGBoost algorithm model was used to identify the impact of DEGs. The Connectivity Map (CMAP) database was used as a drug discovery tool for exploring potential drugs based on the DEGs.

RESULTS

According to immune infiltration analyses, T cells accounted for the largest proportion of IL-17-secreting PBMCs, and KEGG analyses suggested an enhanced activation of mast cells among male AS patients, whereas the expression of TNF was higher in female AS patients. Other signaling pathways, including those involving metastasis-associated 1 family member 3 (MAT3) or proteasome, were found to be more activated in male AS patients. Regarding metabolic patterns, oxidative phosphorylation pathways and lipid oxidation were significantly upregulated in male AS patients. In XGBoost algorithm model, DEGs including METRN and TMC4 played important roles in the disease process. we integrated the CMAP database for systematic analyses of polypharmacology and drug repurposing, which indicated that atorvastatin, famciclocir, ATN-161 and taselisib may be applicable to the treatment of AS.

CONCLUSIONS

We analyzed the sex dimorphism of IL-17-secreting PBMCs in AS. The results showed that mast cell activation was stronger in males, while the expression of TNF was higher in females. In addition, through machine learning and the CMAP database, we found that genes such as METRN and TMC4 may promote the development of AS, and drugs such as atorvastatin potentially could be used for AS treatment.

Novel Approaches to Possible Targeted Therapies and Prophylaxis of Uterine Fibroids

Uterine leiomyomas are the most common benign tumors in women of childbearing age. They may lead to problems of conception or complications during the gestational period. The methods of treatment include surgical (myomectomy and hysterectomy, embolization of arteries) and therapeutic treatment (ulipristal acetate, leuprolide acetate, cetrorelix, goserelin, mifepristone). Both approaches are efficient but incompatible with pregnancy planning. Therefore, there is a call for medical practice to develop therapeutical means of preventing leiomyoma onset in patients planning on becoming pregnant. Based on the analysis of GWAS data on the search for mononucleotide polymorphisms associated with the risk of leiomyoma, in meta-transcriptomic and meta-methylomic studies, target proteins have been proposed. Prospective therapeutic treatments of leiomyoma may be based on chemical compounds, humanized recombinant antibodies, vaccines based on markers of the uterine leiomyoma cells that are absent in the adult organism, or DNA and RNA preparations. Three different nosological forms of the disease associated with driver mutations in the MED12, HMGA2, and FH genes should be considered when developing or prescribing drugs. For example, synthetic inhibitors and vaccines based on matrix metalloproteinases MMP11 and MMP16 are expected to be effective only for the prevention of the occurrence of MED12-dependent nodules.

The expression of matrix metalloproteinase 2, 9 and 11 in Ethiopian breast cancer patients

INTRODUCTION

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) play a pathophysiological role in cancer initiation and progression. Numerous studies have examined an association between MMP-2, MMP-9, and MMP-11 expression and clinicopathological characteristics of breast cancer (BC); however, no research has been done on the MMP expression levels in BC cases from Ethiopia.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 58 formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded breast tissue samples encompassing 16 benign breast tumors and 42 BC were collected. The RNA was extracted and quantitative reverse-transcription PCR was performed. GraphPad Prism version 8.0.0 was used for statistical analysis.

RESULTS

The MMP-11 expression levels were significantly higher in breast cancer cases than in benign breast tumors (P = 0.012). Additionally, BC cases with positive lymph nodes and ER-positive receptors had higher MMP-11, MMP-9, and MMP-2 expression than cases with negative lymph nodes and ER-negative, respectively. The MMP-11 and MMP-9 expressions were higher in grade III and luminal A-like tumors than in grade I-II and other subtypes, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The MMP-11 expression was higher in BC than in benign breast tumors. Additionally, MMP-11, MMP-9, and MMP-2 were higher in BC with positive lymph nodes and estrogen receptors. Our findings suggest an important impact of MMPs in BC pathophysiology, particularly MMP-11.

Identification of New Key Genes and Their Association with Breast Cancer Occurrence and Poor Survival Using In Silico and In Vitro Methods

Breast cancer is one of the most prevalent types of cancer diagnosed globally and continues to have a significant impact on the global number of cancer deaths. Despite all efforts of epidemiological and experimental research, therapeutic concepts in cancer are still unsatisfactory. Gene expression datasets are widely used to discover the new biomarkers and molecular therapeutic targets in diseases. In the present study, we analyzed four datasets using R packages with accession number GSE29044, GSE42568, GSE89116, and GSE109169 retrieved from NCBI-GEO and differential expressed genes (DEGs) were identified. Protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was constructed to screen the key genes. Subsequently, the GO function and KEGG pathways were analyzed to determine the biological function of key genes. Expression profile of key genes was validated in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cell lines using qRT-PCR. Overall expression level and stage wise expression pattern of key genes was determined by GEPIA. The bc-GenExMiner was used to compare expression level of genes among groups of patients with respect to age factor. OncoLnc was used to analyze the effect of expression levels of LAMA2, TIMP4, and TMTC1 on the survival of breast cancer patients. We identified nine key genes, of which COL11A1, MMP11, and COL10A1 were found up-regulated and PCOLCE2, LAMA2, TMTC1, ADAMTS5, TIMP4, and RSPO3 were found down-regulated. Similar expression pattern of seven among nine genes (except ADAMTS5 and RSPO3) was observed in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells. Further, we found that LAMA2, TMTC1, and TIMP4 were significantly expressed among different age groups of patients. LAMA2 and TIMP4 were found significantly associated and TMTC1 was found less correlated with breast cancer occurrence. We found that the expression level of LAMA2, TIMP4, and TMTC1 was abnormal in all TCGA tumors and significantly associated with poor survival.

Evaluation of Matrix Metalloproteases by Artificial Intelligence Techniques in Negative Biopsies as New Diagnostic Strategy in Prostate Cancer

Usually, after an abnormal level of serum prostate-specific antigen (PSA) or digital rectal exam, men undergo a prostate needle biopsy. However, the traditional sextant technique misses 15-46% of cancers. At present, there are problems regarding disease diagnosis/prognosis, especially in patients' classification, because the information to be handled is complex and challenging to process. Matrix metalloproteases (MMPs) have high expression by prostate cancer (PCa) compared with benign prostate tissues. To assess the possible contribution to the diagnosis of PCa, we evaluated the expression of several MMPs in prostate tissues before and after PCa diagnosis using machine learning, classifiers, and supervised algorithms. A retrospective study was conducted on 29 patients diagnosed with PCa with previous benign needle biopsies, 45 patients with benign prostatic hyperplasia (BHP), and 18 patients with high-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia (HGPIN). An immunohistochemical study was performed on tissue samples from tumor and non-tumor areas using specific antibodies against MMP -2, 9, 11, and 13, and the tissue inhibitor of MMPs -3 (TIMP-3), and the protein expression by different cell types was analyzed to which several automatic learning techniques have been applied. Compared with BHP or HGPIN specimens, epithelial cells (ECs) and fibroblasts from benign prostate biopsies before the diagnosis of PCa showed a significantly higher expression of MMPs and TIMP-3. Machine learning techniques provide a differentiable classification between these patients, with greater than 95% accuracy, considering ECs, being slightly lower when considering fibroblasts. In addition, evolutionary changes were found in paired tissues from benign biopsy to prostatectomy specimens in the same patient. Thus, ECs from the tumor zone from prostatectomy showed higher expressions of MMPs and TIMP-3 compared to ECs of the corresponding zone from the benign biopsy. Similar differences were found for expressions of MMP-9 and TIMP-3, between fibroblasts from these zones. The classifiers have determined that patients with benign prostate biopsies before the diagnosis of PCa showed a high MMPs/TIMP-3 expression by ECs, so in the zone without future cancer development as in the zone with future tumor, compared with biopsy samples from patients with BPH or HGPIN. Expression of MMP -2, 9, 11, and 13, and TIMP-3 phenotypically define ECs associated with future tumor development. Also, the results suggest that MMPs/TIMPs expression in biopsy tissues may reflect evolutionary changes from prostate benign tissues to PCa. Thus, these findings in combination with other parameters might contribute to improving the suspicion of PCa diagnosis.

Single-nucleus RNA sequencing and deep tissue proteomics reveal distinct tumour microenvironment in stage-I and II cervical cancer

BACKGROUND

Cervical cancer (CC) is the 3rd most common cancer in women and the 4th leading cause of deaths in gynaecological malignancies, yet the exact progression of CC is inconclusive, mainly due to the high complexity of the changing tumour microenvironment (TME) at different stages of tumorigenesis. Importantly, a detailed comparative single-nucleus transcriptomic analysis of tumour microenvironment (TME) of CC patients at different stages is lacking.

METHODS

In this study, a total of 42,928 and 29,200 nuclei isolated from the tumour tissues of stage-I and II CC patients and subjected to single-nucleus RNA sequencing (snRNA-seq) analysis. The cell heterogeneity and functions were comparatively investigated using bioinformatic tools. In addition, label-free quantitative mass spectrometry based proteomic analysis was carried out. The proteome profiles of stage-I and II CC patients were compared, and an integrative analysis with the snRNA-seq was performed.

RESULTS

Compared with the stage-I CC (CCI) patients, the immune response relevant signalling pathways were largely suppressed in various immune cells of the stage-II CC (CCII) patients, yet the signalling associated with cell and tissue development was enriched, as well as metabolism for energy production suggested by the upregulation of genes associated with mitochondria. This was consistent with the quantitative proteomic analysis that showed the dominance of proteins promoting cell growth and intercellular matrix development in the TME of CCII group. The interferon-α and γ responses appeared the most activated pathways in many cell populations of the CCI patients. Several collagens, such as COL12A1, COL5A1, COL4A1 and COL4A2, were found significantly upregulated in the CCII group, suggesting their roles in diagnosing CC progression. A novel transcript AC244205.1 was detected as the most upregulated gene in CCII patients, and its possible mechanistic role in CC may be investigated further.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study provides important resources for decoding the progression of CC and set the foundation for developing novel approaches for diagnosing CC and tackling the immunosuppressive TME.

Germline gain-of-function MMP11 variant results in an aggressive form of colorectal cancer

Matrix metalloproteinase-11 (MMP11) is an enzyme with proteolytic activity against matrix and nonmatrix proteins. Although most MMPs are secreted as inactive proenzymes and are later activated extracellularly, MMP11 is activated intracellularly by furin within the constitutive secretory pathway. It is a key factor in physiological tissue remodeling and its alteration may play an important role in the progression of epithelial malignancies and other diseases. TCGA colon and colorectal adenocarcinoma data showed that upregulation of MMP11 expression correlates with tumorigenesis and malignancy. Here, we provide evidence that a germline variant in the MMP11 gene (NM_005940: c.232C>T; p.(Pro78Ser)), identified by whole exome sequencing, can increase the tumorigenic properties of colorectal cancer (CRC) cells. P78S is located in the prodomain region, which is responsible for blocking MMP11's protease activity. This variant was detected in the proband and all the cancer-affected family members analyzed, while it was not detected in healthy relatives. In silico analyses predict that P78S could have an impact on the activation of the enzyme. Furthermore, our in vitro analyses show that the expression of P78S in HCT116 cells increases tumor cell invasion and proliferation. In summary, our results show that this variant could modify the structure of the MMP11 prodomain, producing a premature or uncontrolled activation of the enzyme that may contribute to an early CRC onset in these patients. The study of this gene in other CRC cases will provide further information about its role in CRC development, which might improve patient treatment in the future.

A systematic review on fluoride-induced epigenetic toxicity in mammals

Fluoride, one of the global groundwater contaminants, is ubiquitous in our day-to-day life from various natural and anthropogenic sources. Numerous in vitro, in vivo, and epidemiological studies are conducted to understand the effect of fluoride on biological systems. A low concentration of fluoride is reported to increase oral health, whereas chronic exposure to higher concentrations causes fluoride toxicity (fluorosis). It includes dental fluorosis, skeletal fluorosis, and fluoride toxicity in soft tissues. The mechanism of fluoride toxicity has been reviewed extensively. However, epigenetic regulation in fluoride toxicity has not been reviewed. This systematic review summarizes the current knowledge regarding fluoride-induced epigenetic toxicity in the in vitro, in vivo, and epidemiological studies in mammalian systems. We examined four databases for the association between epigenetics and fluoride exposure. Out of 932 articles (as of 31 March 2022), 39 met our inclusion criteria. Most of the studies focused on different genes, and overall, preliminary evidence for epigenetic regulation of fluoride toxicity was identified. We further highlight the need for epigenome studies rather than candidate genes and provide recommendations for future research. Our results indicate a correlation between fluoride exposure and epigenetic processes. Further studies are warranted to elucidate and confirm the mechanism of epigenetic alterations mediated fluoride toxicity.

Gene Expression Profile of Stromal Factors in Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts from Prostate Cancer

Recent investigations point at the stromal microenvironment to assess additional diagnostic information and provide new therapeutic targets in cancer. The aim of the study was to contribute to the characterization of the phenotype of cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) in prostate cancer (PCa) compared with normal prostate-associated fibroblasts (NAFs) and fibroblasts from benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Three patient populations were prospectively recruited: 23 patients with new localized PCa, 14 patients with advanced PCa treated with androgenic deprivation therapy (ADT), and 7 patients with BPH. Gene expression of 20 stroma-derived factors, including the androgen receptor (AR), chaperones (HSPA1A and HSF1), growth factors (FGF2, FGF7, FGF10, HGF, PDGFB, and TGFβ), proteins implicated in invasion (MMP2, MMP9, and MMP11), inflammation (IL6, IL17RB, NFκB, and STAT3), and in-stroma/epithelium interaction (CDH11, CXCL12, CXCL14, and FAP), was evaluated. Localized PCa CAFs showed a significant higher expression of FGF7, IL6, MMP2, and MMP11 compared with NAFs or IL17RB compared with BPH fibroblasts, but significantly lower expression of FGF10 and IL17RB compared with NAFs or CXCL14 compared with BPH fibroblasts. In addition, CAFs from ADT-resistant PCa showed significantly higher MMP11 and NFκB but significant lower TGFβ expression compared with CAFs from ADT-sensitive tumors. Our results contribute to defining the CAFs phenotypes associated to PCa progression, which may contribute to the diagnosis and design of alternative therapies in PCa.

Targeted gene expression profiling of inverted papilloma and squamous cell carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Inverted papilloma (IP) is a sinonasal tumor with a well-known potential for malignant transformation. The purpose of this study was to identify the genes and pathways associated with IP, with progression to carcinoma-in-situ and invasive carcinoma.

METHODS

To determine genes and molecular pathways that may indicate progression and correlate with histologic changes, we analyzed six IP without dysplasia, five IP with carcinoma-in-situ, and 13 squamous cell carcinoma ex-IP by targeted sequencing. The HTG EdgeSeq Oncology Biomarker Panel coupled with next-generation sequencing was used to evaluate 2560 transcripts associated with solid tumors.

RESULTS

Progressive upregulation of 11 genes were observed (CALD1, COL1A1, COL3A1, COL4A2, COL5A2, FN1, ITGA5, LGALS1, MMP11, SERPINH1, SPARC) in the order of invasive carcinoma > carcinoma-in-situ > IP without dysplasia. When compared with IP without dysplasia, more genes are differentially expressed in invasive carcinoma than carcinoma-in-situ samples (341 downregulated/333 upregulated vs. 195 downregulated/156 upregulated). Gene set enrichment analysis determined three gene sets in common between the cohorts (epithelial mesenchymal transition, extracellular matrix organization, and coagulation).

CONCLUSIONS

Progressive upregulation of genes specific to IP malignant degeneration has significant clinical implications. This panel of 11 genes will improve concordance of histologic classification, which can directly impact treatment and patient outcomes. Additionally, future studies on larger tumor sets may observe upregulation in the gene panel that preceded histologic changes, which may be useful for further risk stratification.

The paradoxical role of matrix metalloproteinase-11 in cancer

The microenvironment surrounding the tumor affects biological processes, such as cell proliferation, angiogenesis, apoptosis, and invasion. Therefore, the ability to change these environments is an important attribute for tumor cells to obtain specific functions necessary for growth and metastasis. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are zinc-dependent proteolytic metalloenzymes that facilitate protease-dependent tumor progression by degrading extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins, releasing cytokines, growth factors, and other cell surface molecules. As one of the most widely studied MMPs, MMP-11 is an important protease that is expressed in cancer cells, stromal cells, and the adjacent microenvironment. MMP-11 has a dual effect on tumors. On one hand, MMP-11 promotes tumor development by inhibiting apoptosis and promoting the migration and invasion of cancer cells in the early stage. On the other hand, in animal models, MMP-11 has a protective effect on tumor growth and metastasis at an advanced stage. Based on current findings regarding the importance of MMP-11 in altering the tumor microenvironment, there is a need to further understand how stromal cells and the ECM regulate tumor progression, which may result in the re-examination of MMPs as drug targets for cancer and other diseases. In this review, we summarize the dual role of MMP-11 in cancer and its potential clinical significance.

High MMP-11 expression associated with low CD8+ T cells decreases the survival rate in patients with breast cancer

Matrix metalloproteinase-11 (MMP-11) promote cancer invasion and metastasis through degrading the extracellular matrix. Protein degradation by MMP-11 in tumor cells may progressively suppress cancer surveillance activities with blocking immune response in breast cancer. The aim of study is to analyze clinicopathological parameters, molecular interactions and anticancer immune response in patients with MMP-11 expression and to provide candidate target drugs. We investigated the clinicopathologic parameters, specific gene sets, tumor antigenicity, and immunologic relevance according to MMP-11 expression in 226 and 776 breast cancer patients from the Hanyang University Guri Hospital (HUGH) cohort and The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) data, respectively. We analyzed pathway networks and in vitro drug response. High MMP-11 expression was associated with worse survival rate in breast cancer from HUGH cohort and TCGA data (all p < 0.05). In analysis of immunologic gene sets, high MMP-11 expression was related to low immune response such as CD8+T cell, CD4+T cell and B cell. In silico cytometry, there was a decrease of cancer testis antigen and low tumor infiltrating lymphocyte in patient with high MMP-11 expression: activated dendritic cell, CD8+T cell, CD4+ memory T cell, and memory B cell. In pathway networks, MMP-11 was linked to the pathways including low immune response, response to growth hormone and catabolic process. We found that pictilisib and AZ960 effectively inhibited the breast cancer cell lines with high MMP-11 expression. Strategies making use of MMP-11-related hub genes could contribute to better clinical management/research for patients with breast cancer.

Identifying Breast Cancer-induced Gene Perturbations and its Application in Guiding Drug Repurposing

Background:

Breast cancer is a complex disease with high prevalence in women, the molecular mechanisms of which are still unclear at present. Most transcriptomic studies on breast cancer focus on differential expression of each gene between tumor and the adjacent normal tissues, while the other perturbations induced by breast cancer including the gene regulation variations, the changes of gene modules and the pathways, which might be critical to the diagnosis, treatment and prognosis of breast cancer are more or less ignored.

Objective:

We presented a complete process to study breast cancer from multiple perspectives, including differential expression analysis, constructing gene co-expression networks, modular differential connectivity analysis, differential gene connectivity analysis, gene function enrichment analysis key driver analysis. In addition, we prioritized the related anti-cancer drugs based on enrichment analysis between differential expression genes and drug perturbation signatures.

Methods:

The RNA expression profiles of 1109 breast cancer tissue and 113 non-tumor tissues were downloaded from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database. Differential expression of RNAs was identified using the “DESeq2” bioconductor package in R, and gene co-expression networks were constructed using the weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA). To compare the module changes and gene co-expression variations between tumor and the adjacent normal tissues, modular differential connectivity (MDC) analysis and differential gene connectivity analysis (DGCA) were performed.

Results:

Top differential genes like MMP11 and COL10A1 were known to be associated with breast cancer. And we found 23 modules in the tumor network had significantly different co-expression patterns. The top differential modules were enriched in Goterms related to breast cancer like MHC protein complex, leukocyte activation, regulation of defense response and so on. In addition, key genes like UBE2T driving the top differential modules were significantly correlated with the patients’ survival. Finally, we predicted some potential breast cancer drugs, such as Eribulin, Taxane, Cisplatin and Oxaliplatin.

Conclusion:

As an indication, this framework might be useful in understanding the molecular pathogenesis of diseases like breast cancer and inferring useful drugs for personalized medication.

Stromal microenvironment promoted infiltration in esophageal adenocarcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma: a multi-cohort gene-based analysis

The stromal microenvironment has been shown to affect the infiltration of esophageal carcinoma (ESCA), which is linked to prognosis. However, the complicated mechanism of how infiltration is influenced by the stromal microenvironment is not well-defined. In this study, a stromal activation classifier was established with ridge cox regression to calculate stroma scores for training (n = 182) and validation cohorts (n = 227) based on the stroma-related 32 hub genes identified by sequential bioinformatics algorithms. Patients with high stromal activation were associated with high T stage and poor prognosis in both esophagus adenocarcinoma and esophagus squamous cell carcinoma. Besides, comprehensive multi-omics analysis was used to outline stromal characterizations of 2 distinct stromal groups. Patients with activated tumor stoma showed high stromal cell infiltration (fibroblasts, endothelial cells, and monocyte macrophages), epithelial-mesenchymal transition, tumor angiogenesis and M2 macrophage polarization (CD163 and CD206). Tumor mutation burden of differential stromal groups was also depicted. In addition, a total of 6 stromal activation markers in ESCA were defined and involved in the function of carcinoma-associated fibroblasts that were crucial in the differentiation of distinct stromal characterizations. Based on these studies, a practical classifier for the stromal microenvironment was successfully proposed to predict the prognosis of ESCA patients.

Cell type-specific transcriptomics of esophageal adenocarcinoma as a scalable alternative for single cell transcriptomics

Single‐cell transcriptomics have revolutionized our understanding of the cell composition of tumors and allowed us to identify new subtypes of cells. Despite rapid technological advancements, single‐cell analysis remains resource‐intense hampering the scalability that is required to profile a sufficient number of samples for clinical associations. Therefore, more scalable approaches are needed to understand the contribution of individual cell types to the development and treatment response of solid tumors such as esophageal adenocarcinoma where comprehensive genomic studies have only led to a small number of targeted therapies. Due to the limited treatment options and late diagnosis, esophageal adenocarcinoma has a poor prognosis. Understanding the interaction between and dysfunction of individual cell populations provides an opportunity for the development of new interventions. In an attempt to address the technological and clinical needs, we developed a protocol for the separation of esophageal carcinoma tissue into leukocytes (CD45+), epithelial cells (EpCAM+), and fibroblasts (two out of PDGFRα, CD90, anti‐fibroblast) by fluorescence‐activated cell sorting and subsequent RNA sequencing. We confirm successful separation of the three cell populations by mapping their transcriptomic profiles to reference cell lineage expression data. Gene‐level analysis further supports the isolation of individual cell populations with high expression of CD3, CD4, CD8, CD19, and CD20 for leukocytes, CDH1 and MUC1 for epithelial cells, and FAP, SMA, COL1A1, and COL3A1 for fibroblasts. As a proof of concept, we profiled tumor samples of nine patients and explored expression differences in the three cell populations between tumor and normal tissue. Interestingly, we found that angiogenesis‐related genes were upregulated in fibroblasts isolated from tumors compared with normal tissue. Overall, we suggest our protocol as a complementary and more scalable approach compared with single‐cell RNA sequencing to investigate associations between clinical parameters and transcriptomic alterations of specific cell populations in esophageal adenocarcinoma.

Exosomal miRNA-139 in cancer-associated fibroblasts inhibits gastric cancer progression by repressing MMP11 expression

Solid tumors consist of various types of stromal cells in addition to cancer cells. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are a major component of the tumor stroma and play an essential role in tumor progression and metastasis in a variety of malignancies, including gastric cancer. However, the effects of CAFs on gastric cancer cells' progression and metastasis are not well studied. Here we show that matrix metalloproteinase 11 (MMP11) in exosomes secreted from CAFs can be delivered into gastric cancer cells. Gastric CAFs promote gastric cancer cell migration partially through exosomal MMP11. Moreover, MMP11 is overexpressed in exosomes purified from plasma of gastric cancer patients and tumor tissues and associated with overall survival of gastric patients. We also find that MMP11 is negatively regulated by exosomal miR-139 in the CAFs of gastric cancer. Exosomal miR-139 inhibits tumor growth and metastasis of gastric cancer cells by decreasing the expression of MMP11 in vitro and in vivo. Thus, we propose that exosomal miR-139 derived from gastric CAFs could inhibit the progression and metastasis of gastric cancer by decreasing MMP11 in tumor microenvironment.

Matrix Metalloproteinase 11 Is a Potential Therapeutic Target in Lung Adenocarcinoma

Lung cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer-associated death, with the etiology largely unknown. The aim of this study was to identify key driver genes with therapeutic potentials in lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD). Transcriptome microarray data from four GEO datasets (GEO: GSE7670, GSE10072, GSE68465, and GSE43458) were jointly analyzed for differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Ontologic analysis showed that most of the upregulated DEGs enriched in collagen catabolic and fibril organization processes were regulated by matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). Matrix metalloproteinase 11 (MMP11), the highest upregulated MMP family member in LUAD-transformed cells, acted in an autocrine manner and was significantly increased in sera of LUAD patients. MMP11 depletion severely impaired LUAD cell proliferation, migration, and invasion in vitro, in line with retarded tumor growth in xenograft models. Treatment of different human LUAD cell lines with anti-MMP11 antibody significantly retarded cell growth and migration. Administration of anti-MMP11 antibody at a dose of 1 μg/g body weight significantly suppressed tumor growth in xenograft models. These findings indicate that MMP11 is a key cancer driver gene in LUAD and is an appealing target for antibody therapy.

Toll-Like Receptor 4 and Matrix Metalloproteases 11 and 13 as Predictors of Tumor Recurrence and Survival in Stage II Colorectal Cancer

Current clinical-pathologic stratification factors do not allow clear identification of high-risk stage II colorectal cancer (CRC) patients. Therefore, the identification of additional prognostic markers is desirable. Toll-like receptor (TLR)-4 is activated during tumorigenesis and matrix metalloproteases (MMPs) are involved in invasion and metastasis. We aimed to evaluate the expression and clinical relevance of TLR4, MMP11 and MMP13 for patients with stage II CRC. Immunohistochemistry was used to study the expression of TLR4, MMP11 and MMP13 in 96 patients with stage II CRC. We measured the global expression and the expression by different cell types (tumor cells, cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) and mononuclear inflammatory cells (MICs)). The potential relationship between expressions of factors and different prognostic variables were evaluated. Our results show significant relationships between either TLR4 expression by tumor cells and MMP11 expression by CAFs and high risk of tumor recurrence. In addition, the concurrence of age ≥ 75 years and the non-expression of MMP11 by CAFs identify a subgroup of patients with a good prognosis. Our results show that TLR4 expression by tumor cells and MMP11 expression by CAFs may to improve the identification of patients with stage II CRC with a high-risk of relapse.

Tumor cell density regulates matrix metalloproteinases for enhanced migration

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) may play a critical role in metastatic cancers, yet multiple human clinical trials targeting MMPs have surprisingly failed. Cancer cell density changes dramatically during the early growth of a primary tumor and during the early seeding steps of secondary tumors and has been implicated in playing an important role in regulating metastasis and drug resistance. This study reveals that the expression of MMPs is tightly regulated by local tumor cell density through the synergistic signaling mechanism of Interleukin 6 (IL-6) and Interleukin 8 (IL-8) via the JAK2/STAT3 complex. Local tumor cell density also plays a role in the responsiveness of cells to matrix metalloproteinases inhibitors (MMPI), such as Batimastat, Marimastat, Bryostatin I, and Cipemastat, where different migratory phenotypes are observed in low and high cell density conditions. Cell density-dependent MMP regulation can be directly targeted by the simultaneous inhibition of IL-6 and IL-8 receptors via Tocilizumab and Reparixin to significantly decrease the expression of MMPs in mouse xenograft models and decrease effective metastasis. This study reveals a new strategy to decrease MMP expression through pharmacological intervention of the cognate receptors of IL-6 and IL-8 to decrease metastatic capacity of tumor cells.

Molecular alterations of cancer cell and tumour microenvironment in metastatic gastric cancer

The term metastasis is widely used to describe the endpoint of the process by which tumour cells spread from the primary location to an anatomically distant site. Achieving successful dissemination is dependent not only on the molecular alterations of the cancer cells themselves, but also on the microenvironment through which they encounter. Here, we reviewed the molecular alterations of metastatic gastric cancer (GC) as it reflects a large proportion of GC patients currently seen in clinic. We hope that further exploration and understanding of the multistep metastatic cascade will yield novel therapeutic targets that will lead to better patient outcomes.

Significance of expression of EIF3h, MMP-10 and MMP-11 in colonic adenocarcinoma

AIM

To detect the expression of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3h (EIF3h), matrix metallopeptidase 10 (MMP-10), and matrix metallopeptidase 11 (MMP-11) in colonic adenocarcinoma and to analyze their clinical significance.

METHODS

One hundred and ten colonic adenocarcinoma tissues, 43 high-grade colorectal intraepithelial neoplasia tissues, 43 low-grade colorectal intraepithelial neoplasia tissues, and 43 normal colonic mucosal tissues were collected. The expression of EIF3h, MMP-10, and MMP-11 in the above tissues was detected by immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

The expression of EIF3h, MMP-10, and MMP-11 differed significantly among the four groups. Expression of EIF3h, MMP-10, and MMP-11 was correlated with lymph node metastasis. Expression of EIF3h was correlated with tumor size, differentiation, proliferation index, and TNM stage. Expression of MMP-10 and MMP-11 was correlated with vascular invasion. There was a positive correlation between MMP-10 and MMP-11 expression in colonic adenocarcinoma.

CONCLUSION

High expression and synergy of EIF3h, MMP-10, and MMP-11 can promote tumor formation and progression in colonic adenocarcinoma. EIF3h may be associated with the prognosis of colonic adenocarcinoma.

Zinc Oxide Nanoparticle-Poly I:C RNA Complexes: Implication as Therapeutics against Experimental Melanoma

There is current interest in harnessing the combined anticancer and immunological effect of nanoparticles (NPs) and RNA. Here, we evaluate the bioactivity of poly I:C (pIC) RNA, bound to anticancer zinc oxide NP (ZnO-NP) against melanoma. Direct RNA association to unfunctionalized ZnO-NP is shown by observing change in size, zeta potential, and absorption/fluorescence spectra upon complexation. RNA corona was visualized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) for the first time. Binding constant (K_b = 1.6-2.8 g^-1 L) was determined by modified Stern-Volmer, absorption, and biological surface activity index analysis. The pIC-ZnO-NP complex increased cell death for both human (A375) and mouse (B16F10) cell lines and suppressed tumor cell growth in BALB/C-B16F10 mouse melanoma model. Ex vivo tumor analysis indicated significant molecular activity such as changes in the level of phosphoproteins JNK, Akt, and inflammation markers IL-6 and IFN-γ. High throughput proteomics analysis revealed zinc oxide and poly I:C-specific and combinational patterns that suggested possible utility as an anticancer and immunotherapeutic strategy against melanoma.

Matrix-metalloproteinases as targets for controlled delivery in cancer: An analysis of upregulation and expression

While commonly known for degradation of the extracellular matrix, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) exhibit broad potential for use in targeting of bioactive and imaging agents in cancer treatment. MMPs are upregulated at all stages of expression in cancers. A comprehensive analysis of published literature on expression of all MMP subtypes at the genetic, protein, and activity levels in normal and diseased tissues indicate targeting applicability in a variety of cancers. This expression significantly increases at advanced cancer stages, providing an improved opportunity for controlled release in higher-stage patients. Since MMPs are integral at every stage of metastasis, MMP roles in cancer are discussed with a focus on MMP distribution and mobility within cells and tumors for cancer targeting applications. Several strategies for MMP utilization in targeting - such as matrix degradation, MMP cleavage, MMP binding, and MMP-induced environmental changes - are addressed.

Preferential epigenetic programming of estrogen response after in utero xenoestrogen (bisphenol-A) exposure

Bisphenol-A (BPA) is an environmentally ubiquitous estrogen-like endocrine-disrupting compound. Exposure to BPA in utero has been linked to female reproductive disorders, including endometrial hyperplasia and breast cancer. Estrogens are an etiological factor in many of these conditions. We sought to determine whether in utero exposure to BPA altered the global CpG methylation pattern of the uterine genome, subsequent gene expression, and estrogen response. Pregnant mice were exposed to an environmentally relevant dose of BPA or DMSO control. Uterine DNA and RNA were examined by using methylated DNA immunoprecipitation methylation microarray, expression microarray, and quantitative PCR. In utero BPA exposure altered the global CpG methylation profile of the uterine genome and subsequent gene expression. The effect on gene expression was not apparent until sexual maturation, which suggested that estrogen response was the primary alteration. Indeed, prenatal BPA exposure preferentially altered adult estrogen-responsive gene expression. Changes in estrogen response were accompanied by altered methylation that preferentially affected estrogen receptor-α (ERα)-binding genes. The majority of genes that demonstrated both altered expression and ERα binding had decreased methylation. BPA selectively altered the normal developmental programming of estrogen-responsive genes via modification of the genes that bind ERα. Gene-environment interactions driven by early life xenoestrogen exposure likely contributes to increased risk of estrogen-related disease in adults.-Jorgensen, E. M., Alderman, M. H., III, Taylor, H. S. Preferential epigenetic programming of estrogen response after in utero xenoestrogen (bisphenol-A) exposure.

The downregulation of miR‑125a‑5p functions as a tumor suppressor by directly targeting MMP‑11 in osteosarcoma

Osteosarcoma is one of the most common primary malignant bone cancers in juveniles and adults. Increasingly, reports indicate that microRNAs (miRNAs) may provide novel therapeutic targets for cancer treatment. The aim of the present study was to investigate the expression of miR‑125a‑5p and to identify its functional significance in osteosarcoma. This indicated that miR‑125a‑5p was downregulated in osteosarcoma tissue and cell lines using reverse transcription‑quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Following transfection with miR‑125a‑5p mimics or the negative control, cell migration, invasion and epithelial‑mesenchymal transition (EMT) assays were conducted in osteosarcoma cells. These results indicated that the overexpression of miR‑125a‑5p resulted in inhibited osteosarcoma cell migration, invasion and EMT in vitro. Furthermore, mechanistic studies showed that matrix metallopeptidase‑11 (MMP‑11), was a direct target of miR‑125a‑5p in osteosarcoma. Taken together, the data demonstrate that miR‑125a‑5p functions as a tumor suppressor gene and serves an important role in inhibiting osteosarcoma cell migration, invasion and EMT by targeting MMP‑11.

Prolyl Hydroxylase 3 Attenuates MCL-1-Mediated ATP Production to Suppress the Metastatic Potential of Colorectal Cancer Cells

Hypoxia is a common feature of solid tumors. Prolyl hydroxylase enzymes (PHD1-3) are molecular oxygen sensors that regulate hypoxia-inducible factor activity, but their functions in metastatic disease remain unclear. Here, we assessed the significance of PHD enzymes during the metastatic spread of colorectal cancer. PHD expression analysis in 124 colorectal cancer patients revealed that reduced tumoral expression of PHD3 correlated with increased frequency of distant metastases and poor outcome. Tumorigenicity and metastatic potential of colorectal tumor cells over and underexpressing PHD3 were investigated in orthotopic and heterotopic tumor models. PHD3 overexpression in a syngeneic tumor model resulted in fewer liver metastases, whereas PHD3 knockdown induced tumor spread. The migration of PHD3-overexpressing tumor cells was also attenuated in vitro Conversely, migratory potential and colony formation were enhanced in PHD3-deficient cells, and this phenotype was associated with enhanced mitochondrial ATP production. Furthermore, the effects of PHD3 deficiency were accompanied by increased mitochondrial expression of the BCL-2 family member, member myeloid cell leukemia sequence 1 (MCL-1), and could be reversed by simultaneous inhibition of MCL-1. MCL-1 protein expression was likewise enhanced in human colorectal tumors expressing low levels of PHD3. Therefore, we demonstrate that downregulation of PHD3 augments metastatic spread in human colorectal cancer and identify MCL-1 as a novel downstream effector of oxygen sensing. Importantly, these findings offer new insight into the possible, context-specific deleterious effects of pharmacologic PHD inhibition. Cancer Res; 76(8); 2219-30. ©2016 AACR.

Insights into the distinct roles of MMP-11 in tumor biology and future therapeutics (Review)

The biological processes of cancer cells such as tumorigenesis, proliferation, angiogenesis, apoptosis and invasion are greatly influenced by the surrounding microenvironment. The ability of solid malignant tumors to alter the microenvironment represents an important characteristic through which tumor cells are able to acquire specific functions necessary for their malignant biological behaviors. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a family of zinc-dependent endopeptidases with the capacity of remodeling extracellular matrix (ECM) by degrading almost all ECM proteins, which plays essential roles during the invasion and metastasis process of solid malignant tumors, including allowing tumor cells to modify the ECM components and release cytokines, ultimately facilitating protease-dependent tumor progression. MMP-11, also named stromelysin-3, is a member of the stromelysin subgroup belonging to MMPs superfamily, which has been detected in cancer cells, stromal cells and adjacent microenvironment. Differently, MMP-11 exerts a dual effect on tumors. On the one hand MMP-11 promotes cancer development by inhibiting apoptosis as well as enhancing migration and invasion of cancer cells, on the other hand MMP-11 plays a negative role against cancer development via suppressing metastasis in animal models. Overexpression of MMP-11 was discovered in sera of cancer patients compared with normal control group as well as in multiple tumor tissue specimens, such as gastric cancer, breast cancer, and pancreatic cancer. At present, some evidence supports that MMP-11 may work as a significant tumor biomarker for early detection of cancer, tumor staging, prognostic analysis, monitoring recurrence during follow-up and also a potential target for immunotherapy against cancer. In view of the importance of MMP-11 in modifying tumor microenvironment and potent antitumoral effects on solid tumors, there is an urgent need for a deeper understanding of how MMP-11 modulates tumor progression, and exploring its potential clinical application.

Matrix metalloproteinase-11 as a marker of metastasis and predictor of poor survival in urothelial carcinomas

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Urothelial carcinomas (UC) of urinary bladder (UB) and upper urinary tract (UT) are heterogeneous diseases with high morbidity and mortality. We looked for genes with metalloendopeptidase activity in a published UBUC transcriptomic database (GSE31684):MMP-11 was the most significant, showing stepwise up-regulation. We analyzed MMP-11 expression and association with clinicopathologic factors and survival in our well-characterized cohort of UCs.

METHODS

We determined MMP-11 expression in 295 UBUCs and 340 UTUCs with immunohistochemistry, evaluated by H-score. In a retrospective study, MMP-11 expression was correlated with clinicopathologic features and with disease-specific survival (DSS) and metastasis-free survival (MeFS). The statistical significance was evaluated with univariate and multivariate analyses.

RESULTS

High MMP-11 expression was significantly associated with advanced pT status, nodal metastasis, high histological grade, vascular and perineural invasion, and frequent mitoses. In multivariate Cox regression analyses, which adjusted for standard clinicopathologic characteristics, MMP-11 expression was independently associated with cancer-specific mortality (hazard ratio [HR] in UTUC:3.027, P = 0.005; in UBUC: 2.631, P = 0.010) and with metastasis development (HR in UTUC:2.261, P = 0.018; in UBUC:1.801, P = 0.026).

CONCLUSIONS

MMP-11 overexpression is associated with aggressive tumor phenotype and unfavorable clinical outcome in UTUC and UBUC, suggesting it may serve as a novel prognostic and therapeutic target. J. Surg. Oncol. 2016;113:700-707. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Obesity and cancer phenotype: Is angiogenesis a missed link?

Obesity remains nowadays one of the main threats to human health, being a problem of worldwide proportions. It is characterized by augmented storage of fatty acids in an enlarged adipose tissue. This process is possible thanks to a rich capillary network, supported by a mechanism that has also a crucial role on cancer: angiogenesis. Given that several studies point obesity as a risk factor for cancer development, angiogenesis may be approached as the missed link between these two pathologies. Understanding the different pathways behind angiogenesis becomes essential to break this link by developing new anti-angiogenic therapies or improving the actual ones. In the first phase, this paper will focus the structural and cellular changes that adipose tissue suffers in obesity. Then, the main pro-angiogenic players will be reviewed, taking into account the pathways that explain their putative role in obesity-cancer link. Finally, the clinical implications of the presented mechanisms will also be regarded, being the main focus on the anti-angiogenic therapies.

Gene expression profiling leads to discovery of correlation of matrix metalloproteinase 11 and heparanase 2 in breast cancer progression

Background

In order to identify biomarkers involved in breast cancer, gene expression profiling was conducted using human breast cancer tissues.

Methods

Total RNAs were extracted from 150 clinical patient tissues covering three breast cancer subtypes (Luminal A, Luminal B, and Triple negative) as well as normal tissues. The expression profiles of a total of 50,739 genes were established from a training set of 32 samples using the Agilent Sure Print G3 Human Gene Expression Microarray technology. Data were analyzed using Agilent Gene Spring GX 12.6 software. The expression of several genes was validated using real-time RT-qPCR.

Results

Data analysis with Agilent GeneSpring GX 12.6 software showed distinct expression patterns between cancer and normal tissue samples. A group of 28 promising genes were identified with ≥ 10-fold changes of expression level and p-values < 0.05. In particular, MMP11 and HPSE2 were closely examined due to the important roles they play in cancer cell growth and migration. Real-time RT-qPCR analyses of both training and testing sets validated the gene expression profiles of MMP11 and HPSE2.

Conclusions

Our findings identified these 2 genes as a novel breast cancer biomarker gene set, which may facilitate the diagnosis and treatment in breast cancer clinical therapies.

BioXpress: an integrated RNA-seq-derived gene expression database for pan-cancer analysis

BioXpress is a gene expression and cancer association database in which the expression levels are mapped to genes using RNA-seq data obtained from The Cancer Genome Atlas, International Cancer Genome Consortium, Expression Atlas and publications. The BioXpress database includes expression data from 64 cancer types, 6361 patients and 17 469 genes with 9513 of the genes displaying differential expression between tumor and normal samples. In addition to data directly retrieved from RNA-seq data repositories, manual biocuration of publications supplements the available cancer association annotations in the database. All cancer types are mapped to Disease Ontology terms to facilitate a uniform pan-cancer analysis. The BioXpress database is easily searched using HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee gene symbol, UniProtKB/RefSeq accession or, alternatively, can be queried by cancer type with specified significance filters. This interface along with availability of pre-computed downloadable files containing differentially expressed genes in multiple cancers enables straightforward retrieval and display of a broad set of cancer-related genes.

Database URL:http://hive.biochemistry.gwu.edu/tools/bioxpress

Evidence for the importance of personalized molecular profiling in pancreatic cancer

OBJECTIVES

There is a growing body of evidence that targeted gene therapy holds great promise for the future treatment of cancer. A crucial step in this therapy is the accurate identification of appropriate candidate genes/pathways for targeted treatment. One approach is to identify variant genes/pathways that are significantly enriched in groups of afflicted individuals relative to control subjects. However, if there are multiple molecular pathways to the same cancer, the molecular determinants of the disease may be heterogeneous among individuals and possibly go undetected by group analyses.

METHODS

In an effort to explore this question in pancreatic cancer, we compared the most significantly differentially expressed genes/pathways between cancer and control patient samples as determined by group versus personalized analyses.

RESULTS

We found little to no overlap between genes/pathways identified by gene expression profiling using group analyses relative to those identified by personalized analyses.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that personalized and not group molecular profiling is the most appropriate approach for the identification of putative candidates for targeted gene therapy of pancreatic and perhaps other cancers with heterogeneous molecular etiology.

Circulating MMP11 and specific antibody immune response in breast and prostate cancer patients

Background

Tumor Associated Antigens are characterized by spontaneous immune response in cancer patients as a consequence of overexpression and epitope-presentation on MHC class I/II machinery. Matrix Metalloprotease 11 (MMP11) expression has been associated with poor prognosis for several cancer types, including breast and prostate cancer.

Methods

MMP11 expression was determined by immunoistochemistry in breast and prostate cancer samples. Circulating MMP11 protein as well as the spontaneous immune responses against MMP11 were analyzed in a set of breast and prostate cancer patients.

Results

In plasma samples MMP11 protein was present in 5/13 breast cancer patients and in 1/12 prostate cancer patients. An antibody response was observed in 7/13 breast cancer patients and in 3/12 prostate cancer patients.

Conclusions

These findings further suggest MMP11 as a promising biomarker for these tumor types and a suitable target for cancer immunotherapy strategies.

A novel minigene scaffold for therapeutic cancer vaccines

Genetic vaccines are emerging as a powerful modality to induce T-cell responses to target tumor associated antigens (TAA). Viral or plasmid DNA or RNA vectors harbor an expression cassette encoding the antigen of choice delivered in vivo by vaccination. In this context, immunizations with minigenes containing selected, highly antigenic, T-cell epitopes of TAAs may have several advantages relative to full-length proteins. The objective of this study was to identify an optimal scaffold for minigene construction. We generated a number of minigenes containing epitopes from the carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) model TAA and utilized muscle DNA electro-gene-transfer (DNA-EGT) to vaccinate HLA-A*0201 (HHD) and CEA/HHD double transgenic mice. The components utilized to construct the minigenes included CD8⁺ T cell epitopes and (or) anchor modified analogs that were selected on the basis of their predicted binding to HLA-*A0201, their uniqueness in the human proteome, and the likelihood of cancer cell natural processing and presentation via MHC-I. Other candidate components comparatively tested included: helper CD4⁺ T-cell epitopes, flanking regions for optimal epitope processing (including both proteasome-dependent and furin-dependent polypeptide processing mechanisms), and immunoenhancing moieties. Through a series of comparative studies and iterations we have identified an optimal minigene scaffold comprising the following elements: human tissue plasminogen activator (TPA) signal peptide, T-cell epitopes connected by furin sensitive linkers, and the E. Coli enterotoxin B subunit. The selected epitope modified minigenes (EMM) delivered by DNA-EGT were able to break immune tolerance in CEA/HHD mice and induce a strong immune response against all epitopes tested, independently of their relative positions within the scaffold. Furthermore, the optimized EMMs delivered via DNA-EGT were more immunogenic and exerted more powerful antitumor effects in a B16-CEA/HHD metastatic melanoma model than a DNA vector encoding the full-length protein or a mixture of the same peptides injected subcutaneously. Our data may shed light on the optimal design of a universal vehicle for epitope-targeted, genetic cancer vaccines.

Knockdown of MMP11 inhibits proliferation and invasion of gastric cancer cells

Matrix metalloproteinase 11 (MMP11 or stromelysin-3) has recently been reported to play a crucial role in the development and progression of multiple malignancies. The aim of this study was to investigate the function of MMP11 expression in human gastric adenocarcinoma (GAC). Using immunohistochemistry assay, we studied the expression level of MMP11 in GAC and adjacent non-cancerous tissues (ANCT). The association between MMP11 expression and tumor size and pathological grade, as well as metastatic potential was analyzed. Through small hairpin RNA (shRNA)-mediated MMP11 knockdown in SGC-7901 GAC cells, we observed the changes of the biological behaviors of GAC cells. Our results indicated that the rate of positive expression of MMP11 was higher in GAC tissues than in ANCT (55.0 vs 30.0 percent, P=0.025). MMP11 expression had no association with the factors of age or gender of the GAC patients, or the size, pathological staging and lymph node metastases of the tumors (each P greater than 0.05). Furthermore, MMP11 knockdown inhibited the proliferative activities and invasive potential of SGC-7901 GAC cells with decreased expression of IGF-1, PCNA and VEGF. Taken together, our findings demonstrated that MMP11 expression was increased in GAC tissues, but did not correlate with the clinicopathologic features. Knockdown of MMP11 expression could inhibit the proliferation and invasion of GAC cells probably through down-regulation of the IGF-1 signaling pathway, suggesting that MMP11 might be a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of gastric cancer.

MicroRNA miR-98 inhibits tumor angiogenesis and invasion by targeting activin receptor-like kinase-4 and matrix metalloproteinase-11

Angiogenesis and invasion are essential processes for solid tumor growth and dissemination. The tumor development process can be dependent on the activation of a series of signaling pathways, including growth factor-activated pathways. MicroRNAs have been shown to be critical for tumorigenesis, but their roles in cancer angiogenesis, invasion and other signaling pathways important for tumor development are still unclear in the context of tumor biology. We investigated the role of microRNA miR-98 in regulating tumor growth, invasion, and angiogenesis using a highly aggressive breast cancer model in vitro and in vitro. We found that the expression of miR-98 inhibited breast cancer cell proliferation, survival, tumor growth, invasion, and angiogenesis. Conversely, inhibition of endogenous miR-98 promoted cell proliferation, survival, tumor growth, invasion, and angiogenesis. It appeared that miR-98 inhibited angiogenesis by modulating endothelial cell activities including cell spreading, cell invasion and tubule formation. Interestingly, miR-98 reduced the expression of ALK4 and MMP11, both of which were potential targets of miR-98. Transfection of an anti-miR-98 construct increased the expression of both targets. We confirmed that mir-98 targeted the 3'-untranslated regions of ALK4 and MMP11. Finally, ALK4- and MMP11-specific siRNAs inhibited breast cancer cell proliferation, survival, and angiogenesis. Rescue experiments with ALK4 and MMP11 constructs reversed the anti-proliferative, anti-invasive and anti-angiogenic effects of miR-98. Our findings define a regulatory role of miR-98 in tumor angiogenesis and invasion through repressed ALK4 and MMP11 expression.

Individual variation of the genetic response to bisphenol a in human foreskin fibroblast cells derived from cryptorchidism and hypospadias patients

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE

We hypothesized that polymorphic differences among individuals might cause variations in the effect that environmental endocrine disruptors (EEDs) have on male genital malformations (MGMs). In this study, individual variation in the genetic response to low-dose bisphenol A (BPA) was investigated in human foreskin fibroblast cells (hFFCs) derived from child cryptorchidism (CO) and hypospadias (HS) patients.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

hFFCs were collected from control children without MGMs (n=5) and child CO and HS patients (n=8 and 21, respectively). BPA exposure (10 nM) was found to inhibit matrix metalloproteinase-11 (MMP11) expression in the HS group (0.74-fold, P=0.0034) but not in the control group (0.93-fold, P=0.84) and CO group (0.94-fold, P=0.70). Significantly lower levels of MMP11 expression were observed in the HS group compared with the control group (0.80-fold, P=0.0088) and CO group (0.79-fold, P=0.039) in response to 10 nM BPA. The effect of single-nucleotide polymorphism rs5000770 (G>A), located within the aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator 2 (ARNT2) locus, on individual sensitivity to low-dose BPA was investigated in the HS group. A significant difference in neurotensin receptor 1 (NTSR1) expression in response to 10 nM BPA was observed between AA and AG/GG groups (n=6 and 15, respectively. P=0.031). However, no significant difference in ARNT2 expression was observed (P=0.18).

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

This study advances our understanding of the specificity of low-dose BPA effects on human reproductive health. Our results suggest that genetic variability among individuals affects susceptibility to the effects of EEDs exposure as a potential cause of HS.