1
|
Xu Y, Wang Z, Li S, Su J, Gao L, Ou J, Lin Z, Luo OJ, Xiao C, Chen G. An in-depth understanding of the role and mechanisms of T cells in immune organ aging and age-related diseases. SCIENCE CHINA. LIFE SCIENCES 2024:10.1007/s11427-024-2695-x. [PMID: 39231902 DOI: 10.1007/s11427-024-2695-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2024] [Accepted: 07/28/2024] [Indexed: 09/06/2024]
Abstract
T cells play a critical and irreplaceable role in maintaining overall health. However, their functions undergo alterations as individuals age. It is of utmost importance to comprehend the specific characteristics of T-cell aging, as this knowledge is crucial for gaining deeper insights into the pathogenesis of aging-related diseases and developing effective therapeutic strategies. In this review, we have thoroughly examined the existing studies on the characteristics of immune organ aging. Furthermore, we elucidated the changes and potential mechanisms that occur in T cells during the aging process. Additionally, we have discussed the latest research advancements pertaining to T-cell aging-related diseases. These findings provide a fresh perspective for the study of T cells in the context of aging.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yudai Xu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine; Institute of Geriatric Immunology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
- Key Laboratory of Viral Pathogenesis & Infection Prevention and Control (Jinan University), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, 510632, China
- Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Great Bay Area Geroscience Joint Laboratory, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | - Zijian Wang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine; Institute of Geriatric Immunology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
- Key Laboratory of Viral Pathogenesis & Infection Prevention and Control (Jinan University), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, 510632, China
- Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Great Bay Area Geroscience Joint Laboratory, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | - Shumin Li
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine; Institute of Geriatric Immunology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
- Key Laboratory of Viral Pathogenesis & Infection Prevention and Control (Jinan University), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, 510632, China
- Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Great Bay Area Geroscience Joint Laboratory, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | - Jun Su
- First Affiliated Hospital, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510630, China
| | - Lijuan Gao
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine; Institute of Geriatric Immunology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
- Key Laboratory of Viral Pathogenesis & Infection Prevention and Control (Jinan University), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, 510632, China
- Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Great Bay Area Geroscience Joint Laboratory, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | - Junwen Ou
- Anti Aging Medical Center, Clifford Hospital, Guangzhou, 511495, China
| | - Zhanyi Lin
- Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital (Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences), Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510080, China
| | - Oscar Junhong Luo
- Department of Systems Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | - Chanchan Xiao
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine; Institute of Geriatric Immunology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China.
- Key Laboratory of Viral Pathogenesis & Infection Prevention and Control (Jinan University), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, 510632, China.
- Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Great Bay Area Geroscience Joint Laboratory, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China.
- The Sixth Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University (Dongguan Eastern Central Hospital), Jinan University, Dongguan, 523000, China.
- Zhuhai Institute of Jinan University, Jinan University, Zhuhai, 519070, China.
| | - Guobing Chen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine; Institute of Geriatric Immunology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China.
- Key Laboratory of Viral Pathogenesis & Infection Prevention and Control (Jinan University), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, 510632, China.
- Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Great Bay Area Geroscience Joint Laboratory, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China.
- The Sixth Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University (Dongguan Eastern Central Hospital), Jinan University, Dongguan, 523000, China.
- Zhuhai Institute of Jinan University, Jinan University, Zhuhai, 519070, China.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Wolf SP, Anastasopoulou V, Drousch K, Diehl MI, Engels B, Yew PY, Kiyotani K, Nakamura Y, Schreiber K, Schreiber H, Leisegang M. One CD4+TCR and One CD8+TCR Targeting Autochthonous Neoantigens Are Essential and Sufficient for Tumor Eradication. Clin Cancer Res 2024; 30:1642-1654. [PMID: 38190111 PMCID: PMC11018470 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-23-2905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2023] [Revised: 11/24/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2024] [Indexed: 01/09/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE To achieve eradication of solid tumors, we examined how many neoantigens need to be targeted with how many T-cell receptors (TCR) by which type of T cells. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Unmanipulated, naturally expressed (autochthonous) neoantigens were targeted with adoptively transferred TCR-engineered autologous T cells (TCR-therapy). TCR-therapy used CD8+ T-cell subsets engineered with TCRs isolated from CD8+ T cells (CD8+TCR-therapy), CD4+ T-cell subsets engineered with TCRs isolated from CD4+ T cells (CD4+TCR-therapy), or combinations of both. The targeted tumors were established for at least 3 weeks and derived from primary autochthonous cancer cell cultures, resembling natural solid tumors and their heterogeneity as found in humans. RESULTS Relapse was common with CD8+TCR-therapy even when targeting multiple different autochthonous neoantigens on heterogeneous solid tumors. CD8+TCR-therapy was only effective against homogenous tumors artificially derived from a cancer cell clone. In contrast, a combination of CD8+TCR-therapy with CD4+TCR-therapy, each targeting one neoantigen, eradicated large and established solid tumors of natural heterogeneity. CD4+TCR-therapy targeted a mutant neoantigen on tumor stroma while direct cancer cell recognition by CD8+TCR-therapy was essential for cure. In vitro data were consistent with elimination of cancer cells requiring a four-cell cluster composed of TCR-engineered CD4+ and CD8+ T cells together with antigen-presenting cells and cancer cells. CONCLUSIONS Two cancer-specific TCRs can be essential and sufficient to eradicate heterogeneous solid tumors expressing unmanipulated, autochthonous targets. We demonstrate that simplifications to adoptive TCR-therapy are possible without compromising efficacy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Steven P. Wolf
- Department of Pathology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
- David and Etta Jonas Center for Cellular Therapy, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637 USA
| | - Vasiliki Anastasopoulou
- Institute of Immunology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), partner site Berlin, and German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Kimberley Drousch
- Institute of Immunology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Markus I. Diehl
- Department of Pathology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Boris Engels
- Department of Pathology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Poh Yin Yew
- Department of Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Kazuma Kiyotani
- Cancer Precision Medicine Center, Japanese Foundation for Cancer Research, Tokyo 135-8550, Japan
| | - Yusuke Nakamura
- Cancer Precision Medicine Center, Japanese Foundation for Cancer Research, Tokyo 135-8550, Japan
| | - Karin Schreiber
- Department of Pathology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
- David and Etta Jonas Center for Cellular Therapy, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637 USA
| | - Hans Schreiber
- Department of Pathology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
- David and Etta Jonas Center for Cellular Therapy, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637 USA
- Committee on Cancer Biology, Committee on Immunology and the Cancer Center, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
- These authors contributed equally as senior authors
| | - Matthias Leisegang
- David and Etta Jonas Center for Cellular Therapy, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637 USA
- Institute of Immunology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), partner site Berlin, and German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- These authors contributed equally as senior authors
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Shin SC, Vickman RE, Filimon B, Yang Y, Hu Z, Mangold KA, Prabhakar BS, Schreiber H, Xu W. The safety and efficacy of systemic delivery of a new liver-de-targeted TGFβ signaling inhibiting adenovirus in an immunocompetent triple negative mouse mammary tumor model. Cancer Gene Ther 2024; 31:574-585. [PMID: 38267626 PMCID: PMC11016465 DOI: 10.1038/s41417-024-00735-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2023] [Revised: 01/09/2024] [Accepted: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 01/26/2024]
Abstract
Aberrant TGFβ signaling is linked to metastasis and tumor immune escape of many cancers including metastatic triple negative breast cancer (mTNBC). Previously, we have found that oncolytic adenoviruses expressing a TGFβ signaling inhibitory protein (sTGFβRIIFc) induced immune activation in a mouse TNBC (4T1) immunocompetent subcutaneous model with intratumoral injection. Systemic administration of adenoviruses can be a superior route to treat mTNBC but faces the challenges of increased toxicity and viral clearance. Thus, we created a liver-de-targeted sTGFβRIIFc- and LyP-1 peptide-expressing adenovirus (mHAdLyp.sT) with enhanced breast cancer cell tropism. Its safety and immune response features were profiled in the 4T1 model. Our data showed that the systemic administration of mHAdLyp.sT resulted in reduced hepatic and systemic toxicity. mHAdLyp.sT was also effective in increasing Th1 cytokines and anti-tumor cell populations by cytokine analysis, spleen/tumor qRT-PCR, and flow cytometry. We further tested the therapeutic effects of mHAdLyp.sT alone and in combination with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs). mHAdLyp.sT alone and with all ICI combinations elicited significant inhibition of lung metastasis by histological analysis. When mHAdLyp.sT was combined with both anti-PD-1 and anti-CTLA-4 antibodies, primary 4T1 tumor growth was also significantly inhibited. We are confident in advancing this new treatment option for mTNBC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Soon Cheon Shin
- Cancer Gene Therapy Program, Department of Medicine, NorthShore University HealthSystem, an Academic Affiliate of the University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine, Endeavor Health Medical Group, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Renee E Vickman
- Center for Personalized Cancer Care, Department of Surgery, NorthShore University HealthSystem, an Academic Affiliate of the University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine, Endeavor Health Medical Group, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Beniamin Filimon
- Cancer Gene Therapy Program, Department of Medicine, NorthShore University HealthSystem, an Academic Affiliate of the University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine, Endeavor Health Medical Group, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Yuefeng Yang
- Cancer Gene Therapy Program, Department of Medicine, NorthShore University HealthSystem, an Academic Affiliate of the University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine, Endeavor Health Medical Group, Evanston, IL, USA
- Department of Experimental Medical Science and Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Treatment of Digestive System Tumors of Zhejiang Province, Ningbo, China
| | - Zebin Hu
- Cancer Gene Therapy Program, Department of Medicine, NorthShore University HealthSystem, an Academic Affiliate of the University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine, Endeavor Health Medical Group, Evanston, IL, USA
- National Institutes for Food and Drug Control, Beijing, China
| | - Kathy A Mangold
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, NorthShore University HealthSystem, Endeavor Health Medical Group, Evanston, IL, USA
- Department of Pathology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Bellur S Prabhakar
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Illinois College of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Hans Schreiber
- Department of Pathology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Weidong Xu
- Cancer Gene Therapy Program, Department of Medicine, NorthShore University HealthSystem, an Academic Affiliate of the University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine, Endeavor Health Medical Group, Evanston, IL, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Xu W, Shin SC, Vickman R, Filimon B, Yang Y, Hu Z, Mangold K, Prabhakar B, Schreiber H. The Safety and Efficacy of Systemic Delivery of a New Liver-de-targeted TGFβ Signaling Inhibiting Adenovirus in an Immunocompetent Triple Negative Mouse Mammary Tumor Model. RESEARCH SQUARE 2023:rs.3.rs-3317863. [PMID: 37790556 PMCID: PMC10543255 DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3317863/v1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/05/2023]
Abstract
Aberrant TGFβ signaling is linked to metastasis and tumor immune escape of many cancers including metastatic triple negative breast cancer (mTNBC). Previously, we have found that oncolytic adenoviruses expressing a TGFβ signaling inhibitory protein (sTGFβRIIFc) induced immune activation in a mouse TNBC (4T1) immunocompetent subcutaneous model with intratumoral injection. Systemic administration of adenoviruses can be a superior route to treat mTNBC but faces the challenges of increased toxicity and viral clearance. Thus, we created a liver-de-targeted sTGFβRIIFc- and LyP-1 peptide-expressing adenovirus (mHAdLyp.sT) with enhanced breast cancer cell tropism. Its safety and immune response features were profiled in the 4T1 model. Our data showed that the systemic administration of mHAdLyp.sT resulted in reduced hepatic and systemic toxicity. mHAdLyp.sT was also effective in increasing Th1 cytokines and anti-tumor cell populations by cytokine analysis, spleen/tumor qRT-PCR, and flow cytometry. We further tested the therapeutic effects of mHAdLyp.sT alone and in combination with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs). mHAdLyp.sT alone and with all ICI combinations elicited significant inhibition of lung metastasis by histological analysis. When mHAdLyp.sT was combined with both anti-PD-1 and anti-CTLA-4 antibodies, primary 4T1 tumor growth was also significantly inhibited. We are confident in advancing this new treatment option for mTNBC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Weidong Xu
- NorthShore University HealthSystem, an Academic Affiliate of the University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
5
|
Haraguchi M, Kiyotani K, Tate T, Sakata S, Sagawa R, Takagi S, Nagayama S, Takeuchi K, Takahashi K, Katayama R. Spatiotemporal commonality of the TCR repertoire in a T-cell memory murine model and in metastatic human colorectal cancer. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2023; 72:2971-2989. [PMID: 37270735 PMCID: PMC10992958 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-023-03473-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2022] [Accepted: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have shown superior clinical responses and significantly prolong overall survival (OS) for many types of cancer. However, some patients exhibit long-term OS, whereas others do not respond to ICI therapy at all. To develop more effective and long-lasting ICI therapy, understanding the host immune response to tumors and the development of biomarkers are imperative. In this study, we established an MC38 immunological memory mouse model by administering an anti-PD-L1 antibody and evaluating the detailed characteristics of the immune microenvironment including the T cell receptor (TCR) repertoire. In addition, we found that the memory mouse can be established by surgical resection of residual tumor following anti-PD-L1 antibody treatment with a success rate of > 40%. In this model, specific depletion of CD8 T cells revealed that they were responsible for the rejection of reinoculated MC38 cells. Analysis of the tumor microenvironment (TME) of memory mice using RNA-seq and flow cytometry revealed that memory mice had a quick and robust immune response to MC38 cells compared with naïve mice. A TCR repertoire analysis indicated that T cells with a specific TCR repertoire were expanded in the TME, systemically distributed, and preserved in the host for a long time period. We also identified shared TCR clonotypes between serially resected tumors in patients with colorectal cancer (CRC). Our results suggest that memory T cells are widely preserved in patients with CRC, and the MC38 memory model is potentially useful for the analysis of systemic memory T-cell behavior.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mizuki Haraguchi
- Division of Experimental Chemotherapy, Cancer Chemotherapy Center, Japanese Foundation for Cancer Research, 3-8-31, Ariake, Koto-Ku, Tokyo, 135-8550, Japan
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-Ku, Tokyo, 113-8421, Japan
| | - Kazuma Kiyotani
- Immunopharmacogenomics Group, Cancer Precision Medicine Center, Japanese Foundation for Cancer Research, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tomohiro Tate
- Immunopharmacogenomics Group, Cancer Precision Medicine Center, Japanese Foundation for Cancer Research, Tokyo, Japan
- Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Seiji Sakata
- Pathology Project for Molecular Targets, Cancer Institute, Japanese Foundation for Cancer Research, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ray Sagawa
- Division of Experimental Chemotherapy, Cancer Chemotherapy Center, Japanese Foundation for Cancer Research, 3-8-31, Ariake, Koto-Ku, Tokyo, 135-8550, Japan
| | - Satoshi Takagi
- Division of Experimental Chemotherapy, Cancer Chemotherapy Center, Japanese Foundation for Cancer Research, 3-8-31, Ariake, Koto-Ku, Tokyo, 135-8550, Japan
| | - Satoshi Nagayama
- Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Cancer Institute Hospital, Japanese Foundation for Cancer Research, Tokyo, Japan
- Department of Surgery, Uji-Tokushukai Medical Center, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Kengo Takeuchi
- Pathology Project for Molecular Targets, Cancer Institute, Japanese Foundation for Cancer Research, Tokyo, Japan
- Division of Pathology, Cancer Institute, Japanese Foundation for Cancer Research, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kazuhisa Takahashi
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-Ku, Tokyo, 113-8421, Japan
| | - Ryohei Katayama
- Division of Experimental Chemotherapy, Cancer Chemotherapy Center, Japanese Foundation for Cancer Research, 3-8-31, Ariake, Koto-Ku, Tokyo, 135-8550, Japan.
- Department of Computational Biology and Medical Sciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Dulal D, Boring A, Terrero D, Johnson T, Tiwari AK, Raman D. Tackling of Immunorefractory Tumors by Targeting Alternative Immune Checkpoints. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:2774. [PMID: 37345111 PMCID: PMC10216651 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15102774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2023] [Revised: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Physiologically, well known or traditional immune checkpoints (ICs), such as CTLA-4 and PD-1, are in place to promote tolerance to self-antigens and prevent generation of autoimmunity. In cancer, the ICs are effectively engaged by the tumor cells or stromal ells from the tumor microenvironment through expression of cognate ligands for the ICs present on the cell surface of CD8+ T lymphocytes. The ligation of ICs on CD8+ T lymphocytes triggers inhibitory signaling pathways, leading to quiescence or an exhaustion of CD8+ T lymphocytes. This results in failure of immunotherapy. To overcome this, several FDA-approved therapeutic antibodies are available, but the clinical outcome is quite variable due to the resistance encountered through upregulated expression of alternate ICs such as VISTA, LAG-3, TIGIT and TIM-3. This review focuses on the roles played by the traditional as well as alternate ICs and the contribution of associated signaling pathways in generating such resistance to immunotherapy. Combinatorial targeting of traditional and alternate ICs might be beneficial for immune-refractory tumors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dharmindra Dulal
- Department of Cell and Cancer Biology, University of Toledo Health Science Campus, Toledo, OH 43614, USA; (D.D.); (A.B.); (A.K.T.)
| | - Andrew Boring
- Department of Cell and Cancer Biology, University of Toledo Health Science Campus, Toledo, OH 43614, USA; (D.D.); (A.B.); (A.K.T.)
| | - David Terrero
- Department of Pharmacology & Experimental Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toledo Main Campus, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - Tiffany Johnson
- Department of Cell and Cancer Biology, University of Toledo Health Science Campus, Toledo, OH 43614, USA; (D.D.); (A.B.); (A.K.T.)
| | - Amit K. Tiwari
- Department of Cell and Cancer Biology, University of Toledo Health Science Campus, Toledo, OH 43614, USA; (D.D.); (A.B.); (A.K.T.)
- Department of Pharmacology & Experimental Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toledo Main Campus, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - Dayanidhi Raman
- Department of Cell and Cancer Biology, University of Toledo Health Science Campus, Toledo, OH 43614, USA; (D.D.); (A.B.); (A.K.T.)
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Milutinovic S, Abe J, Jones E, Kelch I, Smart K, Lauder SN, Somerville M, Ware C, Godkin A, Stein JV, Bogle G, Gallimore A. Three-dimensional Imaging Reveals Immune-driven Tumor-associated High Endothelial Venules as a Key Correlate of Tumor Rejection Following Depletion of Regulatory T Cells. CANCER RESEARCH COMMUNICATIONS 2022; 2:1641-1656. [PMID: 36704666 PMCID: PMC7614106 DOI: 10.1158/2767-9764.crc-21-0123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2021] [Revised: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
High endothelial venules (HEV) are specialized post capillary venules that recruit naïve T cells and B cells into secondary lymphoid organs (SLO) such as lymph nodes (LN). Expansion of HEV networks in SLOs occurs following immune activation to support development of an effective immune response. In this study, we used a carcinogen-induced model of fibrosarcoma to examine HEV remodeling after depletion of regulatory T cells (Treg). We used light sheet fluorescence microscopy imaging to visualize entire HEV networks, subsequently applying computational tools to enable topological mapping and extraction of numerical descriptors of the networks. While these analyses revealed profound cancer- and immune-driven alterations to HEV networks within LNs, these changes did not identify successful responses to treatment. The presence of HEV networks within tumors did however clearly distinguish responders from nonresponders. Finally, we show that a successful treatment response is dependent on coupling tumor-associated HEV (TA-HEV) development to T-cell activation implying that T-cell activation acts as the trigger for development of TA-HEVs which subsequently serve to amplify the immune response by facilitating extravasation of T cells into the tumor mass.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Milutinovic
- Systems Immunity University Research Institute, Henry Wellcome Building, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Jun Abe
- Department of Oncology, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Emma Jones
- Systems Immunity University Research Institute, Henry Wellcome Building, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Inken Kelch
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Kathryn Smart
- Systems Immunity University Research Institute, Henry Wellcome Building, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah N. Lauder
- Systems Immunity University Research Institute, Henry Wellcome Building, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Michelle Somerville
- Systems Immunity University Research Institute, Henry Wellcome Building, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Carl Ware
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, Sanford Burnham Prebys, La Jolla, California
| | - Andrew Godkin
- Systems Immunity University Research Institute, Henry Wellcome Building, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Jens V. Stein
- Department of Oncology, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Gib Bogle
- Auckland Bioengineering Institute, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Awen Gallimore
- Systems Immunity University Research Institute, Henry Wellcome Building, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Gao Y, You M, Yang P. Revisit the signatures of γδ T cells in hepatocellular carcinoma. Clin Transl Med 2022; 12:e859. [PMID: 35538898 PMCID: PMC9092003 DOI: 10.1002/ctm2.859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2022] [Revised: 04/17/2022] [Accepted: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Yanan Gao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Maojun You
- CAS Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Pengyuan Yang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
He W, Hu Y, Chen D, Li Y, Ye D, Zhao Q, Lin L, Shi X, Lu L, Yin Z, He X, Gao Y, Wu Y. Hepatocellular carcinoma-infiltrating γδ T cells are functionally defected and allogenic Vδ2 + γδ T cell can be a promising complement. Clin Transl Med 2022; 12:e800. [PMID: 35390227 PMCID: PMC8989380 DOI: 10.1002/ctm2.800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Revised: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), γδ T cells participate in mediating the anti-tumour response and are linked with a positive prognosis. However, these cells can become pro-tumoural in the tumour microenvironment (TME). We aimed to decipher the immune landscape and functional states of HCC-infiltrating γδ T cells to provide fundamental evidence for the adoptive transfer of allogeneic Vδ2+ γδ T cells in HCC immunotherapy. We performed single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) on γδ T cells derived from HCC tumours and healthy donor livers. Confocal microscopy, flow cytometry and a Luminex assay were applied to validate the scRNA-seq findings. The γδ T cells in the HCC TME entered G2/M cell cycle arrest, and expressed cytotoxic molecules such as interferon-gamma and granzyme B, but were functionally exhausted as indicated by upregulated gene and protein LAG3 expression. The γδ T cells in the HCC TME were dominated by the LAG3+ Vδ1+ population, whereas the Vδ2+ γδ T population was greatly depleted. Moreover, glutamine metabolism of γδ T cells was markedly upregulated in the glutamine-deficient TME. Both in vitro and in vivo experiments showed that glutamine deficiency upregulated LAG3 expression. Finally, our results indicated that ex vivo-expanded Vδ2+ γδ T cells from healthy donor could complement the loss of T cell receptor clonality and effector functions of HCC-derived γδ T cells. This work deciphered the dysfunctional signatures of HCC-infiltrating γδ T cells in the HCC TME, providing scientific support for the use of allogeneic Vδ2+ γδ T cells in HCC cellular therapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wenjing He
- Organ Transplantation UnitFirst Affiliated HospitalSun Yat‐sen UniversityGuangzhouGuangdongP.R. China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Organ Donation and Transplant ImmunologyThe First Affiliated HospitalSun Yat‐sen UniversityGuangzhouGuangdongP.R. China
| | - Yi Hu
- Microbiology and Immunology DepartmentSchool of MedicineJinan UniversityGuangzhouGuangdongP.R. China
| | - Dan Chen
- Zhuhai Institute of Translational MedicineZhuhai People's Hospital (Zhuhai Hospital Affiliated with Jinan University)Jinan UniversityZhuhaiGuangdongP.R. China
| | - Yijia Li
- Zhuhai Institute of Translational MedicineZhuhai People's Hospital (Zhuhai Hospital Affiliated with Jinan University)Jinan UniversityZhuhaiGuangdongP.R. China
| | - Dongmei Ye
- Organ Transplantation UnitFirst Affiliated HospitalSun Yat‐sen UniversityGuangzhouGuangdongP.R. China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Organ Donation and Transplant ImmunologyThe First Affiliated HospitalSun Yat‐sen UniversityGuangzhouGuangdongP.R. China
| | - Qiang Zhao
- Organ Transplantation UnitFirst Affiliated HospitalSun Yat‐sen UniversityGuangzhouGuangdongP.R. China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Organ Donation and Transplant ImmunologyThe First Affiliated HospitalSun Yat‐sen UniversityGuangzhouGuangdongP.R. China
| | - Li Lin
- The Biomedical Translational Research InstituteJinan UniversityGuangzhouGuangdongP.R. China
| | - Xiaomin Shi
- Organ Transplantation UnitFirst Affiliated HospitalSun Yat‐sen UniversityGuangzhouGuangdongP.R. China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Organ Donation and Transplant ImmunologyThe First Affiliated HospitalSun Yat‐sen UniversityGuangzhouGuangdongP.R. China
| | - Ligong Lu
- Zhuhai Institute of Translational MedicineZhuhai People's Hospital (Zhuhai Hospital Affiliated with Jinan University)Jinan UniversityZhuhaiGuangdongP.R. China
| | - Zhinan Yin
- Zhuhai Institute of Translational MedicineZhuhai People's Hospital (Zhuhai Hospital Affiliated with Jinan University)Jinan UniversityZhuhaiGuangdongP.R. China
- The Biomedical Translational Research InstituteJinan UniversityGuangzhouGuangdongP.R. China
| | - Xiaoshun He
- Organ Transplantation UnitFirst Affiliated HospitalSun Yat‐sen UniversityGuangzhouGuangdongP.R. China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Organ Donation and Transplant ImmunologyThe First Affiliated HospitalSun Yat‐sen UniversityGuangzhouGuangdongP.R. China
| | - Yifang Gao
- Organ Transplantation UnitFirst Affiliated HospitalSun Yat‐sen UniversityGuangzhouGuangdongP.R. China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Organ Donation and Transplant ImmunologyThe First Affiliated HospitalSun Yat‐sen UniversityGuangzhouGuangdongP.R. China
| | - Yangzhe Wu
- Zhuhai Institute of Translational MedicineZhuhai People's Hospital (Zhuhai Hospital Affiliated with Jinan University)Jinan UniversityZhuhaiGuangdongP.R. China
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Wolf SP, Wen FT, Schreiber H. Criteria to make animal studies more relevant to treating human cancer. Curr Opin Immunol 2022; 74:25-31. [PMID: 34619458 PMCID: PMC8901458 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2021.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2021] [Revised: 08/28/2021] [Accepted: 09/11/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Certain aspects of experimental tumor models in mice most accurately reflect the biology and immunology of cancer in patients. A survey of experimental cancer immunotherapy papers published in 2020 shows most do not achieve cancer shrinkage although treatment is initiated at an early time point after cancer cell injection, which does not reflect cancer immunotherapy in patients. Even then, few current experimental approaches eradicate the injected malignant cells, most only delay outgrowth. The value of targeting mutation-encoded tumor-specific antigens becomes increasingly evident while problems of finding normal gene-encoded tumor-associated antigens as safe, effective targets persist. It might be time to refocus on realistic experimental settings and truly cancer-specific targets. These antigens are associated with the least risk of side effects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Steven P Wolf
- Department of Pathology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA; David and Etta Jonas Center for Cellular Therapy, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA
| | - Frank T Wen
- Department of Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA
| | - Hans Schreiber
- Department of Pathology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA; David and Etta Jonas Center for Cellular Therapy, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA; Committee on Cancer Biology and Committee on Immunology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Puleo J, Polyak K. A Darwinian perspective on tumor immune evasion. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2022; 1877:188671. [PMID: 34933050 PMCID: PMC8818030 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2021.188671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Revised: 11/21/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Evading immune-mediated destruction is a critical step of tumor evolution and the immune system is one of the strongest selective pressures during tumorigenesis. Analyzing tumor immune evasion from a Darwinian perspective may provide critical insight into the mechanisms of primary immune escape and acquired resistance to immunotherapy. Here, we review the steps required to mount an anti-tumor immune response, describe how each of these steps is disrupted during tumorigenesis, list therapeutic strategies to restore anti-tumor immunity, and discuss each mechanism of immune and therapeutic evasion from a Darwinian perspective.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Julieann Puleo
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Kornelia Polyak
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Age-related changes in the TRB and IGH repertoires in healthy adult males and females. Immunol Lett 2021; 240:71-76. [PMID: 34666136 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2021.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2021] [Revised: 09/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
A diverse immune repertoire is capable of recognizing the enormous universe of foreign antigens encountered over life. Aging has a profound impact on the immune repertoires. However, whether continuous age-related changes in the immune repertoires differ between sexes is unclear. In this study, the characteristics of immune repertoires stratified by sex during aging are deciphered by analyzing T-cell receptor β-chain (TRB) and immunoglobulin heavy chain (IGH) sequences in 361 healthy adults. A similar change was observed between males and females across their lifespan, whereas age-subgroup analysis revealed sex-specific signatures in TRB and IGH repertoires. In regard to TRB, in males, repertoire richness and evenness increases slightly before the age of 32 years and 45 years respectively, and decreases sharply thereafter. Intriguingly, in females, they decrease significantly until around the age 57 years old, and subsequently undergo a stable stage up to the age of 83 years. Although IGH repertoire evenness increases significantly with age in both sexes, richness decreases significantly with age in males but remains stable in females. Moreover, average length of IGH CDR3 increases with age. In conclusion, these findings provide fundamental insights into the mechanisms underlying sex differences in adaptive immunity.
Collapse
|
13
|
Lauder SN, Milutinovic S, Pires A, Smart K, Godkin A, Gallimore A. Using methylcholanthrene-induced fibrosarcomas to study tumor immunology. Methods Cell Biol 2020; 163:59-75. [PMID: 33785169 DOI: 10.1016/bs.mcb.2020.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Mouse models of cancer are essential in furthering our understanding both of the mechanisms that drive tumor development and the immune response that develops in parallel, and also in providing a platform for testing novel anti-cancer therapies. The majority of solid tumor models available rely on the injection of existing cancer cell lines into naïve hosts which, while providing quick and reproducible model systems, typically lack the development of a tumor microenvironment that recapitulates those seen in human cancers. Administration of the carcinogen 3-methylcholanthrene (MCA), allows tumors to develop in situ, forming a tumor microenvironment with an established stroma and vasculature. This article provides a detailed set of protocols for the administration of MCA into mice and the subsequent monitoring of tumors. Protocols are also provided for some of the routinely used downstream applications that can be used for MCA tumors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S N Lauder
- Division of Infection Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - S Milutinovic
- Division of Infection Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - A Pires
- Division of Infection Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - K Smart
- Division of Infection Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - A Godkin
- Division of Infection Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - A Gallimore
- Division of Infection Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, United Kingdom.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Jeuthe S, Kemna J, Kemna CP, Zocholl D, Klopfleisch R, Palme R, Kirschbaum C, Thoene-Reineke C, Kammertoens T. Stress hormones or general well-being are not altered in immune-deficient mice lacking either T- and B- lymphocytes or Interferon gamma signaling if kept under specific pathogen free housing conditions. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0239231. [PMID: 32997686 PMCID: PMC7526874 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0239231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2020] [Accepted: 09/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
It is controversially discussed whether immune-deficient mice experience severity in the absence of infection. Because a comprehensive analysis of the well-being of immune-deficient mice under specific pathogen free conditions is missing, we used a multi-parametric test analyzing, corticosterone, weight, nest building and facial expression over a period of 9 month to determine the well-being of two immune-deficient mouse lines (recombination activating gene 2- and interferon gamma receptor-deficient mice). We do not find evidence for severity when comparing immune-deficient mice to their heterozygous immune-competent littermates. Our data challenge the assumption that immune-deficiency per se regardless of housing conditions causes severity. Based on our study we propose to use objective non-invasive parameters determined by laboratory animal science for decisions concerning severity of immune-deficient mice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Jeuthe
- Animal Facility of the Max-Delbrück-Center for Molecular Medicine, Berlin, Germany
| | - Josephine Kemna
- Department of Gene Therapy and Molecular Immunology, Max-Delbrück-Center for Molecular Medicine, Berlin, Germany
- Institute of Immunology, Charité Campus Berlin Buch, Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Dario Zocholl
- Institut für Biometrie und Klinische Epidemiologie, Charité Campus Mitte, Berlin, Germany
| | - Robert Klopfleisch
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Free University, Berlin, Germany
| | - Rupert Palme
- Unit of Physiology, Pathophysiology and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Christa Thoene-Reineke
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Institute for Animal Welfare, Animal Behavior and Laboratory Animal Science, Free University, Berlin, Germany
| | - Thomas Kammertoens
- Department of Gene Therapy and Molecular Immunology, Max-Delbrück-Center for Molecular Medicine, Berlin, Germany
- Institute of Immunology, Charité Campus Berlin Buch, Berlin, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Wang W, Thomas R, Sizova O, Su DM. Thymic Function Associated With Cancer Development, Relapse, and Antitumor Immunity - A Mini-Review. Front Immunol 2020; 11:773. [PMID: 32425946 PMCID: PMC7203483 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.00773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The thymus is the central lymphoid organ for T cell development, a cradle of T cells, and for central tolerance establishment, an educator of T cells, maintaining homeostatic cellular immunity. T cell immunity is critical to control cancer occurrence, relapse, and antitumor immunity. Evidence on how aberrant thymic function influences cancer remains largely insufficient, however, there has been recent progress. For example, the involuted thymus results in reduced output of naïve T cells and a restricted T cell receptor (TCR) repertoire, inducing immunosenescence and potentially dampening immune surveillance of neoplasia. In addition, the involuted thymus relatively enhances regulatory T (Treg) cell generation. This coupled with age-related accumulation of Treg cells in the periphery, potentially provides a supportive microenvironment for tumors to escape T cell-mediated antitumor responses. Furthermore, acute thymic involution from chemotherapy can create a tumor reservoir, resulting from an inflammatory microenvironment in the thymus, which is suitable for disseminated tumor cells to hide, survive chemotherapy, and become dormant. This may eventually result in cancer metastatic relapse. On the other hand, if thymic involution is wisely taken advantage of, it may be potentially beneficial to antitumor immunity, since the involuted thymus increases output of self-reactive T cells, which may recognize certain tumor-associated self-antigens and enhance antitumor immunity, as demonstrated through depletion of autoimmune regulator (AIRE) gene in the thymus. Herein, we briefly review recent research progression regarding how altered thymic function modifies T cell immunity against tumors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Weikan Wang
- Cell Biology, Immunology, and Microbiology Graduate Program, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, United States
| | - Rachel Thomas
- Cell Biology, Immunology, and Microbiology Graduate Program, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, United States
| | - Olga Sizova
- Department of Hematopoietic Biology and Malignancy, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Dong-Ming Su
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Genetics, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, United States
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Mendoza-Reinoso V, McCauley LK, Fournier PG. Contribution of Macrophages and T Cells in Skeletal Metastasis. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:E1014. [PMID: 32326073 PMCID: PMC7226332 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12041014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2020] [Revised: 04/16/2020] [Accepted: 04/16/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Bone is a common site for metastases with a local microenvironment that is highly conducive for tumor establishment and growth. The bone marrow is replete with myeloid and lymphoid linage cells that provide a fertile niche for metastatic cancer cells promoting their survival and growth. Here, we discuss the role of macrophages and T cells in pro- and anti-tumoral mechanisms, their interaction to support cancer cell growth, and their contribution to the development of skeletal metastases. Importantly, immunotherapeutic strategies targeting macrophages and T cells in cancer are also discussed in this review as they represent a great promise for patients suffering from incurable bone metastases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Mendoza-Reinoso
- Department of Periodontics and Oral Medicine, University of Michigan School of Dentistry, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; (V.M.-R.); (L.K.M.)
| | - Laurie K. McCauley
- Department of Periodontics and Oral Medicine, University of Michigan School of Dentistry, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; (V.M.-R.); (L.K.M.)
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Pierrick G.J. Fournier
- Biomedical Innovation Department, Centro de Investigación Científica y de Educación Superior de Ensenada, Ensenada, BC 22860, Mexico
| |
Collapse
|