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Lee H, Lee TW, Chandrasekharan A, Sung SE, Yim SG, Kim S, Seong KY, Seo MS, Yang SY. Injectable Self-Crosslinkable Thiolated Hyaluronic Acid for Stem Cell Therapy of Atopic Dermatitis. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2022; 8:1613-1622. [PMID: 35245045 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.1c01374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Stem cell therapies offer great promise in regenerative medicine to reinstate the normal function of diseased tissue, thereby avoiding the need for replacement. In stem cell therapies, damaged cells are replaced or restored by regulating inflammation and the immune system. However, the low survival rate and local retention of transplanted cells pose a significant challenge. In this study, injectable self-crosslinkable hydrogels using thiol-functionalized hyaluronic acid (HA-SH) were developed to improve the efficacy of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) for treating atopic dermatitis (AD)-related inflammatory lesions. The gelation kinetics and mechanical properties of HA-SH hydrogels were easily tuned by varying the concentration of the polymer in the precursor solution before injection. The MSC-laden HA-SH hydrogels exhibited high cell viability (>80%) for 1 week and good in vivo biocompatibility after implantation beneath the mouse skin. Moreover, the MSC-laden HA-SH hydrogel showed increased expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines, which can alleviate the immune response. In an AD animal model, a reduction in epidermal thickness and mast cell infiltration was achieved by applying a self-crosslinkable HA-SH solution including MSCs. This HA-based injectable hydrogel represents a potential carrier of stem cells, and its strong immunomodulation capabilities can be utilized for treating inflammation-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyeseon Lee
- Department of Biomaterials Science (BK21 Four Program), Life and Industry Convergence Institute, Pusan National University, Miryang 50463, Korea
| | - Tae Wook Lee
- Department of Biomaterials Science (BK21 Four Program), Life and Industry Convergence Institute, Pusan National University, Miryang 50463, Korea
| | - Ajeesh Chandrasekharan
- Department of Biomaterials Science (BK21 Four Program), Life and Industry Convergence Institute, Pusan National University, Miryang 50463, Korea
| | - Soo-Eun Sung
- Department of Biomaterials Science (BK21 Four Program), Life and Industry Convergence Institute, Pusan National University, Miryang 50463, Korea.,Department of Preclinical Research Center, Daegu-Gyeongbuk Medical Innovation Foundation (DGMIF), Daegu 41061, Korea
| | - Sang-Gu Yim
- Department of Biomaterials Science (BK21 Four Program), Life and Industry Convergence Institute, Pusan National University, Miryang 50463, Korea
| | - Sodam Kim
- Department of Biomaterials Science (BK21 Four Program), Life and Industry Convergence Institute, Pusan National University, Miryang 50463, Korea
| | - Keum-Yong Seong
- Department of Biomaterials Science (BK21 Four Program), Life and Industry Convergence Institute, Pusan National University, Miryang 50463, Korea
| | - Min-Soo Seo
- Department of Preclinical Research Center, Daegu-Gyeongbuk Medical Innovation Foundation (DGMIF), Daegu 41061, Korea
| | - Seung Yun Yang
- Department of Biomaterials Science (BK21 Four Program), Life and Industry Convergence Institute, Pusan National University, Miryang 50463, Korea
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Pallis FR, Conran N, Fertrin KY, Olalla Saad ST, Costa FF, Franco-Penteado CF. Hydroxycarbamide reduces eosinophil adhesion and degranulation in sickle cell anaemia patients. Br J Haematol 2013; 164:286-95. [PMID: 24383847 DOI: 10.1111/bjh.12628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2013] [Accepted: 09/18/2013] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Inflammation, leucocyte and red cell adhesion to the endothelium contribute to the pathogenesis of sickle cell anaemia. Neutrophils appear to be important for vaso-occlusion, however, eosinophils may also participate in this phenomenon. The role of eosinophils in the pathophysiology of sickle cell anaemia (SCA) and the effect of hydroxycarbamide (HC) therapy on the functional properties of these cells are not understood. Patients with SCA and those on HC therapy (SCAHC) were included in the study. SCAHC individuals presented significantly lower absolute numbers of eosinophils than SCA. Furthermore, SCAHC eosinophils demonstrated significantly lower adhesive properties, compared to SCA eosinophils. SCA and SCAHC eosinophils presented greater spontaneous migration when compared with control eosinophils. Baseline eosinophil peroxidase and reactive oxygen species release was higher for SCA individuals than for control individuals, as were plasma levels of eosinophil derived neurotoxin. SCAHC eosinophil degranulation was lower than that of SCA eosinophil degranulation. Eotaxin-1 and RANTES levels were higher in the plasma of SCA and SCAHC individuals, when compared with controls. These data suggest that eosinophils exist in an activated state in SCA and indicate that these cells play a role in the vaso-occlusive process. The exact mechanism by which HC may alter SCA eosinophil properties is not clear.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flavia Rubia Pallis
- Haematology and Haemotherapy Centre - Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia do Sangue (INCTS), UNICAMP, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
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Lee CH, Hong CH, Yu WT, Chuang HY, Huang SK, Chen GS, Yoshioka T, Sakata M, Liao WT, Ko YC, Yu HS. Mechanistic correlations between two itch biomarkers, cytokine interleukin-31 and neuropeptide β-endorphin, via STAT3/calcium axis in atopic dermatitis. Br J Dermatol 2013; 167:794-803. [PMID: 22578170 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.2012.11047.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Itch is the cardinal symptom of atopic dermatitis (AD). β-Endorphin, a neuropeptide, is increased in both AD skin and sera. Interleukin (IL)-31, an itch-relevant cytokine, activates IL-31 receptors in keratinocytes. However, how IL-31 and β-endorphin interact in AD skin remains elusive. OBJECTIVES To investigate the mechanistic interaction of IL-31 and β-endorphin in AD. METHODS This was a prospective cross-sectional study. We recruited adult patients with AD and controls according to Hanifin's AD criteria. Serum levels of IL-31 and β-endorphin were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Expressions of IL-31 receptor A (IL-31RA) and β-endorphin in the skin were assessed by immunohistochemistry. Their expression in the skin and blood was compared and correlated in patients with AD and in controls. We also treated primary keratinocytes with IL-31 and measured calcium influx, β-endorphin production and signalling pathways to define their mechanistic interactions. RESULTS β-Endorphin was increased in the supernatant from IL-31-treated keratinocytes. IL-31 receptor activation resulted in calcium influx and STAT3 activation; pretreatment with STAT3 inhibitor stopped the increase of β-endorphin. Notably, either replacement of extracellular calcium or treatment with 2-aminoethoxydiphenyl borate, an inhibitor for the store-operated channel, blocked STAT3 activation. We found higher levels of blood β-endorphin and IL-31, which were significantly correlated, in patients with AD. Moreover, IL-31RA and β-endorphin were increased and colocalized both in AD human skin and TPA-painted mouse skin. CONCLUSIONS IL-31 receptor activation in keratinocytes induces calcium influx and STAT3-dependent production of β-endorphin. These results might contribute to an understanding of the regulatory mechanisms underlying peripheral itch.
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Affiliation(s)
- C-H Lee
- Department of Dermatology, Kaohsiung Municipal Hsiao-Kang Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
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Jin H, Kagiampakis I, Li P, Liwang PJ. Structural and functional studies of the potent anti-HIV chemokine variant P2-RANTES. Proteins 2010; 78:295-308. [PMID: 19722264 DOI: 10.1002/prot.22542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The N-terminal region of the chemokine RANTES is critical for its function. A synthesized N-terminally modified analog of RANTES, P2-RANTES, was discovered using a phage display selection against living CCR5-expressing cells, and has been reported to inhibit HIV-1 env-mediated cell-cell fusion at subnanomolar levels (Hartley et al. J Virol 2003;77:6637-6644). In the present study we produced this protein using E. coli overexpression and extensively studied its structure and function. The x-ray crystal structure of P2-RANTES was solved and refined at 1.7 A resolution. This protein was found to be predominantly a monomer in solution by analytical ultracentrifugation, but a tetramer in the crystal. In studies of glycosaminoglycan binding, P2-RANTES was found to be significantly less able to bind heparin than wild type RANTES. We also tested this protein for receptor internalization where it was shown to be functional, in cell-cell fusion assays where recombinant P2-RANTES was a potent fusion inhibitor (IC(50) = 2.4 +/- 0.8 nM), and in single round infection assays where P2-RANTES inhibited at subnanomolar levels. Further, in a modified fusion assay designed to test specificity of inhibition, P2-RANTES was also highly effective, with a 65-fold improvement over the fusion inhibitor C37, which is closely related to the clinically approved inhibitor T-20. These studies provide detailed structural and functional information for this novel N-terminally modified chemokine mutant. This information will be very useful in the development of more potent anti-HIV agents. PDB Accession Number: 2vxw.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongjun Jin
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843-2128, USA
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Canavese M, Altruda F, Silengo L. Therapeutic efficacy and immunological response of CCL5 antagonists in models of contact skin reaction. PLoS One 2010; 5:e8725. [PMID: 20090949 PMCID: PMC2806914 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0008725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2009] [Accepted: 12/18/2009] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Skin-infiltrating T-cells play a predominant role in allergic and inflammatory skin diseases such as atopic dermatitis, psoriasis and allergic contact dermatitis. These T-cells are attracted by several chemotactic factors including the chemokine CCL5/RANTES, a CC chemokine inducing both the migration and activation of specific leukocyte subsets. CCL5 has been found to be associated with various cell-mediated hypersensitive disorders such as psoriasis, atopic dermatitis and irritant contact dermatitis. We have used two antagonists, the first, Met-CCL5, a dual CCR1/CCR5 antagonist and the second, a variant in which GAG binding is abrogated, 44AANA47-CCL5, which acts as a dominant negative inhibitor of CCL5. The antagonists were tested in two models of contact skin reaction. The first, irritant contact dermatitis (ICD) is a pathological non-specific inflammatory skin condition arising from the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines by keratinocytes in response to haptens, usually chemicals. The second, contact hypersensitivity (CHS) is a T-cell dependent model, mimicking in part the T-cell-mediated skin diseases such as psoriasis. In both models, the CCL5 antagonists showed therapeutic efficacy by reducing swelling by 50% as well as the reduction of soluble mediators in homogenates derived from challenged ears. These results demonstrate that blocking the receptor or the ligand are both effective strategies to inhibit skin inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Canavese
- Department of Genetics, Biology and Biochemistry, University of Torino, Torino, Italy.
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Abstract
The effects of the recombinant chemokine human RANTES (hRANTES) on the release of glutamate from human neocortex glutamatergic nerve endings were investigated. hRANTES facilitated the spontaneous release of d [(3)H]D-aspartate ([(3)H]DASP-) by binding Pertussis toxin-sensitive G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), whose activation caused Ca(2+) mobilization from inositol trisphosphate-sensitive stores and cytosolic tyrosine kinase-mediated phosphorylations. Facilitation of release switched to inhibition when the effects of hRANTES on the 12 mM K(+)-evoked [(3)H]D-ASP exocytosis were studied. Inhibition of exocytosis relied on activation of Pertussis toxin-sensitive GPCRs negatively coupled to adenylyl cyclase. Both hRANTES effects were prevented by met-RANTES, an antagonist at the chemokine receptors (CCRs) of the CCR1, CCR3, and CCR5 subtypes. Interestingly, human neocortex glutamatergic nerve endings seem to possess all three receptor subtypes. Blockade of CCR1 and CCR5 by antibodies against the extracellular domain of CCRs prevented both the hRANTES effect on [(3)H]D-ASP release, whereas blockade of CCR3 prevented inhibition, but not facilitation, of release. The effects of RANTES on the spontaneous and the evoked release of [(3)H]D-ASP were also observed in experiments with mouse cortical synaptosomes, which may therefore represent an appropriate animal model to study RANTES-induced effects on neurotransmission. It is concluded that glutamate transmission can be modulated in opposite directions by RANTES acting at distinct CCR receptor subtypes coupled to different transduction pathways, consistent with the multiple and sometimes contrasting effects of the chemokine.
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Hogan SP, Rosenberg HF, Moqbel R, Phipps S, Foster PS, Lacy P, Kay AB, Rothenberg ME. Eosinophils: biological properties and role in health and disease. Clin Exp Allergy 2008; 38:709-50. [PMID: 18384431 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2008.02958.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 554] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Eosinophils are pleiotropic multifunctional leukocytes involved in initiation and propagation of diverse inflammatory responses, as well as modulators of innate and adaptive immunity. In this review, the biology of eosinophils is summarized, focusing on transcriptional regulation of eosinophil differentiation, characterization of the growing properties of eosinophil granule proteins, surface proteins and pleiotropic mediators, and molecular mechanisms of eosinophil degranulation. New views on the role of eosinophils in homeostatic function are examined, including developmental biology and innate and adaptive immunity (as well as their interaction with mast cells and T cells) and their proposed role in disease processes including infections, asthma, and gastrointestinal disorders. Finally, strategies for targeted therapeutic intervention in eosinophil-mediated mucosal diseases are conceptualized.
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Mueller A, Mahmoud NG, Strange PG. Diverse signalling by different chemokines through the chemokine receptor CCR5. Biochem Pharmacol 2006; 72:739-48. [PMID: 16844091 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2006.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2006] [Revised: 05/30/2006] [Accepted: 06/01/2006] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
We have investigated the signalling properties of the chemokine receptor, CCR5, using several assays for agonism: stimulation of changes in intracellular Ca(2+) or CCR5 internalisation in CHO cells expressing CCR5 or stimulation of [(35)S]GTPgammaS binding in membranes of CHO cells expressing CCR5. Four isoforms of the chemokine CCL3 with different amino termini (CCL3, CCL3(2-70), CCL3(5-70), CCL3L1) were tested in these assays in order to probe structure/activity relationships. Each isoform exhibited agonism. The pattern of agonism (potency, maximal effect) was different in the three assays, although the rank order was the same with CCL3L1 being the most potent and efficacious. The data show that the amino terminus of the chemokine is important for signalling. A proline at position 2 (CCL3L1) provides for high potency and efficacy but the isoform with a serine at position 2 (CCL3(2-70)) is as efficacious in some assays showing that the proline is not the only determinant of high efficacy. We also increased the sensitivity of CCR5 signalling by treating cells with sodium butyrate, thus increasing the receptor/G protein ratio. This allowed the detection of a change in intracellular Ca(2+) after treatment with CCL7 and Met-RANTES showing that these ligands possess measurable but low efficacy. This study therefore shows that sodium butyrate treatment increases the sensitivity of signalling assays and enables the detection of efficacy in ligands previously considered as antagonists. The use of different assay systems, therefore, provides different estimates of efficacy for some ligands at this receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja Mueller
- School of Animal and Microbial Sciences, University of Reading, PO Box 228, Reading, RG6 6AJ, UK
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Yamagata T, Ichinose M. Agents against cytokine synthesis or receptors. Eur J Pharmacol 2006; 533:289-301. [PMID: 16457805 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2005.12.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/13/2005] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Various cytokines play a critical role in pathophysiology of chronic inflammatory lung diseases including asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). The increasing evidence of the involvement of these cytokines in the development of airway inflammation raises the possibility that these cytokines may become the novel promising therapeutic targets. Studies concerning the inhibition of interleukin (IL)-4 have been discontinued despite promising early results in asthma. Although blocking antibody against IL-5 markedly reduces the infiltration of eosinophils in peripheral blood and airway, it does not seem to be effective in symptomatic asthma, while blocking IL-13 might be more effective. On the contrary, anti-inflammatory cytokines themselves such as IL-10, IL-12, IL-18, IL-23 and interferon-gamma may have a therapeutic potential. Inhibition of TNF-alpha may also be useful in severe asthma or COPD. Many chemokines are also involved in the inflammatory response of asthma and COPD through the recruitment of inflammatory cells. Several small molecule inhibitors of chemokine receptors are now in development for the treatment of asthma and COPD. Antibodies that block IL-8 reduce neutrophilic inflammation. Chemokine CC3 receptor antagonists, which block eosinophil chemotaxis, are now in clinical development for asthma therapy. As many cytokines are involved in the pathophysiology of inflammatory lung diseases, inhibitory agents of the synthesis of multiple cytokines may be more useful tools. Several such agents are now in clinical development.
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MESH Headings
- 3',5'-Cyclic-AMP Phosphodiesterases/antagonists & inhibitors
- 3',5'-Cyclic-AMP Phosphodiesterases/metabolism
- Animals
- Anti-Asthmatic Agents/pharmacology
- Anti-Asthmatic Agents/therapeutic use
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/pharmacology
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/therapeutic use
- Antibodies, Monoclonal, Humanized
- Asthma/drug therapy
- Asthma/metabolism
- Clinical Trials as Topic
- Cyclic Nucleotide Phosphodiesterases, Type 4
- Cytokines/antagonists & inhibitors
- Cytokines/metabolism
- Etanercept
- Humans
- Immunoglobulin G/pharmacology
- Immunoglobulin G/therapeutic use
- Interleukins/antagonists & inhibitors
- Interleukins/metabolism
- Phosphodiesterase Inhibitors/pharmacology
- Phosphodiesterase Inhibitors/therapeutic use
- Pulmonary Disease, Chronic Obstructive/drug therapy
- Pulmonary Disease, Chronic Obstructive/enzymology
- Receptors, Cytokine/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptors, Cytokine/metabolism
- Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor/therapeutic use
- Respiratory System/drug effects
- Respiratory System/metabolism
- Signal Transduction/drug effects
- Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha/antagonists & inhibitors
- Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshiyuki Yamagata
- Third Department of Internal Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Kimiidera 811-1 Wakayama 641-8509, Japan
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10
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Abstract
Chemokines and chemokine receptors are part of a complex network of molecules that play a key role in leukocyte migration and activation. The chemokine family role is crucial in the immune system, orchestrating innate and acquired immune responses, but also in allergic inflammation. A subset of chemokines, including CCL11, CCL24, CCL26, CCL7, CCL13, CCL17, and CCL22 is highly expressed by the three main cell types involved in allergic inflammation: eosinophils, basophils, and Th2 lymphocytes. In vitro and in vivo experimental studies in murine models of asthma as well as evidence from patients with asthma confirm the role of these chemokines and their receptors, including CCR3, CCR4, and CCR8, establishing a subset of chemokine/chemokine receptor that is potentially important in allergic inflammation. Recent data support the concept that interfering with chemokines or chemokine receptors represents a new approach in allergy therapy. However, even if some of them have been shown to be effective in animal models, none is as yet used in human patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gilles Garcia
- Service de Pneumologie et Réanimation respiratoire, Hôpital Antoine Béclère, 157 rue de la Porte de Trivaux, 92140 Clamart, France
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11
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Puneet P, Moochhala S, Bhatia M. Chemokines in acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2005; 288:L3-15. [PMID: 15591040 PMCID: PMC7191630 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00405.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 225] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
A characteristic feature of all inflammatory disorders is the excessive recruitment of leukocytes to the site of inflammation. The loss of control in trafficking these cells contributes to inflammatory diseases. Leukocyte recruitment is a well-orchestrated process that includes several protein families including the large cytokine subfamily of chemotactic cytokines, the chemokines. Chemokines and their receptors are involved in the pathogenesis of several diseases. Acute lung injury that clinically manifests as acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is caused by an uncontrolled systemic inflammatory response resulting from clinical events including major surgery, trauma, multiple transfusions, severe burns, pancreatitis, and sepsis. Systemic inflammatory response syndrome involves activation of alveolar macrophages and sequestered neutrophils in the lung. The clinical hallmarks of ARDS are severe hypoxemia, diffuse bilateral pulmonary infiltrates, and normal intracardiac filling pressures. The magnitude and duration of the inflammatory process may ultimately determine the outcome in patients with ARDS. Recent evidence shows that activated leukocytes and chemokines play a key role in the pathogenesis of ARDS. The expanding number of antagonists of chemokine receptors for inflammatory disorders may hold promise for new medicines to combat ARDS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Padmam Puneet
- Dept. of Pharmacology, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117597
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12
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Wong CK, Ip WK, Lam CWK. Biochemical assessment of intracellular signal transduction pathways in eosinophils: implications for pharmacotherapy. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci 2004; 41:79-113. [PMID: 15077724 DOI: 10.1080/10408360490427624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Allergic asthma and allergic rhinitis are inflammatory diseases of the airway. Cytokines and chemokines produced by T helper (Th) type 2 cells (GM-CSF, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-9, IL-10 and IL-13), eotaxin, transforming growth factor-beta, and IL-11 orchestrate most pathophysiological processes of the late-phase allergic reaction, including the recruitment, activation, and delayed apoptosis of eosinophils, as well as eosinophilic degranulation to release eosinophilic cationic protein, major basic protein, and eosinophil-derived neurotoxin. These processes are regulated through an extensive network of interactive intracellular signal transduction pathways that have been intensively investigated recently. Our present review updates the cytokine and chemokine-mediated signal transduction mechanisms including the RAS-RAF-mitogen-activated protein kinases, Janus kinases (signal transducers and activators of transcription), phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, nuclear factor-kappa B, activator protein-1, GATA, and cyclic AMP-dependent pathways, and describes the roles of different signaling pathways in the regulation of eosinophil differentiation, recruitment, degranulation, and expression of adhesion molecules. We shall also discuss different biochemical methods for the assessment of various intracellular signal transduction molecules, and various antagonists of receptors, modulators, and inhibitors of intracellular signaling molecules, many of which are potential therapeutic agents for treating allergic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun Kwok Wong
- Department of Chemical Pathology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong
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13
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Sørensen LN, Paludan SR. Blocking CC chemokine receptor (CCR) 1 and CCR5 during herpes simplex virus type 2 infection in vivo impairs host defence and perturbs the cytokine response. Scand J Immunol 2004; 59:321-33. [PMID: 15030585 PMCID: PMC7169568 DOI: 10.1111/j.0300-9475.2004.01399.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2003] [Accepted: 12/29/2003] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Elimination of viral infections is dependent on rapid recruitment of leucocytes to infected areas. Chemokines constitute a class of cytokines that regulate migration of leucocytes to sites of infection. In this work, the expression and function of CC chemokine receptor (CCR)1 and CCR5 and their ligands during a generalized herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) infection in mice were studied. Many CCR1 and CCR5 ligands were expressed in infected organs after intraperitoneal infection. In particular, CC chemokine expression in the liver preceded the expression of CCR1 and CCR5, suggesting recruitment of cells bearing these receptors, which correlated with a decrease in viral titres. Administration of Met-RANTES, a CCR1 and CCR5 antagonist, led to impaired antiviral response with significantly higher viral titre in the liver on days 1 and 6 after infection. This observation was accompanied by a decreased and shortened recruitment of natural killer cells to the peritoneum of infected mice treated with the antagonist. Despite this reduced recruitment of antiviral leucocytes in mice receiving Met-RANTES, peritoneal cells from these mice produced markedly enhanced levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Altogether, the results suggest that CCR1 and/or CCR5 are important for both viral clearance and eventual control of the immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- L. N. Sørensen
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Aarhus, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - S. R. Paludan
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Aarhus, Aarhus, Denmark
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14
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Affiliation(s)
- C K Wong
- Department of Chemical Pathology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong
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15
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Inoue Y, Isobe M, Hayashi H. The combined effect of topical CX-659S, a novel diaminouracil derivative, with topical corticosteroid on the three types of allergic responses in mice or guinea pigs. J Pharmacol Sci 2003; 91:71-8. [PMID: 12686733 DOI: 10.1254/jphs.91.71] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
Abstract
CX-659S ((S)-6-amino-5-(6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchroman-2-carboxamido)-3-methyl-1-phenyl-2,4(1H,3H)-pyrimidinedione), a newly discovered anti-inflammatory compound, exerts inhibitory effects against picryl chloride-, oxazolone-, and dinitrochlorobenzene-induced acute contact hypersensitivity responses (CHRs) characterized by Th1-type reactions. Furthermore, this compound suppressed chronic CHRs characterized by Th2-type reactions, which is well known to mimic many, if not all, events occurring within the lesional skin of patients with atopic dermatitis (AD). The present study was conducted to determine the combined effect of topical CX-659S with topical corticosteroid on immediate type (ITR), late type (LTR), and delayed type hypersensitivity (DTHR) allergic reactions that are involved in AD. An ineffective dose of CX-659S (0.03 mg/ear) combined with betamethasone valerate (BV) significantly potentiated inhibitory activity of BV alone (0.1 micro g/ear and 0.3Shizuokag/ear) on both the ITR and the LTR in mice with the ovalbumin (OVA)-induced biphasic cutaneous reaction. Furthermore, the combined effect of CX-659S with BV was also observed on dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB)-induced DTHR in guinea pigs. These results indicate that CX-659S has a combined effect with corticosteroids on every ITR, LTR, and DTHR. Proper treatment with corticosteroids for a safe and effective treatment of AD is needed. Thus, the combination therapy of topical CX-659S with topical corticosteroid would be one of the potential approaches for devising a proper treatment with corticosteroids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshifumi Inoue
- Pharmaceuticals and Biotechnology Laboratory, Japan Energy Corporation, Saitama, Japan
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16
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Abstract
Chemokines belong to a large family of structurally related proteins that play a pivotal role in immune system development and deployment. While a large number of chemokines (approximately 50) and their receptors (approximately 20) have been identified from humans or mice, only a few are known in domestic veterinary species. Recent data implicate CXCL8 (old name, IL-8), CXCL10 (old name, IP-10) (both CXC chemokines) and CCL2 (old name, MCP-1) (a CC chemokine) in veterinary infections, inflammatory diseases or reproduction. There is compelling evidence for neutrophil targeting chemokines such as CXCL8, in ovine bacterial mastitis, bovine pneumonic pasturellosis and equine chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Monocyte and lymphocyte targeting chemokines appear to play a role in caprine arthritis encephalitis (CCL2) and canine endotoxemia (CXCL10). Interestingly CCL2 is considered a missing link between hormonal and cellular control of luteolysis. On the other hand, canine cardiovascular conditions are associated with overexpression of CCL2 and CXCL8. Furthermore, a number of veterinary viral pathogens encode chemokine/chemokine receptor like molecules or chemokine binding proteins that may help viruses to evade the immune system. Here, we provide an overview of the chemokine system and critically evaluate the current literature implicating chemokines in veterinary pathophysiology. Furthermore, we highlight promising areas for further research and discuss how and why chemokine antagonists are viewed as next generation anti-inflammatory drugs for the 21st century.
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Affiliation(s)
- Venu Gangur
- Food Allergy and Immunology Laboratory, Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Michigan State University, East Lansing 48824, USA.
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17
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Meijer RJ, Postma DS, Kauffman HF, Arends LR, Koëter GH, Kerstjens HAM. Accuracy of eosinophils and eosinophil cationic protein to predict steroid improvement in asthma. Clin Exp Allergy 2002; 32:1096-103. [PMID: 12100060 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2222.2002.01412.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is a large variability in clinical response to corticosteroid treatment in patients with asthma. Several markers of inflammation like eosinophils and eosinophil cationic protein (ECP), as well as exhaled nitric oxide (NO), are good candidates to predict clinical response. AIM We wanted to determine whether we could actually predict a favourable response to inhaled corticosteroids in individual patients. METHODS One hundred and twenty patients with unstable asthma were treated with either prednisolone 30 mg/day, fluticasone propionate 1000 microg/day b.i.d. or fluticasone propionate 250 microg/day b.i.d., both via Diskhaler. They were treated during 2 weeks, in a double-blind, parallel group, double dummy design. We measured eosinophils and ECP in blood and sputum, and exhaled nitric oxide as inflammatory parameters before and after 2 weeks in order to predict the changes in forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1), provocative concentration of methacholine causing a 20% fall in FEV1 (PC20 Mch), and asthma quality of life (QOL). Secondly, to test whether these results were applicable in clinical practice we determined the individual prediction of corticosteroid response. RESULTS We found that changes in FEV1, PC20 Mch and QOL with corticosteroids were predominantly predicted by their respective baseline value and to a smaller extent by eosinophils in blood or sputum. ECP, measured in blood or sputum, was certainly not better than eosinophils in predicting clinical response to corticosteroids. Smoking status was an additional predictor for change in FEV1, but not for change in PC20 Mch or QOL. Prediction of a good clinical response was poor. For instance, high sputum eosinophils (> or = 3%) correctly predicted an improvement in PC20 Mch in only 65% of the patients. CONCLUSION Our findings show that baseline values of the clinical parameters used as outcome parameters are the major predictors of clinical response to corticosteroids. Eosinophil percentage in blood or sputum adds to this, whereas ECP provides no additional information. Correct prediction of clinical response in an individual patient, however, remains poor with our currently used clinical and inflammatory parameters.
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Affiliation(s)
- R J Meijer
- Department of Pulmonary Diseases, University Hospital Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
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18
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Matsui M, Weaver J, Proudfoot AEI, Wujek JR, Wei T, Richer E, Trapp BD, Rao A, Ransohoff RM. Treatment of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis with the chemokine receptor antagonist Met-RANTES. J Neuroimmunol 2002; 128:16-22. [PMID: 12098506 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-5728(02)00121-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Specific chemokines and chemokine receptors have been implicated in inflammatory demyelinating diseases of the central nervous system (CNS), including multiple sclerosis (MS) and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Amino-terminal modifications of chemokines can alter receptor interactions, converting agonists to specific antagonists. To examine the function in EAE of murine types 1 and 5 CC chemokine receptors (CCR1 and CCR5), we used Met-RANTES, a peptide that blocks both receptors; controls received heat-inactivated peptide. There was no effect of active treatment on acute-monophasic EAE, regardless whether compound was given at onset or in a pre-treatment regimen. Administered at disease onset, Met-RANTES modestly but significantly ameliorated fixed neurological disability at the endpoint of chronic-relapsing EAE. Met-RANTES treatment did not reduce CNS cellular infiltrates or up-regulation of CCR1 and CCR5 in affected CNS tissues. Analysis of a subset of mice suggested a trend towards reduced axonal pathology in those receiving active treatment. These data indicate that chemokine receptor blockade with Met-RANTES does not affect leukocyte trafficking in chronic-relapsing EAE. Further analysis of the effects of chemokine receptor blockade may need to focus on leukocyte activation within the affected CNS as well as trafficking events.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Axons/drug effects
- Axons/immunology
- Axons/pathology
- Chemokine CCL5/analogs & derivatives
- Chemokine CCL5/pharmacology
- Chemokine CCL5/therapeutic use
- Chemokines/antagonists & inhibitors
- Chemokines/immunology
- Chemokines/metabolism
- Chemotaxis, Leukocyte/drug effects
- Chemotaxis, Leukocyte/immunology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/drug therapy
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/immunology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/pathology
- Female
- Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate Dehydrogenases/metabolism
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Multiple Sclerosis/drug therapy
- Multiple Sclerosis/immunology
- Multiple Sclerosis/pathology
- RNA, Messenger/drug effects
- RNA, Messenger/immunology
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- Receptors, CCR1
- Receptors, CCR5/genetics
- Receptors, Chemokine/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptors, Chemokine/genetics
- Receptors, Chemokine/immunology
- Receptors, Chemokine/metabolism
- Spinal Cord/drug effects
- Spinal Cord/immunology
- Spinal Cord/pathology
- Treatment Failure
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaru Matsui
- Department of Neurosciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
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19
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Wong CK, Zhang J, Ip WK, Lam CWK. Intracellular signal transduction in eosinophils and its clinical significance. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol 2002; 24:165-86. [PMID: 12066845 DOI: 10.1081/iph-120003748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The incidence and prevalence of allergic diseases such as asthma and allergic rhinitis have recently been increasing worldwide. Eosinophils are the principal effector cells for the pathogenesis of allergic inflammation via the secretion of highly cytotoxic granular proteins including eosinophil cationic protein, major basic protein and eosinophil protein X. Blood and tissue eosinophilia is a common manifestation of late-phase allergic inflammation causing tissue damage. The development of eosinophilia correlates with the production of haematopoietic cytokines including interleukin (IL)-3. IL-5 and granulocyte macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF), and eosinophil-specific chemoattractant, eotaxin, from T-lymphocytes and the epithelium respectively. Elucidation of intracellular mechanisms that control the activation, apoptosis and recruitment of eosinophils to tissues is therefore fundamental in understanding these disease processes and provides targets for novel drug therapy. Over the past decade, there has been intensive investigation for the intracellular signal transduction regulating various biological functions of eosinophils and their roles in the pathogenesis of eosinophil-related diseases. This review will emphasize on the cytokine and chemokine-mediated signal transductions including the RAS-RAF-mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK), Janus kinases (JAK)-signal transducers and activators of transcription (STAT), phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kappaB), and various antagonists of receptors and inhibitors of intracellular signaling molecules as potential therapeutic agents of allergic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun Kwok Wong
- Department of Chemical Pathology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, NT
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20
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Mizoue LS, Sullivan SK, King DS, Kledal TN, Schwartz TW, Bacon KB, Handel TM. Molecular determinants of receptor binding and signaling by the CX3C chemokine fractalkine. J Biol Chem 2001; 276:33906-14. [PMID: 11432858 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m101348200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Fractalkine/CX3CL1 is a membrane-tethered chemokine that functions as a chemoattractant and adhesion protein by interacting with the receptor CX3CR1. To understand the molecular basis for the interaction, an extensive mutagenesis study of fractalkine's chemokine domain was undertaken. The results reveal a cluster of basic residues (Lys-8, Lys-15, Lys-37, Arg-45, and Arg-48) and one aromatic (Phe-50) that are critical for binding and/or signaling. The mutant R48A could bind but not induce chemotaxis, demonstrating that Arg-48 is a signaling trigger. This result also shows that signaling residues are not confined to chemokine N termini, as generally thought. F50A showed no detectable binding, underscoring its importance to the stability of the complex. K15A displayed unique signaling characteristics, eliciting a wild-type calcium flux but minimal chemotaxis, suggesting that this mutant can activate some, but not all, pathways required for migration. Fractalkine also binds the human cytomegalovirus receptor US28, and analysis of the mutants indicates that US28 recognizes many of the same epitopes of fractalkine as CX3CR1. Comparison of the binding surfaces of fractalkine and the CC chemokine MCP-1 reveals structural details that may account for their dual recognition by US28 and their selective recognition by host receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- L S Mizoue
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
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21
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Leong KP, Huston DP. Understanding the pathogenesis of allergic asthma using mouse models. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2001; 87:96-109; quiz 110,. [PMID: 11527255 DOI: 10.1016/s1081-1206(10)62201-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This paper reviews the current views of the pathogenesis of airway eosinophilic inflammation and airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR) in allergic asthma based on mouse models of the disease. The reader will also encounter new treatment strategies that have arisen as this knowledge is applied in practice. DATA SOURCES MEDLINE searches were conducted with key words asthma, mouse model, and murine. Additional articles were identified from references in articles and book chapters. STUDY SELECTION Original research papers and review articles from peer-reviewed journals were chosen. RESULTS Although the mouse model does not replicate human asthma exactly, the lessons learned about the pathogenesis of allergic airway inflammation and AHR are generally applicable in humans. Type 2 T helper lymphocytes (Th2) orchestrate the inflammation and are crucial for the development of AHR. Cells and molecules involved in T cell activation (dendritic cells, T cell receptor, major histocompatibility complex molecule, and costimulatory molecules) are also vital. Besides these, no other cell or molecule could be shown to be indispensable for the establishment of the model under all experimental conditions. There are at least three pathways that lead to AHR. One is dependent on immunoglobulin E and mast cells, one on eosinophils and interleukin-5 (IL-5), and one on IL-13. Eosinophils are probably the most important effector cells of AHR. Radical methods to treat asthma have been tested in the animal model, including modifying the polarity of lymphocyte response and antagonizing IL-5. CONCLUSIONS AHR, the hallmark of asthma, is attributable to airway inflammation ultimately mediated by helper T cells via three pathways, at least. The mouse model is also a valuable testing ground for new therapies of asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- K P Leong
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Tan Tock Seng Hospital, Singapore.
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22
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Klein A, Talvani A, Silva PM, Martins MA, Wells TN, Proudfoot A, Luckacs NW, Teixeira MM. Stem cell factor-induced leukotriene B4 production cooperates with eotaxin to mediate the recruitment of eosinophils during allergic pleurisy in mice. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2001; 167:524-31. [PMID: 11418691 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.167.1.524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The understanding of the mechanisms underlying eosinophil recruitment in vivo may aid in the development of novel strategies for the treatment of allergic disorders. In this study, we investigated the role of chemokines in the cascade of events leading to eosinophil recruitment in a stem cell factor (SCF)- and leukotriene B(4) (LTB(4))-dependent allergic pleurisy model in mice. The intrapleural administration of the eosinophil-active chemokines eotaxin, RANTES, and macrophage-inflammatory protein 1alpha (MIP-1alpha) induced a time- and dose-dependent eosinophil recruitment. Pretreatment with anti-eotaxin, but not anti-RANTES or anti-MIP-1alpha, blocked the recruitment of eosinophils following Ag challenge of sensitized animals, and significant eotaxin immunoreactivity was detected in the pleural cavity of these animals. Similarly, only the anti-eotaxin inhibited the eosinophil recruitment induced by injection of SCF in naive animals. However, blockade of SCF did not inhibit the release of eotaxin after Ag challenge of sensitized mice. Akin to its effects on SCF and in the allergic reaction, eotaxin-induced eosinophil recruitment was blocked by the LTB(4) receptor antagonist CP105696. Nevertheless, SCF, but not eotaxin, appeared to regulate the endogenous release of LTB(4) after Ag challenge. Finally, we show that low doses of eotaxin synergized with LTB(4) to induce eosinophil recruitment in the pleural cavity. Overall, the present results show that eotaxin and SCF-induced LTB(4) cooperate to induce eosinophil recruitment into sites of allergic inflammation. Cooperation between inflammatory mediators must be an important phenomenon in vivo, explaining both the ability of lower concentrations of mediators to induce a full-blown functional response and the effectiveness of different strategies at inhibiting these responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Klein
- Immunopharmacology, Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
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23
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Giembycz MA, Lynch OT, De Souza PM, Lindsay MA. Review: G-protein-coupled receptors on eosinophils. Pulm Pharmacol Ther 2001; 13:195-223. [PMID: 11001865 DOI: 10.1006/pupt.2000.0250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- M A Giembycz
- Thoracic Medicine, Imperial College of School of Medicine at the National Heart & Lung Institute, London, UK.
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24
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Pan ZZ, Parkyn L, Ray A, Ray P. Inducible lung-specific expression of RANTES: preferential recruitment of neutrophils. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2000; 279:L658-66. [PMID: 11000125 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.2000.279.4.l658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The chemokine regulated on activation normal T cells expressed and secreted (RANTES) has been implicated in eosinophil chemotaxis in asthma and allergic diseases, which are thought to be T helper (Th) type 2-dominated diseases. However, adoptive transfer of Th1 cells in mice upregulates RANTES gene expression in the lung, and increased RANTES expression has been documented in several Th1 cell-dominated conditions that are associated with neutrophilia. The in vivo role of RANTES in the pathogenesis of disease processes is not well understood. To determine the effect of RANTES expression alone in vivo, we generated transgenic mice that overexpress RANTES specifically in the lung in an inducible fashion. The airways of the transgenic mice overexpressing RANTES displayed a significant increase in neutrophil infiltration compared with that in control mice. The increased airway neutrophilia was also evident when the transgenic mice were tested in a murine model of allergic airway inflammation. RANTES expression also induced expression of the chemokine genes macrophage inflammatory protein-2, 10-kDa interferon-gamma-inducible protein, and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 in the lungs of the transgenic mice. Our studies highlight a hitherto unappreciated role for RANTES in neutrophil trafficking during inflammation. Thus increased RANTES expression, as observed during respiratory viral infections, may play an important role in the associated neutrophilia and exacerbations of asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Z Pan
- Pulmonary and Critical Care Section, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, USA
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25
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Abstract
Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic inflammatory skin disease with increasing incidence and socio-economical relevance. The diagnosis is made on clinical grounds and different diagnostic criteria sets have been established. The majority of all AD cases is associated with a sensitization to environmental allergens and increased serum IgE (so-called extrinsic AD), but about 10--30% of all cases suffer from the so-called intrinsic AD, which obviously lacks any link to the classical atopic diathesis. The genetic background of AD has been investigated by target gene approach by different groups with mostly contradictory results for each of the genes under study. An imbalance in the spectrum of Th1/Th2 responses, a disturbed prostaglandin metabolism, intrinsic defects in keratinocyte function, delayed eosinophil apoptosis, IgE-mediated facilitated antigen presentation by epidermal dendritic cells, a two phase model of the inflammatory response and staphylococcal superantigen effects are among the currently studied pathogenetical aspects of extrinsic AD, which are reviewed in this paper.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Wollenberg
- Department of Dermatology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Germany
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26
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Abstract
The prevalence of asthma is increasing dramatically despite major changes in monitoring and treatment of this disease. Currently available bronchodilators and anti-inflammatory drugs are effective in most patients, although these can have side effects and are mainly symptomatic. Many drugs are now in development for the treatment of asthma. Most of these new therapies are aimed at inhibition of the inflammatory components, with better safety profiles than steroids.
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Affiliation(s)
- C P Bertrand
- Institut de Recherche Jouveinal/Parke Davis, Fresnes, France.
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27
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Gangur V, Oppenheim JJ. Are chemokines essential or secondary participants in allergic responses? Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2000; 84:569-79; quiz 579-81. [PMID: 10875484 DOI: 10.1016/s1081-1206(10)62403-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This review will provide a concise and critical overview of the rapidly evolving concepts in chemokine biology with a special relevance to allergic responses. The article is intended for clinicians with little or no expertise in chemokine biology. DATA SOURCES A detailed literature search was performed through MEDLINE (PubMed). Those reports considered important and relevant to the topic were critically reviewed and their conclusions included. RESULTS Chemokines are a group of structurally related small proteins with a common biological activity of inducing directional migration (chemotaxis) of various cell types. Chemokines such as eotaxins and MCP-4 play a key role in selective eosinophil recruitment to sites of inflammation in allergies and asthma. Several other chemokine activities relevant to allergic responses are: activation of basophils and eosinophils to release inflammatory mediators, regulation of IgE responses, and Th1/Th2-type cytokine balance. A number of therapeutic strategies aimed at inhibiting chemokine function are being tested in animal models of allergies and asthma. CONCLUSIONS Chemokines have been widely viewed as pathogenic mediators of acute and chronic inflammation and tissue damage in allergies and asthma. On the other hand, recent evidence suggests that endogenous production of certain chemokines might be beneficial to the host in preventing allergic response. Met-RANTES, a modified antagonist of RANTES, and eotaxin receptor (CCR3) antagonists, represent promising novel therapeutic agents potentially useful in atopic disorders. Thus, suppression of chemokines may interrupt the sequence of signals culminating in an allergic response. Whether chemokines are actually essential for an allergic response awaits confirmation with gene knockout animal experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Gangur
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunoregulation, Division of Basic Sciences, National Cancer Institute-Frederick Cancer Research and Development Center, Maryland, USA
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28
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Abstract
Despite the youth of the chemokine field, many antagonists of chemokine function have already been identified and tested at the preclinical level. These include neutralizing antibodies, peptidyl and non-peptidyl antagonists and non-specific immunosuppressive agents. These early studies suggest that chemokine agonists have the potential to regulate many diseases, ranging from HIV-1 infection and tumor growth to acute and chronic inflammation. Clinical application will depend on pharmaceutical development. Great strides have been made in defining structural domains of the chemokines involved in receptor binding and activation. The identification of receptors is rapidly progressing, but with 50 potential ligands and 15 characterized receptors, it is obvious that additional molecular studies are needed. The intriguing observation that several pathogens either use chemokine receptors as entry portals or produce chemokine decoys to subvert the immune system suggests that there is much to be learned about the immune system from studies of "virokines." Future studies should lead to the discovery and design of more effective inhibitors and antagonists with therapeutic benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
- O M Howard
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunoregulation, Division of Basic Sciences, Frederick Cancer Research and Development Center, NCI and IRSP, SAIC Frederick, Maryland, USA
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29
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Abstract
Eosinophils are the major effector cells that kill helminthic parasites and are - for unknown reasons present in the dermal part of atopic skin. This review summarizes our knowledge on the chemotactic factors involved in eosinophil tissue recruitment, focusing on the role of eosinophil-chemotactic chemokines. It is the current view that the chemokines RANTES and eotaxin represent the most important eosinophil-attracting chemokines. The inducibility of eotaxin in dermal fibroblasts only upon stimulation with Th2-cytokines IL-4 and IL-13 may explain why eosinophils appear only in the dermis and why the presence of Th2-cytokines is always linked with tissue eosinophilia.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Schröder
- Department of Dermatology and Allergology, University of Kiel, Germany
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