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Mariotti D, Bettini A, Meschi S, Notari S, Francalancia M, Tartaglia E, Lapa D, Specchiarello E, Girardi E, Matusali G, Maggi F. Effect of chemical and physical agents on monkeypox virus infectivity and downstream research applications. Virology 2024; 592:109993. [PMID: 38244323 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2024.109993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2023] [Revised: 12/26/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 01/22/2024]
Abstract
The 2022 global spread of Monkeypox Virus (MPXV) underlined the need to investigate safe-handling procedures of clinical and research samples. Here we evaluated the efficiency in reducing MPXV infectious titer of Triton X-100 (0.1 and 0.2%), UV-C irradiation (15 or 30 min), and heat (56 °C 30 min or 70 °C 5 min). The treatment of MPXV at 70 °C resulted in the strongest decrease of MPXV infectious titer (5.4 Log TCID50/mL), 56 °C and UV-C had a lighter impact (3.9 and 4.3Log), Triton X-100 was less efficient (1.8-2.5Log). Notably, SARS-CoV-2 was much more susceptible to Triton X-100 (4.0 Log decrease). UV-C had the highest impact on MPXV DNA detection by PCR (2.2-4.3 Ct value increase); protein detection by ELISA was dramatically impaired by heating. Overall, UV-C and heating were more effective in lowering MPXV infectious titer but their impact on nucleic acids or protein detection assays must be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Mariotti
- Laboratory of Virology and Biosafety Laboratories, National Institute for Infectious Diseases "Lazzaro Spallanzani" IRCCS, Via Portuense 292, 00149, Rome, Italy
| | - Aurora Bettini
- Laboratory of Virology and Biosafety Laboratories, National Institute for Infectious Diseases "Lazzaro Spallanzani" IRCCS, Via Portuense 292, 00149, Rome, Italy
| | - Silvia Meschi
- Laboratory of Virology and Biosafety Laboratories, National Institute for Infectious Diseases "Lazzaro Spallanzani" IRCCS, Via Portuense 292, 00149, Rome, Italy
| | - Stefania Notari
- Laboratory of Cellular Immunology and Pharmacology, National Institute for Infectious Diseases "Lazzaro Spallanzani" IRCCS, Via Portuense 292, 00149, Rome, Italy
| | - Massimo Francalancia
- Laboratory of Virology and Biosafety Laboratories, National Institute for Infectious Diseases "Lazzaro Spallanzani" IRCCS, Via Portuense 292, 00149, Rome, Italy
| | - Eleonora Tartaglia
- Laboratory of Cellular Immunology and Pharmacology, National Institute for Infectious Diseases "Lazzaro Spallanzani" IRCCS, Via Portuense 292, 00149, Rome, Italy
| | - Daniele Lapa
- Laboratory of Virology and Biosafety Laboratories, National Institute for Infectious Diseases "Lazzaro Spallanzani" IRCCS, Via Portuense 292, 00149, Rome, Italy
| | - Eliana Specchiarello
- Laboratory of Virology and Biosafety Laboratories, National Institute for Infectious Diseases "Lazzaro Spallanzani" IRCCS, Via Portuense 292, 00149, Rome, Italy
| | - Enrico Girardi
- Scientific Direction, National Institute for Infectious Diseases "Lazzaro Spallanzani" IRCCS, Via Portuense 292, 00149, Rome, Italy
| | - Giulia Matusali
- Laboratory of Virology and Biosafety Laboratories, National Institute for Infectious Diseases "Lazzaro Spallanzani" IRCCS, Via Portuense 292, 00149, Rome, Italy.
| | - Fabrizio Maggi
- Laboratory of Virology and Biosafety Laboratories, National Institute for Infectious Diseases "Lazzaro Spallanzani" IRCCS, Via Portuense 292, 00149, Rome, Italy
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2
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Crude Extracts of Talaromyces Strains (Ascomycota) Affect Honey Bee ( Apis mellifera) Resistance to Chronic Bee Paralysis Virus. Viruses 2023; 15:v15020343. [PMID: 36851556 PMCID: PMC9958978 DOI: 10.3390/v15020343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2023] [Revised: 01/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/22/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Viruses contribute significantly to the global decline of honey bee populations. One way to limit the impact of such viruses is the introduction of natural antiviral compounds from fungi as a component of honey bee diets. Therefore, we examined the effect of crude organic extracts from seven strains of the fungal genus Talaromyces in honey bee diets under laboratory conditions. The strains were isolated from bee bread prepared by honey bees infected with chronic bee paralysis virus (CBPV). The antiviral effect of the extracts was also quantified in vitro using mammalian cells as a model system. We found that three extracts (from strains B13, B18 and B30) mitigated CBPV infections and increased the survival rate of bees, whereas other extracts had no effect (B11 and B49) or were independently toxic (B69 and B195). Extract B18 inhibited the replication of feline calicivirus and feline coronavirus (FCoV) in mammalian cells, whereas extracts B18 and B195 reduced the infectivity of FCoV by ~90% and 99%, respectively. Our results show that nonpathogenic fungi (and their products in food stores) offer an underexplored source of compounds that promote disease resistance in honey bees.
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3
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Elveborg S, Monteil VM, Mirazimi A. Methods of Inactivation of Highly Pathogenic Viruses for Molecular, Serology or Vaccine Development Purposes. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11020271. [PMID: 35215213 PMCID: PMC8879476 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11020271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Revised: 02/11/2022] [Accepted: 02/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The handling of highly pathogenic viruses, whether for diagnostic or research purposes, often requires an inactivation step. This article reviews available inactivation techniques published in peer-reviewed journals and their benefits and limitations in relation to the intended application. The bulk of highly pathogenic viruses are represented by enveloped RNA viruses belonging to the Togaviridae, Flaviviridae, Filoviridae, Arenaviridae, Hantaviridae, Peribunyaviridae, Phenuiviridae, Nairoviridae and Orthomyxoviridae families. Here, we summarize inactivation methods for these virus families that allow for subsequent molecular and serological analysis or vaccine development. The techniques identified here include: treatment with guanidium-based chaotropic salts, heat inactivation, photoactive compounds such as psoralens or 1.5-iodonaphtyl azide, detergents, fixing with aldehydes, UV-radiation, gamma irradiation, aromatic disulfides, beta-propiolacton and hydrogen peroxide. The combination of simple techniques such as heat or UV-radiation and detergents such as Tween-20, Triton X-100 or Sodium dodecyl sulfate are often sufficient for virus inactivation, but the efficiency may be affected by influencing factors including quantity of infectious particles, matrix constitution, pH, salt- and protein content. Residual infectivity of the inactivated virus could have disastrous consequences for both laboratory/healthcare personnel and patients. Therefore, the development of inactivation protocols requires careful considerations which we review here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Elveborg
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Uppsala University Hospital, 751 85 Uppsala, Sweden;
- Clinical Microbiology, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, 751 85 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Vanessa M. Monteil
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, 141 52 Huddinge, Sweden;
| | - Ali Mirazimi
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, 141 52 Huddinge, Sweden;
- National Veterinary Institute, 751 89 Uppsala, Sweden
- Correspondence: or ; Tel.: +46-703-672-573
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4
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D'Souza MH, Patel TR. Biodefense Implications of New-World Hantaviruses. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2020; 8:925. [PMID: 32850756 PMCID: PMC7426369 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2020.00925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Hantaviruses, part of the Bunyaviridae family, are a genus of negative-sense, single-stranded RNA viruses that cause two major diseases: New-World Hantavirus Cardiopulmonary Syndrome and Old-World Hemorrhagic Fever with Renal Syndrome. Hantaviruses generally are found worldwide with each disease corresponding to their respective hemispheres. New-World Hantaviruses spread by specific rodent-host reservoirs and are categorized as emerging viruses that pose a threat to global health and security due to their high mortality rate and ease of transmission. Incidentally, reports of Hantavirus categorization as a bioweapon are often contradicted as both US National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention refer to them as Category A and C bioagents respectively, each retaining qualitative levels of importance and severity. Concerns of Hantavirus being engineered into a novel bioagent has been thwarted by Hantaviruses being difficult to culture, isolate, and purify limiting its ability to be weaponized. However, the natural properties of Hantaviruses pose a threat that can be exploited by conventional and unconventional forces. This review seeks to clarify the categorization of Hantaviruses as a bioweapon, whilst defining the practicality of employing New-World Hantaviruses and their effect on armies, infrastructure, and civilian targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Hilary D'Souza
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Alberta RNA Research and Training Institute, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB, Canada
| | - Trushar R Patel
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Alberta RNA Research and Training Institute, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB, Canada.,Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Disease, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Li Ka Shing Institute of Virology and Discovery Lab, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
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5
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Raftery MJ, Lalwani P, Lütteke N, Kobak L, Giese T, Ulrich RG, Radosa L, Krüger DH, Schönrich G. Replication in the Mononuclear Phagocyte System (MPS) as a Determinant of Hantavirus Pathogenicity. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 10:281. [PMID: 32596167 PMCID: PMC7304325 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.00281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Members of different virus families including Hantaviridae cause viral hemorrhagic fevers (VHFs). The decisive determinants of hantavirus-associated pathogenicity are still enigmatic. Pathogenic hantavirus species, such as Puumala virus (PUUV), Hantaan virus (HTNV), Dobrava-Belgrade virus (DOBV), and Sin Nombre virus (SNV), are associated with significant case fatality rates. In contrast, Tula virus (TULV) only sporadically causes mild disease in immunocompetent humans and Prospect Hill virus (PHV) so far has not been associated with any symptoms. They are thus defined here as low pathogenic/apathogenic hantavirus species. We found that productive infection of cells of the mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS), such as monocytes and dendritic cells (DCs), correlated well with the pathogenicity of hantavirus species tested. HTNV (intermediate case fatality rates) replicated more efficiently than PUUV (low case fatality rates) in myeloid cells, whereas low pathogenic/apathogenic hantavirus species did not produce any detectable virus titers. Analysis of PHPUV, a reassortant hantavirus derived from a pathogenic (PUUV) and an apathogenic (PHV) hantavirus species, indicated that the viral glycoproteins are not decisive for replication in MPS cells. Moreover, blocking acidification of endosomes with chloroquine decreased the number of TULV genomes in myeloid cells suggesting a post-entry block for low pathogenic/apathogenic hantavirus species in myeloid cells. Intriguingly, pathogenic but not low pathogenic/apathogenic hantavirus species induced conversion of monocytes into inflammatory DCs. The proinflammatory programming of MPS cells by pathogenic hantavirus species required integrin signaling and viral replication. Our findings indicate that the capacity to replicate in MPS cells is a prominent feature of hantaviral pathogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin J Raftery
- Institute of Virology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Pritesh Lalwani
- Institute of Virology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Nina Lütteke
- Institute of Virology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Lidija Kobak
- Institute of Virology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Thomas Giese
- Institute of Immunology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Rainer G Ulrich
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Lukas Radosa
- Institute of Virology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Detlev H Krüger
- Institute of Virology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Günther Schönrich
- Institute of Virology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
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6
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Kell AM, Hemann EA, Turnbull JB, Gale M. RIG-I-like receptor activation drives type I IFN and antiviral signaling to limit Hantaan orthohantavirus replication. PLoS Pathog 2020; 16:e1008483. [PMID: 32330200 PMCID: PMC7202661 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2020] [Revised: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 03/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathogenic hantaviruses, genus Orthohantaviridae, are maintained in rodent reservoirs with zoonotic transmission to humans occurring through inhalation of rodent excreta. Hantavirus disease in humans is characterized by localized vascular leakage and elevated levels of circulating proinflammatory cytokines. Despite the constant potential for deadly zoonotic transmission to humans, specific virus-host interactions of hantaviruses that lead to innate immune activation, and how these processes impart disease, remain unclear. In this study, we examined the mechanisms of viral recognition and innate immune activation of Hantaan orthohantavirus (HTNV) infection. We identified the RIG-I-like receptor (RLR) pathway as essential for innate immune activation, interferon (IFN) production, and interferon stimulated gene (ISG) expression in response to HTNV infection in human endothelial cells, and in murine cells representative of a non-reservoir host. Our results demonstrate that innate immune activation and signaling through the RLR pathway depends on viral replication wherein the host response can significantly restrict replication in target cells in a manner dependent on the type 1 interferon receptor (IFNAR). Importantly, following HTNV infection of a non-reservoir host murine model, IFNAR-deficient mice had higher viral loads, increased persistence, and greater viral dissemination to lung, spleen, and kidney compared to wild-type animals. Surprisingly, this response was MAVS independent in vivo. Innate immune profiling in these tissues demonstrates that HTNV infection triggers expression of IFN-regulated cytokines early during infection. We conclude that the RLR pathway is essential for recognition of HTNV infection to direct innate immune activation and control of viral replication in vitro, and that additional virus sensing and innate immune response pathways of IFN and cytokine regulation contribute to control of HTNV in vivo. These results reveal a critical role for innate immune regulation in driving divergent outcomes of HTNV infection, and serve to inform studies to identify therapeutic targets to alleviate human hantavirus disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison M. Kell
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, United States of America
| | - Emily A. Hemann
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, United States of America
| | - J. Bryan Turnbull
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, United States of America
| | - Michael Gale
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, United States of America
- Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, University of Washington, Seattle United States of America
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7
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Maroli M, Crosignani B, Piña CI, Coelho R, Martínez VP, Gómez Villafañe IE. New data about home range and movements of Oligoryzomys flavescens (Rodentia: Cricetidae) help to understand the spread and transmission of Andes virus that causes Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome. Zoonoses Public Health 2020; 67:308-317. [PMID: 32034891 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2019] [Revised: 01/08/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome is an emerging infectious disease caused by viruses of the genus Orthohantavirus. The rodent Oligoryzomys flavescens is distributed along four countries of South America. In Argentina, O. flavescens acts as a reservoir of three genotypes of ANDV orthohantavirus. The aims of this work were to estimate home range size and movements-with spool-and-line and radiotelemetry-of infected and non-infected O. flavescens in order to understand the spread and transmission of the virus. O. flavescens use a wide area to satisfice its requirements, reaching a home range of 1.82 ha during spring. Orthohantavirus infection did not change the behaviour of individuals. We observed a great overlapping in the home range of infected and non-infected individuals resulting in a high probability of virus dispersion on rodent population. These results show that human health risks could be high on island environments and knowledge about the movement ecology of O. flavescens provides useful information on prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malena Maroli
- Centro de Investigación Científica y de Transferencia Tecnológica a la Producción, Diamante, Argentina.,Facultad de Ciencia y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Entre Ríos, Entre Ríos, Argentina
| | - Belén Crosignani
- Departamento de Ecología, Genética y Evolución, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Carlos I Piña
- Centro de Investigación Científica y de Transferencia Tecnológica a la Producción, Diamante, Argentina.,Facultad de Ciencia y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Entre Ríos, Entre Ríos, Argentina
| | - Rocío Coelho
- Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Administración Nacional de Laboratorios e Institutos de Salud Dr. Carlos G. Malbrán, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Valeria P Martínez
- Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Administración Nacional de Laboratorios e Institutos de Salud Dr. Carlos G. Malbrán, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Isabel Elisa Gómez Villafañe
- Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Instituto de Ecología, Genética y Evolución (CONICET-UBA), Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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8
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A new inactivation method to facilitate cryo-EM of enveloped, RNA viruses requiring high containment: A case study using Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus (VEEV). J Virol Methods 2019; 277:113792. [PMID: 31786314 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2019.113792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2019] [Revised: 11/22/2019] [Accepted: 11/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The challenges associated with operating electron microscopes (EM) in biosafety level 3 and 4 containment facilities have slowed progress of cryo-EM studies of high consequence viruses. We address this gap in a case study of Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus (VEEV) strain TC-83. Chemical inactivation of viruses may physically distort structure, and hence to verify retention of native structure, we selected VEEV strain TC-83 to develop this methodology as this virus has a 4.8 Å resolution cryo-EM structure. In our method, amplified VEEV TC-83 was concentrated directly from supernatant through a 30 % sucrose cushion, resuspended, and chemically inactivated with 1 % glutaraldehyde. A second 30 % sucrose cushion removed any excess glutaraldehyde that might interfere with single particle analyses. A cryo-EM map of fixed, inactivated VEEV was determined to a resolution of 7.9 Å. The map retained structural features of the native virus such as the icosahedral symmetry, and the organization of the capsid core and the trimeric spikes. Our results suggest that our strategy can easily be adapted for inactivation of other enveloped, RNA viruses requiring BSL-3 or BSL-4 for cryo-EM. However, the validation of inactivation requires the oversight of Biosafety Committee for each Institution.
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9
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Kuenzli AB, Marschall J, Schefold JC, Schafer M, Engler OB, Ackermann-Gäumann R, Reineke DC, Suter-Riniker F, Staehelin C. Hantavirus Cardiopulmonary Syndrome Due to Imported Andes Hantavirus Infection in Switzerland: A Multidisciplinary Challenge, Two Cases and a Literature Review. Clin Infect Dis 2019; 67:1788-1795. [PMID: 30084955 PMCID: PMC6233683 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciy443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2017] [Accepted: 05/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Two travellers returning from South America were diagnosed with Andes hantavirus infection, the only member of the Hantaviridae family known to be transmitted from person to person. We describe the clinical course and therapeutic and infection control measures. While both patients showed high viral load (VL) and shedding over several months, 1 patient recovered within 1 week from severe respiratory illness that required noninvasive ventilation, whereas the second patient developed severe hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome that required extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for 27 days. The clinical course in the latter patient was complicated by severe disseminated intravascular coagulopathy with diffuse hemorrhage that necessitated mass transfusions, as well as by multiple organ failure, including the need for renal replacement therapy. Results of VL in blood, respiratory secretions, and semen for the first 9 months of follow-up are reported. To our knowledge, these are the first cases of Andes hantavirus infection detected in Europe.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jonas Marschall
- Bern University Hospital and University of Bern, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Oliver B Engler
- Spiez Laboratory, Federal Office for Civil Protection, Switzerland
| | | | - David C Reineke
- Bern University Hospital and University of Bern, Switzerland
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10
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Puumala and Tula Virus Differ in Replication Kinetics and Innate Immune Stimulation in Human Endothelial Cells and Macrophages. Viruses 2019; 11:v11090855. [PMID: 31540120 PMCID: PMC6784088 DOI: 10.3390/v11090855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2019] [Revised: 08/23/2019] [Accepted: 09/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Old world hantaviruses cause hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) upon zoonotic transmission to humans. In Europe, the Puumala virus (PUUV) is the main causative agent of HFRS. Tula virus (TULV) is also widely distributed in Europe, but there is little knowledge about the pathogenicity of TULV for humans, as reported cases are rare. We studied the replication of TULV in different cell types in comparison to the pathogenic PUUV and analyzed differences in stimulation of innate immunity. While both viruses replicated to a similar extent in interferon (IFN)-deficient Vero E6 cells, TULV replication in human lung epithelial (A549) cells was slower and less efficient when compared to PUUV. In contrast to PUUV, no replication of TULV could be detected in human microvascular endothelial cells and in macrophages. While a strong innate immune response towards PUUV infection was evident at 48 h post infection, TULV infection triggered only a weak IFN response late after infection of A549 cells. Using appropriate in vitro cell culture models for the orthohantavirus infection, we could demonstrate major differences in host cell tropism, replication kinetics, and innate immune induction between pathogenic PUUV and the presumably non- or low-pathogenic TULV that are not observed in Vero E6 cells and may contribute to differences in virulence.
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11
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Zhao Q, Yang X, Liu H, Hu Y, He M, Huang B, Yao L, Li N, Zhou G, Yin Y, Li M, Gong P, Liu M, Ma J, Ren Z, Wang Q, Xiong W, Fan X, Guo X, Zhang X. Effects of climate factors on hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome in Changchun, 2013 to 2017. Medicine (Baltimore) 2019; 98:e14640. [PMID: 30817583 PMCID: PMC6831229 DOI: 10.1097/md.0000000000014640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) is a rodent-borne disease caused by hantaviruses (HVs). Climate factors have a significant impact on the transmission of HFRS. Here, we characterized the dynamic temporal trend of HFRS and identified the roles of climate factors in its transmission in Changchun, China.Surveillance data of HFRS cases and data on related environmental variables from 2013 to 2017 were collected. A principal components regression (PCR) model was used to quantify the relationship between climate factors and transmission of HFRS.During 2013 to 2017, a distinctly declining temporal trend of annual HFRS incidence was identified. Four principal components were extracted, with a cumulative contribution rate of 89.282%. The association between HFRS epidemics and climate factors was better explained by the PCR model (F = 10.050, P <.001, adjusted R = 0.456) than by the general multiple regression model (F = 2.748, P <.005, adjusted R = 0.397).The monthly trends of HFRS were positively correlated with the mean wind velocity but negatively correlated with the mean temperature, relative humidity, sunshine duration, and accumulative precipitation of the different previous months. The study results may be useful for the development of HFRS preventive initiatives that are customized for Changchun regarding specific climate environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qinglong Zhao
- Jilin Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention
| | - Xiaodi Yang
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Jilin University
| | - Hongjian Liu
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Jilin University
| | | | - Minfu He
- Department of Social Medicine and Health Management, School of Public Health, Jilin University
| | - Biao Huang
- Jilin Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention
| | - Laishun Yao
- Jilin Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention
| | - Na Li
- Jilin Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention
| | - Ge Zhou
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Jilin University
| | - Yuan Yin
- Changchun Center for Disease Control and Preventiona
| | - Meina Li
- The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Ping Gong
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Jilin University
| | - Meitian Liu
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Jilin University
| | - Juan Ma
- Department of Social Medicine and Health Management, School of Public Health, Jilin University
| | - Zheng Ren
- Department of Social Medicine and Health Management, School of Public Health, Jilin University
| | - Qi Wang
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Jilin University
| | - Wenjing Xiong
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Jilin University
| | - Xinwen Fan
- Department of Social Medicine and Health Management, School of Public Health, Jilin University
| | - Xia Guo
- Department of Social Medicine and Health Management, School of Public Health, Jilin University
| | - Xiumin Zhang
- Department of Social Medicine and Health Management, School of Public Health, Jilin University
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12
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Hägele S, Müller A, Nusshag C, Reiser J, Zeier M, Krautkrämer E. Motility of human renal cells is disturbed by infection with pathogenic hantaviruses. BMC Infect Dis 2018; 18:645. [PMID: 30541481 PMCID: PMC6292036 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-018-3583-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2018] [Accepted: 12/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) caused by pathogenic hantaviruses in Europe and Asia is often characterized by acute kidney injury (AKI) with massive proteinuria. Renal filtration depends on the integrity of epithelial and endothelial monolayers in the tubular and glomerular apparatus. Tubular and glomerular cells represent target cells of hantavirus infection. However, the detailed mechanisms of renal impairment induced by hantaviruses are not well understood. Methods We analyzed the cellular consequences of hantavirus infection by measuring adhesion and migration capacity of human renal cells infected with Puumala (PUUV) or Hantaan (HTNV) virus. The impact of hantaviral nucleocapsid proteins (N proteins) on motility was examined by transfection of podocytes. Results Infection of kidney cells with hantavirus species PUUV and HTNV causes a significant reduction of migration capacity. The impaired motility depends on viral replication and transfection of podocytes with N protein of PUUV or HTNV reveals that the expression of N protein alone is sufficient to deteriorate podocyte function. The cellular effects are more pronounced for the more pathogenic HTNV than for PUUV that causes a milder form of HFRS. Conclusions The direct impairment of migration capacity of renal cells by hantaviral N proteins may contribute substantially to proteinuria observed in the clinical picture of hantavirus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Hägele
- Department of Nephrology, University of Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 162, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Alexander Müller
- Department of Nephrology, University of Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 162, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Christian Nusshag
- Department of Medicine I and Clinical Chemistry/Department of Nephrology, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jochen Reiser
- Department of Internal Medicine, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Martin Zeier
- Department of Nephrology, University of Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 162, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Ellen Krautkrämer
- Department of Nephrology, University of Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 162, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany.
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Raftery MJ, Abdelaziz MO, Hofmann J, Schönrich G. Hantavirus-Driven PD-L1/PD-L2 Upregulation: An Imperfect Viral Immune Evasion Mechanism. Front Immunol 2018; 9:2560. [PMID: 30559738 PMCID: PMC6287426 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.02560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2018] [Accepted: 10/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Viruses often subvert antiviral immune responses by taking advantage of inhibitory immune signaling. We investigated if hantaviruses use this strategy. Hantaviruses cause viral hemorrhagic fever (VHF) which is associated with strong immune activation resulting in vigorous CD8+ T cell responses. Surprisingly, we observed that hantaviruses strongly upregulate PD-L1 and PD-L2, the ligands of checkpoint inhibitor programmed death-1 (PD-1). We detected high amounts of soluble PD-L1 (sPD-L1) and soluble PD-L2 (sPD-L2) in sera from hantavirus-infected patients. In addition, we observed hantavirus-induced PD-L1 upregulation in mice with a humanized immune system. The two major target cells of hantaviruses, endothelial cells and monocyte-derived dendritic cells, strongly increased PD-L1 and PD-L2 surface expression upon hantavirus infection in vitro. As an underlying mechanism, we found increased transcript levels whereas membrane trafficking of PD-L1 was not affected. Further analysis revealed that hantavirus-associated inflammatory signals and hantaviral nucleocapsid (N) protein enhance PD-L1 and PD-L2 expression. Cell numbers were strongly reduced when hantavirus-infected endothelial cells were mixed with T cells in the presence of an exogenous proliferation signal compared to uninfected cells. This is compatible with the concept that virus-induced PD-L1 and PD-L2 upregulation contributes to viral immune escape. Intriguingly, however, we observed hantavirus-induced CD8+ T cell bystander activation despite strongly upregulated PD-L1 and PD-L2. This result indicates that hantavirus-induced CD8+ T cell bystander activation bypasses checkpoint inhibition allowing an early antiviral immune response upon virus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin J Raftery
- Berlin Institute of Health, Institute of Virology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Mohammed O Abdelaziz
- Berlin Institute of Health, Institute of Virology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jörg Hofmann
- Berlin Institute of Health, Institute of Virology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Günther Schönrich
- Berlin Institute of Health, Institute of Virology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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Joshi YP, Kim EH, Cheong HK. The influence of climatic factors on the development of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome and leptospirosis during the peak season in Korea: an ecologic study. BMC Infect Dis 2017; 17:406. [PMID: 28592316 PMCID: PMC5463320 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-017-2506-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2016] [Accepted: 05/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) and leptospirosis are seasonal rodent-borne infections in the Republic of Korea (Korea). The occurrences of HFRS and leptospirosis are influenced by climatic variability. However, few studies have examined the effects of local climatic variables on the development of these infections. The purpose of this study was to estimate the effect of climatic factors on the occurrence of HFRS and leptospirosis in Korea. METHODS Daily records on human cases of HFRS and leptospirosis between January 2001 to December 2009 were analyzed. The associations of climatic factors with these cases in high incidence provinces were estimated using the time-series method and multivariate generalized linear Poisson models with a maximal lag of 12 weeks. RESULTS From 2001 to 2009, a total of 2912 HFRS and 889 leptospirosis cases were reported, with overall incidences of 0.67 and 0.21 cases per 100,000, respectively, in the study areas. The increase in minimum temperature (1 °C) at a lag of 11 weeks was associated with 17.8% [95% confidence interval (CI): 15.1, 20.6%] and 22.7% (95% CI: 16.5, 29.3%) increases in HFRS and leptospirosis cases, respectively. A 1-h increase in the daily sunshine was related to a 27.5% (95% CI: 18.2, 37.6%) increase in HFRS at a lag of 0 week. A 1% increase in daily minimum relative humidity and a 1 mm increase in daily rainfall were associated with 4.0% (95% CI:1.8, 6.1) and 2.0% (95% CI: 1.2, 2.8%) increases in weekly leptospirosis cases at 11 and 6 weeks later, respectively. A 1 mJ/m2 increase in daily solar radiation was associated with a 13.7% (95% CI: 4.9, 23.2%) increase in leptospirosis cases, maximized at a 2-week lag. CONCLUSIONS During the peak season in Korea, climatic factors play a significant role in the development of HFRS and leptospirosis. The findings of this study may be applicable to the forecasting and prediction of disease outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yadav Prasad Joshi
- Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, 2066 Seobu-ro, Jangan-gu, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do, 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun-Hye Kim
- Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, 2066 Seobu-ro, Jangan-gu, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do, 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Hae-Kwan Cheong
- Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, 2066 Seobu-ro, Jangan-gu, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do, 16419, Republic of Korea.
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Monchatre-Leroy E, Crespin L, Boué F, Marianneau P, Calavas D, Hénaux V. Spatial and Temporal Epidemiology of Nephropathia Epidemica Incidence and Hantavirus Seroprevalence in Rodent Hosts: Identification of the Main Environmental Factors in Europe. Transbound Emerg Dis 2016; 64:1210-1228. [PMID: 26996739 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.12494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
In Europe, the increasing number of nephropathia epidemica (NE) infections in humans, caused by Puumala virus carried by bank voles (Myodes glareolus), has triggered studies of environmental factors driving these infections. NE infections have been shown to occur in specific geographical areas characterized by environmental factors that influence the distribution and dynamics of host populations and virus persistence in the soil. Here, we review the influence of environmental conditions (including climate factors, food availability and habitat conditions) with respect to incidence in humans and seroprevalence in rodents, considering both direct and indirect transmission pathways. For each type of environmental factor, results and discrepancies between studies are presented and examined in the light of biological hypotheses. Overall, food availability and temperature appear to be the main drivers of host seroprevalence and NE incidence, but data quality and statistical approaches varied greatly among studies. We highlight the issues that now need to be addressed and suggest improvements for study design in regard to the current knowledge on hantavirus epidemiology.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - L Crespin
- INRA, UR346 d'Epidémiologie Animale, F63122 Saint Genès Champanelle, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France.,Université Lyon 1, Lyon, France.,CNRS, UMR5558, Laboratoire de Biométrie et Biologie Evolutive, Villeurbanne, France
| | - F Boué
- Laboratoire de la rage et de la faune sauvage, ANSES, Nancy, France
| | - P Marianneau
- Unité de virologie, Laboratoire de Lyon, ANSES, Lyon, France
| | - D Calavas
- Unité d'épidémiologie, Laboratoire de Lyon, ANSES, Lyon, France
| | - V Hénaux
- Unité d'épidémiologie, Laboratoire de Lyon, ANSES, Lyon, France
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Ryan JR. Category C Diseases and Agents. BIOSECURITY AND BIOTERRORISM 2016. [PMCID: PMC7150296 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-802029-6.00005-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
This chapter covers Category C diseases and agents. These emerging diseases present a very unique challenge to public health officials and infectious disease specialists. Perhaps they have been with us for millions of years, lurking in a dark corner of the environment, waiting for an opportunity to jump from their natural cycle of transmission to a human host. Or they may represent something totally new. Regardless of their origin, an emerging disease pathogen must be characterized quickly by molecular biologists and microbiologists. The dynamics of disease transmission must be investigated by teams of epidemiologists. Treatment regimens must be formulated by clinicians working on the frontlines of the outbreak. Disease prevention strategies and risk communications must be quickly formulated by public health officials. Finally, media attention for emerging disease outbreaks forces government officials at all levels to address the problem with planning and preparedness activities aimed at preserving the health of the public. Specific examples explored in this chapter include Nipah virus, hantavirus, West Nile fever virus, and the coronaviruses that cause severe acute respiratory syndrome and Middle East respiratory syndrome.
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Maroli M, Vadell MV, Iglesias A, Padula PJ, Gómez Villafañe IE. Daily Movements and Microhabitat Selection of Hantavirus Reservoirs and Other Sigmodontinae Rodent Species that Inhabit a Protected Natural Area of Argentina. ECOHEALTH 2015; 12:421-431. [PMID: 26063039 DOI: 10.1007/s10393-015-1038-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2014] [Revised: 05/04/2015] [Accepted: 05/07/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Abundance, distribution, movement patterns, and habitat selection of a reservoir species influence the dispersal of zoonotic pathogens, and hence, the risk for humans. Movements and microhabitat use of rodent species, and their potential role in the transmission of hantavirus were studied in Otamendi Natural Reserve, Buenos Aires, Argentina. Movement estimators and qualitative characteristics of rodent paths were determined by means of a spool and line device method. Sampling was conducted during November and December 2011, and March, April, June, October, and December 2012. Forty-six Oxymycterus rufus, 41 Akodon azarae, 10 Scapteromys aquaticus and 5 Oligoryzomys flavescens were captured. Movement patterns and distances varied according to sex, habitat type, reproductive season, and body size among species. O. flavescens, reservoir of the etiologic agent of hantavirus pulmonary syndrome in the region, moved short distances, had the most linear paths and did not share paths with other species. A. azarae had an intermediate linearity index, its movements were longer in the highland grassland than in the lowland marsh and the salty grassland, and larger individuals traveled longer distances. O. rufus had the most tortuous paths and the males moved more during the non-breeding season. S. aquaticus movements were associated with habitat type with longer distances traveled in the lowland marsh than in the salty grassland. Hantavirus antibodies were detected in 20% of A. azarae and were not detected in any other species. Seropositive individuals were captured during the breeding season and 85% of them were males. A. azarae moved randomly and shared paths with all the other species, which could promote hantavirus spillover events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malena Maroli
- Centro de Investigaciones Científicas y Transferencia de Tecnología a la Producción (CICyTTP), CONICET, Dr. Matteri y España, s/n, E3105BWA, Diamante, Entre Ríos, Argentina
| | - María Victoria Vadell
- Laboratorio de Ecología de Poblaciones, Departamento de Ecología, Genética y Evolución, Instituto IEGEBA (CONICET-UBA), Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Intendente Güiraldes 2160 - Ciudad Universitaria, C1428EGA, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Ayelén Iglesias
- Departamento de Virologia, Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Infecciosas, ANLIS "Dr. C. G. Malbrán", Av.Velez Sarsfield 563, C1282AFF, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Paula Julieta Padula
- Departamento de Virologia, Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Infecciosas, ANLIS "Dr. C. G. Malbrán", Av.Velez Sarsfield 563, C1282AFF, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Isabel Elisa Gómez Villafañe
- Laboratorio de Ecología de Poblaciones, Departamento de Ecología, Genética y Evolución, Instituto IEGEBA (CONICET-UBA), Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Intendente Güiraldes 2160 - Ciudad Universitaria, C1428EGA, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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Xie G, Whiteman MC, Wicker JA, Barrett ADT, Wang T. In vitro analysis of MyD88-mediated cellular immune response to West Nile virus mutant strain infection. J Vis Exp 2014:e52121. [PMID: 25489855 DOI: 10.3791/52121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
An attenuated West Nile virus (WNV), a nonstructural (NS) 4B-P38G mutant, induced higher innate cytokine and T cell responses than the wild-type WNV in mice. Recently, myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) signaling was shown to be important for initial T cell priming and memory T cell development during WNV NS4B-P38G mutant infection. In this study, two flow cytometry-based methods - an in vitro T cell priming assay and an intracellular cytokine staining (ICS) - were utilized to assess dendritic cells (DCs) and T cell functions. In the T cell priming assay, cell proliferation was analyzed by flow cytometry following co-culture of DCs from both groups of mice with carboxyfluorescein succinimidyl ester (CFSE) - labeled CD4(+) T cells of OTII transgenic mice. This approach provided an accurate determination of the percentage of proliferating CD4(+) T cells with significantly improved overall sensitivity than the traditional assays with radioactive reagents. A microcentrifuge tube system was used in both cell culture and cytokine staining procedures of the ICS protocol. Compared to the traditional tissue culture plate-based system, this modified procedure was easier to perform at biosafety level (BL) 3 facilities. Moreover, WNV- infected cells were treated with paraformaldehyde in both assays, which enabled further analysis outside BL3 facilities. Overall, these in vitro immunological assays can be used to efficiently assess cell-mediated immune responses during WNV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guorui Xie
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, The University of Texas Medical Branch
| | | | - Jason A Wicker
- Department of Pathology, The University of Texas Medical Branch
| | - Alan D T Barrett
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, The University of Texas Medical Branch; Department of Pathology, The University of Texas Medical Branch; Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Sealy Center for Vaccine Development, The University of Texas Medical Branch
| | - Tian Wang
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, The University of Texas Medical Branch; Department of Pathology, The University of Texas Medical Branch; Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Sealy Center for Vaccine Development, The University of Texas Medical Branch;
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Thoma BR, Müller J, Bässler C, Georgi E, Osterberg A, Schex S, Bottomley C, Essbauer SS. Identification of factors influencing the Puumala virus seroprevalence within its reservoir in aMontane Forest Environment. Viruses 2014; 6:3944-67. [PMID: 25341661 PMCID: PMC4213572 DOI: 10.3390/v6103944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2014] [Revised: 09/03/2014] [Accepted: 09/29/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Puumala virus (PUUV) is a major cause of mild to moderate haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome and is transmitted by the bank vole (Myodes glareolus). There has been a high cumulative incidence of recorded human cases in South-eastern Germany since 2004 when the region was first recognized as being endemic for PUUV. As the area is well known for outdoor recreation and the Bavarian Forest National Park (BFNP) is located in the region, the increasing numbers of recorded cases are of concern. To understand the population and environmental effects on the seroprevalence of PUUV in bank voles we trapped small mammals at 23 sites along an elevation gradient from 317 to 1420m above sea level. Generalized linear mixed effects models(GLMEM) were used to explore associations between the seroprevalence of PUUV in bank voles and climate and biotic factors. We found that the seroprevalence of PUUV was low (6%–7%) in 2008 and 2009, and reached 29% in 2010. PUUV seroprevalence was positively associated with the local species diversity and deadwood layer, and negatively associated with mean annual temperature, mean annual solar radiation, and herb layer. Based on these findings, an illustrative risk map for PUUV seroprevalence prediction in bank voles was created for an area of the national park. The map will help when planning infrastructure in the national park (e.g., huts, shelters, and trails).
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan R Thoma
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, Neuherbergstr. 11, 80937 Munich, Germany.
| | - Jörg Müller
- Bavarian Forest National Park, Freyunger Str. 2, 94481 Grafenau, Germany.
| | - Claus Bässler
- Bavarian Forest National Park, Freyunger Str. 2, 94481 Grafenau, Germany.
| | - Enrico Georgi
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, Neuherbergstr. 11, 80937 Munich, Germany.
| | - Anja Osterberg
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, Neuherbergstr. 11, 80937 Munich, Germany.
| | - Susanne Schex
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, Neuherbergstr. 11, 80937 Munich, Germany.
| | - Christian Bottomley
- MRC Tropical Epidemiology Group, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel St, London WC1E 7HT, UK.
| | - Sandra S Essbauer
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, Neuherbergstr. 11, 80937 Munich, Germany.
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Lalwani P, Raftery MJ, Kobak L, Rang A, Giese T, Matthaei M, van den Elsen PJ, Wolff T, Krüger DH, Schönrich G. Hantaviral mechanisms driving HLA class I antigen presentation require both RIG-I and TRIF. Eur J Immunol 2013; 43:2566-76. [PMID: 23824566 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201243066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2012] [Revised: 05/24/2013] [Accepted: 06/12/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Hantaviruses are emerging human pathogens. They induce an unusually strong antiviral response of human HLA class I (HLA-I) restricted CD8⁺ T cells that may contribute to tissue damage and hantavirus-associated disease. In this study, we analyzed possible hantaviral mechanisms that enhance the HLA-I antigen presentation machinery. Upon hantavirus infection of various human and primate cell lines, we observed transactivation of promoters controlling classical HLA molecules. Hantavirus-induced HLA-I upregulation required proteasomal activity and was associated with increased TAP expression. Intriguingly, human DCs acquired the capacity to cross-present antigen upon hantavirus infection. Furthermore, knockdown of TIR domain containing adaptor inducing IFN-β or retinoic acid inducible gene I abolished hantavirus-driven HLA-I induction. In contrast, MyD88-dependent viral sensors were not involved in HLA-I induction. Our results show that hantaviruses strongly boost the HLA-I antigen presentation machinery by mechanisms that are dependent on both retinoic acid inducible gene I and TIR domain containing adaptor inducing IFN-β.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pritesh Lalwani
- Institute of Medical Virology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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Kading R, Crabtree M, Miller B. Inactivation of infectious virus and serological detection of virus antigen in Rift Valley fever virus-exposed mosquitoes fixed with paraformaldehyde. J Virol Methods 2013; 189:184-8. [PMID: 23391826 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2013.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2012] [Revised: 01/11/2013] [Accepted: 01/28/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Formaldehyde is routinely used to fix tissues in preparation for pathology studies, however concerns remain that treatment of tissues with cellular fixatives may not entirely inactivate infectious virus particles. This concern is of particular regulatory importance for research involving viruses that are classified as select agents such as Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV). Therefore, the specific aims of this study were to (1) assay RVFV-exposed Aedes aegypti mosquitoes fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde for the presence of infectious RVFV particles at various time points following infection and (2) demonstrate the utility of immunofluorescence assay (IFA) for the detection of RVFV antigen in various tissues of paraformaldehyde-fixed mosquitoes. Mosquitoes were administered an infectious blood meal containing one of two strains of RVFV, harvested at various time points following infection, intrathoracically inoculated with 4% paraformaldehyde, and fixed overnight at 4°C. The infection status of a subset of mosquitoes was verified by IFA on leg tissues prior to fixation, and infectivity of RVFV in fixed mosquito carcasses was determined by Vero cell plaque assay. Paraformaldehyde-fixed mosquitoes harvested 14 days post infection were also paraffin-embedded and sectioned for detection of RVFV antigen to particular tissues by IFA. None of the RVFV-exposed mosquitoes tested by Vero cell plaque assay contained infectious RVFV after fixation. Furthermore, incubation of mosquito sections with trypsin prior to antibody staining is recommended for optimal visualization of RVFV antigen in infected mosquito tissues by IFA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebekah Kading
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of Vector-borne Diseases, Arbovirus Diseases Branch, 3156 Rampart Road, Mail Stop P02, Fort Collins, CO 80521, USA.
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Seoul virus-infected rat lung endothelial cells and alveolar macrophages differ in their ability to support virus replication and induce regulatory T cell phenotypes. J Virol 2012; 86:11845-55. [PMID: 22915818 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01233-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Hantaviruses cause a persistent infection in reservoir hosts that is attributed to the upregulation of regulatory responses and downregulation of proinflammatory responses. To determine whether rat alveolar macrophages (AMs) and lung microvascular endothelial cells (LMVECs) support Seoul virus (SEOV) replication and contribute to the induction of an environment that polarizes CD4(+) T cell differentiation toward a regulatory T (Treg) cell phenotype, cultured primary rat AMs and LMVECs were mock infected or infected with SEOV and analyzed for viral replication, cytokine and chemokine responses, and expression of cell surface markers that are related to T cell activation. Allogeneic CD4(+) T cells were cocultured with SEOV-infected or mock-infected AMs or LMVECs and analyzed for helper T cell (i.e., Treg, Th17, Th1, and Th2) marker expression and Treg cell frequency. SEOV RNA and infectious particles in culture media were detected in both cell types, but at higher levels in LMVECs than in AMs postinfection. Expression of Ifnβ, Ccl5, and Cxcl10 and surface major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC-II) and MHC-I was not altered by SEOV infection in either cell type. SEOV infection significantly increased Tgfβ mRNA in AMs and the amount of programmed cell death 1 ligand 1 (PD-L1) in LMVECs. SEOV-infected LMVECs, but not AMs, induced a significant increase in Foxp3 expression and Treg cell frequency in allogeneic CD4(+) T cells, which was virus replication and cell contact dependent. These data suggest that in addition to supporting viral replication, AMs and LMVECs play distinct roles in hantavirus persistence by creating a regulatory environment through increased Tgfβ, PD-L1, and Treg cell activity.
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Heyman P, Thoma BR, Marié JL, Cochez C, Essbauer SS. In Search for Factors that Drive Hantavirus Epidemics. Front Physiol 2012; 3:237. [PMID: 22934002 PMCID: PMC3429022 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2012.00237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2012] [Accepted: 06/11/2012] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
In Europe, hantaviruses (Bunyaviridae) are small mammal-associated zoonotic and emerging pathogens that can cause hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS). Puumala virus, the main etiological agent carried by the bank vole Myodes glareolus is responsible for a mild form of HFRS while Dobrava virus induces less frequent but more severe cases of HFRS. Since 2000 in Europe, more than 3000 cases of HFRS have been recorded, in average, each year, which is nearly double compared to the previous decade. In addition to this upside long-term trend, significant oscillations occur. Epidemic years appear, usually every 2-4 years, with an increased incidence, generally in localized hot spots. Moreover, the virus has been identified in new areas in the recent years. A great number of surveys have been carried out in order to assess the prevalence of the infection in the reservoir host and to identify links with different biotic and abiotic factors. The factors that drive the infections are related to the density and diversity of bank vole populations, prevalence of infection in the reservoir host, viral excretion in the environment, survival of the virus outside its host, and human behavior, which affect the main transmission virus route through inhalation of infected rodent excreta. At the scale of a rodent population, the prevalence of the infection increases with the age of the individuals but also other parameters, such as sex and genetic variability, interfere. The contamination of the environment may be correlated to the number of newly infected rodents, which heavily excrete the virus. The interactions between these different parameters add to the complexity of the situation and explain the absence of reliable tools to predict epidemics. In this review, the factors that drive the epidemics of hantaviruses in Middle Europe are discussed through a panorama of the epidemiological situation in Belgium, France, and Germany.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Heyman
- Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Research Laboratory for Vector-Borne Diseases, Queen Astrid Military Hospital Brussels, Belgium
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Popugaeva E, Witkowski PT, Schlegel M, Ulrich RG, Auste B, Rang A, Krüger DH, Klempa B. Dobrava-Belgrade hantavirus from Germany shows receptor usage and innate immunity induction consistent with the pathogenicity of the virus in humans. PLoS One 2012; 7:e35587. [PMID: 22545121 PMCID: PMC3335829 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0035587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2011] [Accepted: 03/18/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Dobrava-Belgrade virus (DOBV) is a European hantavirus causing hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) in humans with fatality rates of up to 12%. DOBV-associated clinical cases typically occur also in the northern part of Germany where the virus is carried by the striped field mouse (Apodemus agrarius). However, the causative agent responsible for human illness has not been previously isolated. Methodology/Principal Findings Here we report on characterization of a novel cell culture isolate from Germany obtained from a lung tissue of “spillover” infected yellow necked mouse (A. flavicollis) trapped near the city of Greifswald. Phylogenetic analyses demonstrated close clustering of the new strain, designated Greifswald/Aa (GRW/Aa) with the nucleotide sequence obtained from a northern German HFRS patient. The virus was effectively blocked by specific antibodies directed against β3 integrins and Decay Accelerating Factor (DAF) indicating that the virus uses same receptors as the highly pathogenic Hantaan virus (HTNV). In addition, activation of selected innate immunity markers as interferon β and λ and antiviral protein MxA after viral infection of A549 cells was investigated and showed that the virus modulates the first-line antiviral response in a similar way as HTNV. Conclusions/Significance In summary, our study reveals novel data on DOBV receptor usage and innate immunity induction in relationship to virus pathogenicity and underlines the potency of German DOBV strains to act as human pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Popugaeva
- Institute of Virology, Helmut-Ruska-Haus, Charité Medical School, Berlin, Germany
| | - Peter T. Witkowski
- Institute of Virology, Helmut-Ruska-Haus, Charité Medical School, Berlin, Germany
| | - Mathias Schlegel
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute for Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Rainer G. Ulrich
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute for Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Brita Auste
- Institute of Virology, Helmut-Ruska-Haus, Charité Medical School, Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Rang
- Institute of Virology, Helmut-Ruska-Haus, Charité Medical School, Berlin, Germany
| | - Detlev H. Krüger
- Institute of Virology, Helmut-Ruska-Haus, Charité Medical School, Berlin, Germany
| | - Boris Klempa
- Institute of Virology, Helmut-Ruska-Haus, Charité Medical School, Berlin, Germany
- Institute of Virology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
- * E-mail:
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25
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Sangassou virus, the first hantavirus isolate from Africa, displays genetic and functional properties distinct from those of other murinae-associated hantaviruses. J Virol 2012; 86:3819-27. [PMID: 22278233 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.05879-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
We have discovered the first indigenous African hantavirus, Sangassou virus (SANGV). The virus was isolated from an African wood mouse (Hylomyscus simus), trapped in a forest habitat in Guinea, West Africa. Here, we report on the characterization of the genetic and functional properties of the virus. The complete genome of SANGV was determined and showed typical hantavirus organization. The small (S), medium (M), and large (L) genome segments containing genes encoding nucleocapsid protein, two envelope glycoproteins, and viral polymerase were found to be 1,746, 3,650, and 6,531 nucleotides long, respectively. The exact 5' and 3' termini for all three segments of the SANGV genome were determined and were predicted to form the panhandle structures typical of bunyaviruses. Phylogenetic analyses of all three segment sequences confirmed SANGV as a Murinae-associated hantavirus most closely related to the European Dobrava-Belgrade virus. We showed, however, that SANGV uses β(1) integrin rather than β(3) integrin and decay-accelerating factor (DAF)/CD55 as an entry receptor. In addition, we demonstrated a strong induction of type III lambda interferon (IFN-λ) expression in type I IFN-deficient Vero E6 cells by SANGV. These properties are unique within Murinae-associated hantaviruses and make the virus useful in comparative studies focusing on hantavirus pathogenesis.
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26
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Au RY, Jedlicka AE, Li W, Pekosz A, Klein SL. Seoul virus suppresses NF-kappaB-mediated inflammatory responses of antigen presenting cells from Norway rats. Virology 2010; 400:115-27. [PMID: 20170933 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2010.01.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2009] [Revised: 01/05/2010] [Accepted: 01/21/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Hantavirus infection reduces antiviral defenses, increases regulatory responses, and causes persistent infection in rodent hosts. To address whether hantaviruses alter the maturation and functional activity of antigen presenting cells (APCs), rat bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs) and macrophages (BMDMs) were generated and infected with Seoul virus (SEOV) or stimulated with TLR ligands. SEOV infected both DCs and macrophages, but copies of viral RNA, viral antigen, and infectious virus titers were higher in macrophages. The expression of MHCII and CD80, production of IL-6, IL-10, and TNF-alpha, and expression of Ifnbeta were attenuated in SEOV-infected APCs. Stimulation of APCs with poly I:C prior to SEOV infection increased the expression of activation markers and production of inflammatory cytokines and suppressed SEOV replication. Infection of APCs with SEOV suppressed LPS-induced activation and innate immune responses. Hantaviruses reduce the innate immune response potential of APCs derived from a natural host, which may influence persistence of these zoonotic viruses in the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Y Au
- The W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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27
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Dowall SD, Graham VA, Tipton TRW, Hewson R. Multiplex cytokine profiling with highly pathogenic material: use of formalin solution in luminex analysis. J Immunol Methods 2009; 348:30-5. [PMID: 19560467 PMCID: PMC7094240 DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2009.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2009] [Revised: 05/28/2009] [Accepted: 06/17/2009] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Work with highly pathogenic material mandates the use of biological containment facilities, involving microbiological safety cabinets and specialist laboratory engineering structures typified by containment level 3 (CL3) and CL4 laboratories. Consequences of working in high containment are the practical difficulties associated with containing specialist assays and equipment often essential for experimental analyses. In an era of increased interest in biodefence pathogens and emerging diseases, immunological analysis has developed rapidly alongside traditional techniques in virology and molecular biology. For example, in order to maximise the use of small sample volumes, multiplexing has become a more popular and widespread approach to quantify multiple analytes simultaneously, such as cytokines and chemokines. The luminex microsphere system allows for the detection of many cytokines and chemokines in a single sample, but the detection method of using aligned lasers and fluidics means that samples often have to be analysed in low containment facilities. In order to perform cytokine analysis in materials from high containment (CL3 and CL4 laboratories), we have developed an appropriate inactivation methodology after staining steps, which although results in a reduction of median fluorescent intensity, produces statistically comparable outcomes when judged against non-inactivated samples. This methodology thus extends the use of luminex technology for material that contains highly pathogenic biological agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart D Dowall
- Health Protection Agency, Porton Down, Salisbury, Wiltshire, SP4 0JG, UK.
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28
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Handke W, Oelschlegel R, Franke R, Krüger DH, Rang A. Hantaan virus triggers TLR3-dependent innate immune responses. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2009; 182:2849-58. [PMID: 19234180 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0802893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2023]
Abstract
Immediately after viral infection, innate responses including expression of IFN-alpha/beta and IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) are elicited ubiquitously by recruitment of specific pathogen recognition receptors. The velocity to induce IFN-alpha/beta and ISGs in response to an infection is often decisive for virulence. Interestingly, in primary endothelial cells ISGs are induced later by hantaviruses pathogenic to humans than those considered to be nonpathogenic or of low virulence. Here we demonstrate that pathogenic Hantaan (HTNV) and putatively nonpathogenic Prospect Hill hantavirus (PHV) differentially activate innate responses in the established cell lines A549 and HuH7. STAT1alpha phosphorylation was detectable 3 h after PHV inoculation but not within the first 2 days after HTNV inoculation. The velocity to induce the ISGs MxA and ISG15 correlated inversely with amounts of virus produced. Moreover, expression of the inflammatory chemokine CCL5 was also induced differentially. Both hantaviruses induced innate responses via TRAF3 (TNF receptor-associated factor 3), and TLR3 was required for HTNV-induced expression of MxA, but not for the MxA induction triggered by PHV. Infection of RIG-I-deficient HuH7.5 cells revealed that RIG-I (retinoic acid receptor I) was not necessary for induction of innate responses by PHV. Taken together, these data suggest that HTNV and PHV elicit different signaling cascades that converge via TRAF3. Early induction of antiviral responses might contribute to efficient elimination of PHV. Subsequent to clearance of the infection, innate responses most likely cease; vice versa, retarded induction of antiviral responses could lead to increased HTNV replication and dissemination, which might cause a prolonged inflammatory response and might contribute to the in vivo virulence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wiebke Handke
- Institute of Virology, Helmut-Ruska-Haus, University Hospital Charité, Charité Campus Mitte, Berlin, Germany
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29
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Hardestam J, Simon M, Hedlund KO, Vaheri A, Klingström J, Lundkvist A. Ex vivo stability of the rodent-borne Hantaan virus in comparison to that of arthropod-borne members of the Bunyaviridae family. Appl Environ Microbiol 2007; 73:2547-51. [PMID: 17337567 PMCID: PMC1855600 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02869-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The possible effect of virus adaptation to different transmission routes on virus stability in the environment is not well known. In this study we have compared the stabilities of three viruses within the Bunyaviridae family: the rodent-borne Hantavirus Hantaan virus (HTNV), the sand fly-borne Phlebovirus sandfly fever Sicilian virus (SFSV), and the tick-borne Nairovirus Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV). These viruses differ in their transmission routes: SFSV and CCHFV are vector borne, whereas HTNV is spread directly between its hosts, and to humans, via the environment. We studied whether these viruses differed regarding stability when kept outside of the host. Viral survival was analyzed at different time points upon exposure to different temperatures (4 degrees C, 20 degrees C, and 37 degrees C) and drying at 20 degrees C. We observed clearly different stabilities under wet conditions, particularly at 4 degrees C, where infectious SFSV, HTNV, and CCHFV were detectable after 528, 96, and 15 days, respectively. All three viruses were equally sensitive to drying, as shown by drying on aluminum discs. Furthermore, HTNV and SFSV partially survived for 2 min in 30% ethanol, whereas CCHFV did not. Electron microscopy images of HTNV, SSFSV, and CCHFV stored at 37 degrees C until infectivity was lost still showed the occurrence of virions, but with abnormal shapes and densities compared to those of the nonincubated samples. In conclusion, our study points out important differences in ex vivo stability among viruses within the Bunyaviridae family.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Hardestam
- Swedish Institute for Infectious Disease Control, S-171 82 Solna, Sweden.
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30
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Maes P, Li S, Verbeeck J, Keyaerts E, Clement J, Van Ranst M. Evaluation of the efficacy of disinfectants against Puumala hantavirus by real-time RT-PCR. J Virol Methods 2006; 141:111-5. [PMID: 17188760 PMCID: PMC7185759 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2006.11.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2006] [Revised: 11/20/2006] [Accepted: 11/27/2006] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Puumala virus, a hantavirus belonging to the Bunyaviridae family, causes a human disease known as nephropathia epidemica, a mild form of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome. The implementation of effective decontamination procedures is critical in hantavirus research to minimize the risk of personnel exposure. This study investigated the efficacy of Clidox®, Dettol®, ethanol, Halamid-d®, peracetic acid, sodium hypochloride and Virkon®S for inactivating Puumala virus. A real-time quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) was used to quantify Puumala virus before and after treatment with these products. Inactivation of Puumala virus was effective after 10 min with all products except ethanol. Inactivation with absolute ethanol was effective only after 30 min. Using the qRT-PCR method, this study has shown that the commercially available products Clidox®, Halamid-d® and Virkon®S in particular represent a rapid and safe way to decontaminate surfaces with possible Puumala virus contamination. These products can be used in solutions of 1–2%, with contact times greater than 10 min, for inactivating effectively Puumala virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piet Maes
- Laboratory of Clinical and Epidemiological Virology, Rega Institute, Minderbroedersstraat 10, B3000 Leuven, Belgium
- Corresponding author at: Laboratory of Clinical and Epidemiological Virology, Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Rega Institute, Minderbroedersstraat 10, B3000 Leuven, Belgium. Tel.: +32 16 332166; fax: +32 16 332131.
| | - Sandra Li
- Laboratory of Immunobiology, Rega Institute, Minderbroedersstraat 10, B3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jannick Verbeeck
- Laboratory of Clinical and Epidemiological Virology, Rega Institute, Minderbroedersstraat 10, B3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Els Keyaerts
- Laboratory of Clinical and Epidemiological Virology, Rega Institute, Minderbroedersstraat 10, B3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jan Clement
- Laboratory of Clinical and Epidemiological Virology, Rega Institute, Minderbroedersstraat 10, B3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Marc Van Ranst
- Laboratory of Clinical and Epidemiological Virology, Rega Institute, Minderbroedersstraat 10, B3000 Leuven, Belgium
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