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Kwon HK, Choi GB, Huh JR. Maternal inflammation and its ramifications on fetal neurodevelopment. Trends Immunol 2022; 43:230-244. [PMID: 35131181 PMCID: PMC9005201 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2022.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2021] [Revised: 01/06/2022] [Accepted: 01/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Exposure to heightened inflammation in pregnancy caused by infections or other inflammatory insults has been associated with the onset of neurodevelopmental and psychiatric disorders in children. Rodent models have provided unique insights into how this maternal immune activation (MIA) disrupts brain development. Here, we discuss the key immune factors involved, highlight recent advances in determining the molecular and cellular pathways of MIA, and review how the maternal immune system affects fetal development. We also examine the roles of microbiomes in shaping maternal immune function and the development of autism-like phenotypes. A comprehensive understanding of the gut bacteria-immune-neuro interaction in MIA is essential for developing diagnostic and therapeutic measures for high-risk pregnant women and identifying targets for treating inflammation-induced neurodevelopmental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ho-Keun Kwon
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Institute for Immunology and Immunological Diseases and Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Sciences, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea; Pohang University of Science and Technology, Pohang, Korea.
| | - Gloria B. Choi
- The Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Jun R. Huh
- Department of Immunology, Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.,Evergrande Center for Immunologic Diseases, Harvard Medical School and Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA.,Correspondence: Ho-Keun Kwon () and Jun R. Huh ()
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2
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da Conceição Pereira S, Manhães-de-Castro R, Visco DB, de Albuquerque GL, da Silva Calado CMS, da Silva Souza V, Toscano AE. Locomotion is impacted differently according to the perinatal brain injury model: Meta-analysis of preclinical studies with implications for cerebral palsy. J Neurosci Methods 2021; 360:109250. [PMID: 34116077 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2021.109250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2021] [Revised: 06/03/2021] [Accepted: 06/05/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Different approaches to reproduce cerebral palsy (CP) in animals, contribute to the knowledge of the pathophysiological mechanism of this disease and provide a basis for the development of intervention strategies. Locomotion and coordination are the main cause of disability in CP, however, few studies highlight the quantitative differences of CP models, on locomotion parameters, considering the methodologies to cause brain lesions in the perinatal period. METHODS Studies with cerebral palsy animal models that assess locomotion parameters were systematically retrieved from Medline/PubMed, SCOPUS, LILACS, and Web of Science. Methodological evaluation of included studies and quantitative assessment of locomotion parameters were performed after eligibility screening. RESULTS CP models were induced by hypoxia-ischemia (HI), Prenatal ischemia (PI), lipopolysaccharide inflammation (LPS), intraventricular haemorrhage (IVH), anoxia (A), sensorimotor restriction (SR), and a combination of different models. Overall, 63 studies included in qualitative synthesis showed a moderate quality of evidence. 16 studies were included in the quantitative meta-analysis. Significant reduction was observed in models that combined LPS with HI related to distance traveled (SMD -7.24 95 % CI [-8.98, -5.51], Z = 1.18, p < 0.00001) and LPS with HI or anoxia with sensory-motor restriction (SMD -6.01, 95 % CI [-7.67, -4.35], Z = 7.11), or IVH (SMD -4.91, 95 % CI [-5.84, -3.98], Z = 10.31, p < 0.00001) related to motor coordination. CONCLUSION The combination of different approaches to reproduce CP in animals causes greater deficits in locomotion and motor coordination from the early stages of life to adulthood. These findings contribute to methodological refinement, reduction, and replacement in animal experimentation, favoring translational purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina da Conceição Pereira
- Posgraduate Program in Neuropsychiatry and Behavior Sciences, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - Raul Manhães-de-Castro
- Posgraduate Program in Neuropsychiatry and Behavior Sciences, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil; Studies in Nutrition and Phenotypic Plasticity Unit, Department of Nutrition, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil; Postgraduate Program in Nutrition, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - Diego Bulcão Visco
- Studies in Nutrition and Phenotypic Plasticity Unit, Department of Nutrition, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil; Postgraduate Program in Nutrition, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | | | | | - Vanessa da Silva Souza
- Posgraduate Program in Neuropsychiatry and Behavior Sciences, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - Ana Elisa Toscano
- Posgraduate Program in Neuropsychiatry and Behavior Sciences, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil; Studies in Nutrition and Phenotypic Plasticity Unit, Department of Nutrition, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil; Postgraduate Program in Nutrition, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil; Department of Nursing, CAV, Federal University of Pernambuco, Vitória de Santo Antão, Pernambuco, Brazil.
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3
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Olopade FE, Femi-Akinlosotu O, Adekanmbi AJ, Ajani S, Shokunbi MT. Neurobehavioural changes and morphological study of cerebellar purkinje cells in kaolin induced hydrocephalus. Anat Sci Int 2021; 96:87-96. [PMID: 32789737 DOI: 10.1007/s12565-020-00561-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2020] [Accepted: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Cerebellar abnormalities are commonly associated with hydrocephalus. However, the effect of hydrocephalus on the otherwise normal cerebellum has been largely neglected. This study assesses the morphological changes in the Purkinje cells in relation to cerebellar dysfunction observed in juvenile hydrocephalic rats. Fifty-five three-week old albino Wistar rats were used, hydrocephalus was induced by intracisternal injection of kaolin (n = 35) and others served as controls (n = 20). Body weight measurements, hanging wire, negative geotaxis, and open field tests were carried out at the onset and then weekly for 4 weeks, rats were killed, and their cerebella processed for Hematoxylin and Eosin, Cresyl violet and Golgi staining. Qualitative and quantitative studies were carried out; quantitative data were analyzed using two-way ANOVA and independent T tests at p < 0.05. Hydrocephalic rats weighed less than controls (p = 0.0247) but their cerebellar weights were comparable. The hydrocephalic rats had a consistently shorter latency to fall in the hanging wire test (F(4,112) = 18.63; p < 0.0001), longer latency to turn in the negative geotaxis test (F(4,112) = 22.2; p < 0.0001), and decreased horizontal (F(4,112) = 4.172, p = 0.0035) and vertical movements (F(4,112) = 4.397; p = 0.0024) in the open field test than controls throughout the 4 weeks post-induction. Cellular compression in the granular layer, swelling of Purkinje cells with vacuolations, reduced dendritic arborization and increased number of pyknotic Purkinje cells were observed in hydrocephalic rats. Hydrocephalus caused functional and morphological changes in the cerebellar cortex. Purkinje cell loss, a major pathological feature of hydrocephalus, may be responsible for some of the motor deficits observed in this condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Funmilayo Eniola Olopade
- Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, PO Box 200284, Ibadan, Nigeria
| | - Omowumi Femi-Akinlosotu
- Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, PO Box 200284, Ibadan, Nigeria
| | - Adejoke Joan Adekanmbi
- Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, PO Box 200284, Ibadan, Nigeria
| | - Seun Ajani
- Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, PO Box 200284, Ibadan, Nigeria
| | - Matthew Temitayo Shokunbi
- Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, PO Box 200284, Ibadan, Nigeria.
- Department of Surgery, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.
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de Franceschi ID, da Silva JD, Nitzke Minuzzi B, de Barros KC, Fernandes EK, Bortoluzzi VT, Rieger E, Preissler T, Feksa LR, Hahn RZ, Linden R, Rech VC, Casali EA, Wannmacher CMD. Ibuprofen during gestation prevents some changes in physical and reflex development in offspring in a model of hyperleucinemia and maternal inflammation. Int J Dev Neurosci 2020; 80:369-379. [PMID: 32379904 DOI: 10.1002/jdn.10035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2020] [Revised: 03/29/2020] [Accepted: 05/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Maple Syrup Urine Disease (MSUD) is caused by a severe deficiency in the branched-chain ketoacid dehydrogenase complex activity. Patients MSUD accumulate the branched-chain amino acids leucine (Leu), isoleucine, valine in blood, and other tissues. Leu and/or their branched-chain α-keto acids are linked to neurological damage in MSUD. When immediately diagnosed and treated, patients develop normally. Inflammation in MSUD can elicit a metabolic decompensation crisis. There are few cases of pregnancy in MSUD women, and little is known about the effect of maternal hyperleucinemia on the neurodevelopment of their babies. During pregnancy, some intercurrences like maternal infection or inflammation may affect fetal development and are linked to neurologic diseases. Lipopolysaccharide is widely accepted as a model of maternal inflammation. We analyzed the effects of maternal hyperleucinemia and inflammation and the possible positive impact the use of ibuprofen in Wistar rats on a battery of physics (ear unfolding, hair growing, incisors eruption, eye-opening, and auditive channel opening) and neurological reflexes (palmar grasp, surface righting, negative geotaxis, air-righting, and auditory-startle response) maturation parameters in the offspring. Maternal hyperleucinemia and inflammation delayed some physical parameters and neurological reflexes, indicating that both situations may be harmful to fetuses, and ibuprofen reversed some settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Itiane Diehl de Franceschi
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Juliano Dellazen da Silva
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Bruna Nitzke Minuzzi
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Katlyn Cardoso de Barros
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Elissa Kerli Fernandes
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Vanessa Trindade Bortoluzzi
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Elenara Rieger
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Thales Preissler
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Luciane Rosa Feksa
- Laboratório de Análises Toxicológicas, Instituto de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Feevale, Novo Hamburgo, Brazil
| | - Roberta Zilles Hahn
- Laboratório de Análises Toxicológicas, Instituto de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Feevale, Novo Hamburgo, Brazil
| | - Rafael Linden
- Laboratório de Análises Toxicológicas, Instituto de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Feevale, Novo Hamburgo, Brazil
| | - Virginia Cielo Rech
- Laboratório de Nanotecnologia, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Nanociências, Centro Universitário Franciscano, Santa Maria, Brazil
| | - Emerson André Casali
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Clovis Milton Duval Wannmacher
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
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Pires JM, Foresti ML, Silva CS, Rêgo DB, Calió ML, Mosini AC, Nakamura TKE, Leslie ATF, Mello LE. Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Systemic Inflammation in the Neonatal Period Increases Microglial Density and Oxidative Stress in the Cerebellum of Adult Rats. Front Cell Neurosci 2020; 14:142. [PMID: 32581717 PMCID: PMC7283979 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2020.00142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2020] [Accepted: 04/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Inflammatory processes occurring in the perinatal period may affect different brain regions, resulting in neurologic sequelae. Injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) at different neurodevelopmental stages produces long-term consequences in several brain structures, but there is scarce evidence regarding alterations in the cerebellum. The aim of this study was to evaluate the long-term consequences on the cerebellum of a systemic inflammatory process induced by neonatal LPS injection. For this, neonatal rats were randomly assigned to three different groups: naïve, sham, and LPS. Saline (sham group) or LPS solution (1 mg/kg) was intraperitoneally injected on alternate postnatal days (PN) PN1, PN3, PN5, and PN7. Spontaneous activity was evaluated with the open field test in adulthood. The cerebellum was evaluated for different parameters: microglial and Purkinje cell densities, oxidative stress levels, and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) mRNA expression. Our results show that administration of LPS did not result in altered spontaneous activity in adult animals. Our data also indicate increased oxidative stress in the cerebellum, as evidenced by an increase in superoxide fluorescence by dihydroethidium (DHE) indicator. Stereological analyses indicated increased microglial density in the cerebellum that was not accompanied by Purkinje cell loss or altered TNF-α expression in adult animals. Interestingly, Purkinje cells ectopically positioned in the granular and molecular layers of the cerebellum were observed in animals of the LPS group. Our data suggest that neonatal LPS exposure causes persistent cellular and molecular changes to the cerebellum, indicating the susceptibility of this region to systemic inflammatory insults in infancy. Further investigation of the consequences of these changes and the development of strategies to avoid those should be subject of future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Maira Licia Foresti
- Physiology Department, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.,Instituto D'Or de Pesquisa e Ensino, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - Amanda Cristina Mosini
- Physiology Department, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.,Associação Brasileira de Epilepsia, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | | | - Luiz Eugênio Mello
- Physiology Department, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.,Instituto D'Or de Pesquisa e Ensino, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Winokur SB, Lopes KL, Moparthi Y, Pereira M. Depression-related disturbances in rat maternal behaviour are associated with altered monoamine levels within mesocorticolimbic structures. J Neuroendocrinol 2019; 31:e12766. [PMID: 31265182 DOI: 10.1111/jne.12766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2018] [Revised: 06/27/2019] [Accepted: 06/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The ability of mothers to sensitively attune their maternal responses to the needs of their developing young is fundamental to a healthy mother-young relationship. The biological mechanisms that govern how mothers adjust caregiving to the dynamic changes in the demands of the young remain an open question. In the present study, we examined whether changes in monoamine levels, within discrete mesocorticolimbic structures involved in cognitive and motivational processes key to parenting, modulate this flexibility in caregiving across the postpartum period. The present study used a Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) animal model of depression and control Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats, which differ dramatically in their cognitive, motivational, and parenting performance. Levels of the monoamine neurotransmitters, dopamine, noradrenaline and serotonin, as well as their major metabolites, were measured within the medial prefrontal cortex, striatum, nucleus accumbens and medial preoptic area of SD and WKY mothers at early (postpartum day [PPD]7-8), late (PPD15-16) and weaning (PPD25) postpartum stages using high-performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection. Consistent with our prior work, we find that caregiving of SD mothers declined as the postpartum period progressed. Relative to nulliparous females, early postpartum mothers had lower intracellular concentrations of monoamines, as well as lower noradrenaline turnover, and an elevated serotonin turnover within most structures. Postpartum behavioural trajectories subsequently corresponded to a progressive increase in all three monoamine levels within multiple structures. Compared to SD mothers, WKY mothers were inconsistent and disorganised in caring for their offspring and exhibit profound deficits in maternal behaviour. Additionally, WKY mothers had generally lower levels of all three monoamines, as well as different patterns of change across the postpartum period, compared to SD mothers, suggesting dysfunctional central monoamine pathways in WKY mothers as they transition and experience motherhood. Taken together, the results of the present study suggest a role for monoamines at multiple mesocorticolimbic structures with repect to modulating caregiving behaviours attuned to the changing needs of the young.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah B Winokur
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA
| | - Keianna L Lopes
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA
| | - Yashaswani Moparthi
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA
| | - Mariana Pereira
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA
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7
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Wang R, Yang Y, Xiao M, Guo B, Liu W, Wang H. Neonatal Inhibition of Connexin 36 Ameliorates Fetal Brain Injury Induced by Maternal Noninfectious Fever in Mice. Dev Neurosci 2019; 41:94-101. [PMID: 31112950 DOI: 10.1159/000499735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2018] [Accepted: 03/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Prenatal fever could result in brain function impairments in the offspring. The present study investigated the effect of interleukin-6 (IL-6)-induced maternal fever on the offspring and the involvement of connexin 36 in this process. Pregnant C57BL/6J mice were injected with IL-6 on gestational day 15. The levels of iNOS and COX-2 were measured as an index of neuroinflammation in the brain of newborn pups. Offspring were treated with the connexin 36 (Cx36) inhibitor mefloquine at postnatal day (P)1-P3 or at P40-P42. Rotarod, grip traction, and foot fault tests were carried out to evaluate the motor behavior of adult offspring. Injection of IL-6 led to an elevation of the core temperature in the pregnant dams. Offspring of these dams showed significantly increased COX-2 and iNOS mRNA expression and protein levels in the whole-brain samples and significantly increased Cx36 in the cerebellum. Moreover, offspring of these dams showed motor deficits at an adult age. Neonatal administration of the Cx36 inhibitor mefloquine could prevent these motor deficits. Maternal fever during pregnancy induced by IL-6 injection could lead to neuroinflammation and motor deficits in the offspring. Neonatal inhibition of Cx36 could ameliorate the motor deficits in the offspring, indicating an involvement of Cx36 in the IL-6-induced maternal fever.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruifen Wang
- Cangzhou Central Hospital of Hebei Province, Cangzhou, China,
| | - Yueqing Yang
- Cangzhou Central Hospital of Hebei Province, Cangzhou, China
| | - Min Xiao
- Cangzhou Central Hospital of Hebei Province, Cangzhou, China
| | - Binfang Guo
- Cangzhou Central Hospital of Hebei Province, Cangzhou, China
| | - Weili Liu
- Cangzhou Central Hospital of Hebei Province, Cangzhou, China
| | - Haiyan Wang
- Cangzhou Central Hospital of Hebei Province, Cangzhou, China
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Gumusoglu SB, Stevens HE. Maternal Inflammation and Neurodevelopmental Programming: A Review of Preclinical Outcomes and Implications for Translational Psychiatry. Biol Psychiatry 2019; 85:107-121. [PMID: 30318336 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2018.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2018] [Revised: 08/01/2018] [Accepted: 08/06/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Early disruptions to neurodevelopment are highly relevant to understanding both psychiatric risk and underlying pathophysiology that can be targeted by new treatments. Much convergent evidence from the human literature associates inflammation during pregnancy with later neuropsychiatric disorders in offspring. Preclinical models of prenatal inflammation have been developed to examine the causal maternal physiological and offspring neural mechanisms underlying these findings. Here we review the strengths and limitations of preclinical models used for these purposes and describe selected studies that have shown maternal immune impacts on the brain and behavior of offspring. Maternal immune activation in mice, rats, nonhuman primates, and other mammalian model species have demonstrated convergent outcomes across methodologies. These outcomes include shifts and/or disruptions in the normal developmental trajectory of molecular and cellular processes in the offspring brain. Prenatal developmental origins are critical to a mechanistic understanding of maternal immune activation-induced alterations to microglia and immune molecules, brain growth and development, synaptic morphology and physiology, and anxiety- and depression-like, sensorimotor, and social behaviors. These phenotypes are relevant to brain functioning across domains and to anxiety and mood disorders, schizophrenia, and autism spectrum disorder, in which they have been identified. By turning a neurodevelopmental lens on this body of work, we emphasize the importance of acute changes to the prenatal offspring brain in fostering a better understanding of potential mechanisms for intervention. Collectively, overlapping results across maternal immune activation studies also highlight the need to examine preclinical offspring neurodevelopment alterations in terms of a multifactorial immune milieu, or immunome, to determine potential mechanisms of psychiatric risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serena B Gumusoglu
- Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
| | - Hanna E Stevens
- Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa; Department of Psychiatry, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa; Iowa Neuroscience Institute, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa.
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9
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OH KJ, PARK JY, LEE J, HONG JS, ROMERO R, YOON BH. The combined exposure to intra-amniotic inflammation and neonatal respiratory distress syndrome increases the risk of intraventricular hemorrhage in preterm neonates. J Perinat Med 2018; 46:9-20. [PMID: 28672753 PMCID: PMC5848500 DOI: 10.1515/jpm-2016-0348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2016] [Accepted: 01/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the impact of combined exposure to intra-amniotic inflammation and neonatal respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) on the development of intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) in preterm neonates. METHODS This retrospective cohort study includes 207 consecutive preterm births (24.0-33.0 weeks of gestation). Intra-amniotic inflammation was defined as an amniotic fluid matrix metalloproteinase-8 concentration >23 ng/mL. According to McMenamin's classification, IVH was defined as grade II or higher when detected by neurosonography within the first weeks of life. RESULTS (1) IVH was diagnosed in 6.8% (14/207) of neonates in the study population; (2) IVH was frequent among newborns exposed to intra-amniotic inflammation when followed by postnatal RDS [33% (6/18)]. The frequency of IVH was 7% (8/115) among neonates exposed to either of these conditions - intra-amniotic inflammation or RDS - and 0% (0/64) among those who were not exposed to these conditions; and (3) Neonates exposed to intra-amniotic inflammation and postnatal RDS had a significantly higher risk of IVH than those with only intra-amniotic inflammation [odds ratio (OR) 4.6, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.1-19.3] and those with RDS alone (OR 5.6, 95% CI 1.0-30.9), after adjusting for gestational age. CONCLUSION The combined exposure to intra-amniotic inflammation and postnatal RDS markedly increased the risk of IVH in preterm neonates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyung Joon OH
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seongnam-si, Korea
| | - Jee Yoon PARK
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - JoonHo LEE
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Joon-Seok HONG
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seongnam-si, Korea
| | - Roberto ROMERO
- Perinatology Research Branch, NICHD/NIH/DHHS, Bethesda, Maryland, USA, and Detroit, Michigan, USA,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA,Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA,Center for Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, USA
| | - Bo Hyun YOON
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
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10
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Solek CM, Farooqi N, Verly M, Lim TK, Ruthazer ES. Maternal immune activation in neurodevelopmental disorders. Dev Dyn 2017; 247:588-619. [PMID: 29226543 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.24612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2017] [Revised: 11/30/2017] [Accepted: 12/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Converging lines of evidence from basic science and clinical studies suggest a relationship between maternal immune activation (MIA) and neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and schizophrenia. The mechanisms through which MIA increases the risk of neurodevelopmental disorders have become a subject of intensive research. This review aims to describe how dysregulation of microglial function and immune mechanisms may link MIA and neurodevelopmental pathologies. We also summarize the current evidence in animal models of MIA. Developmental Dynamics 247:588-619, 2018. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cynthia M Solek
- Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Nasr Farooqi
- Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Myriam Verly
- Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Tony K Lim
- Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Edward S Ruthazer
- Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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Systemic inflammation combined with neonatal cerebellar haemorrhage aggravates long-term structural and functional outcomes in a mouse model. Brain Behav Immun 2017; 66:257-276. [PMID: 28755859 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2017.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2017] [Revised: 07/11/2017] [Accepted: 07/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite the increased recognition of cerebellar injury in survivors of preterm birth, the neurodevelopmental consequences of isolated cerebellar injury have been largely unexplored and our current understanding of the functional deficits requires further attention in order to translate knowledge to best practices. Preterm infants are exposed to multiple stressors during their postnatal development including perinatal cerebellar haemorrhage (CBH) and postnatal infection, two major risk factors for neurodevelopmental impairments. METHODS We developed a translational mouse model of CBH and/or inflammation to measure the short- and long-term outcomes in cerebellar structure and function. RESULTS Mice exposed to early combined insults of CBH and early inflammatory state (EIS) have a delay in grasping acquisition, neonatal motor deficits and deficient long-term memory. CBH combined with late inflammatory state (LIS) does not induce neonatal motor problems but leads to poor fine motor function and long-term memory deficits at adulthood. Early combined insults result in poor cerebellar growth from postnatal day 15 until adulthood shown by MRI, which are reflected in diminished volumes of cerebellar structures. There are also decreases in volumes of gray matter and hippocampus. Cerebellar microgliosis appears 24h after the combined insults and persists until postnatal day 15 in the cerebellar molecular layer and cerebellar nuclei in association with a disrupted patterning of myelin deposition, a delay of oligodendrocyte maturation and reduced white matter cerebellar volume. CONCLUSIONS Together, these findings reveal poor outcomes in developing brains exposed to combined cerebellar perinatal insults in association with cerebellar hypoplasia, persistence of microgliosis and alterations of cerebellar white matter maturation and growth.
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Foran L, Blackburn K, Kulesza RJ. Auditory hindbrain atrophy and anomalous calcium binding protein expression after neonatal exposure to monosodium glutamate. Neuroscience 2017; 344:406-417. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2016] [Revised: 12/31/2016] [Accepted: 01/03/2017] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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Main SL, Kulesza RJ. Repeated prenatal exposure to valproic acid results in cerebellar hypoplasia and ataxia. Neuroscience 2017; 340:34-47. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.10.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2016] [Revised: 09/30/2016] [Accepted: 10/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Aavani T, Rana SA, Hawkes R, Pittman QJ. Maternal immune activation produces cerebellar hyperplasia and alterations in motor and social behaviors in male and female mice. THE CEREBELLUM 2016; 14:491-505. [PMID: 25863812 DOI: 10.1007/s12311-015-0669-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
There have been suggestions that maternal immune activation is associated with alterations in motor behavior in offspring. To explore this further, we treated pregnant mice with polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (poly(I:C)), a viral mimetic that activates the innate immune system, or saline on embryonic days 13-15. At postnatal day (P) 18, offspring cerebella were collected from perfused brains and immunostained as whole-mounts for zebrin II. Measurements of zebrin II+/- stripes in both sexes indicated that prenatal poly(I:C)-exposed offspring had significantly wider stripes; this difference was also seen in similarly treated offspring in adulthood (~P120). When sagittal sections of the cerebellum were immunostained for calbindin and Purkinje cell numbers were counted, we observed greater numbers of Purkinje cells in poly(I:C) offspring at both P18 and ~ P120. In adolescence (~P40), both male and female prenatal poly(I:C)-exposed offspring exhibited poorer performance on the rotarod and ladder rung tests; deficits in performance on the latter test persisted into adulthood. Offspring of both sexes from poly(I:C) dams also exhibited impaired social interaction in adolescence, but this difference was no longer apparent in adulthood. Our results suggest that maternal immune exposure at a critical time of cerebellum development can enhance neuronal survival or impair normal programmed cell death of Purkinje cells, with lasting consequences on cerebellar morphology and a variety of motor and non-motor behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tooka Aavani
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, Health Sciences Centre, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, T2N 4N1, Alberta, Canada
| | - Shadna A Rana
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, Health Sciences Centre, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, T2N 4N1, Alberta, Canada
| | - Richard Hawkes
- Department of Cell Biology & Anatomy, Genes & Development Research Group, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, Health Sciences Centre, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Quentin J Pittman
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, Health Sciences Centre, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, T2N 4N1, Alberta, Canada.
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Korzeniewski SJ, Romero R, Cortez J, Pappas A, Schwartz AG, Kim CJ, Kim JS, Kim YM, Yoon BH, Chaiworapongsa T, Hassan SS. A "multi-hit" model of neonatal white matter injury: cumulative contributions of chronic placental inflammation, acute fetal inflammation and postnatal inflammatory events. J Perinat Med 2014; 42:731-43. [PMID: 25205706 PMCID: PMC5987202 DOI: 10.1515/jpm-2014-0250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2014] [Accepted: 08/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE We sought to determine whether cumulative evidence of perinatal inflammation was associated with increased risk in a "multi-hit" model of neonatal white matter injury (WMI). METHODS This retrospective cohort study included very preterm (gestational ages at delivery <32 weeks) live-born singleton neonates delivered at Hutzel Women's Hospital, Detroit, MI, from 2006 to 2011. Four pathologists blinded to clinical diagnoses and outcomes performed histological examinations according to standardized protocols. Neurosonography was obtained per routine clinical care. The primary indicator of WMI was ventriculomegaly (VE). Neonatal inflammation-initiating illnesses included bacteremia, surgical necrotizing enterocolitis, other infections, and those requiring mechanical ventilation. RESULTS A total of 425 live-born singleton neonates delivered before the 32nd week of gestation were included. Newborns delivered of pregnancies affected by chronic chorioamnionitis who had histologic evidence of an acute fetal inflammatory response were at increased risk of VE, unlike those without funisitis, relative to referent newborns without either condition, adjusting for gestational age [odds ratio (OR) 4.7; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.4-15.8 vs. OR 1.3; 95% CI 0.7-2.6]. Similarly, newborns with funisitis who developed neonatal inflammation-initiating illness were at increased risk of VE, unlike those who did not develop such illness, compared to the referent group without either condition [OR 3.6 (95% CI 1.5-8.3) vs. OR 1.7 (95% CI 0.5-5.5)]. The greater the number of these three types of inflammation documented, the higher the risk of VE (P<0.0001). CONCLUSION Chronic placental inflammation, acute fetal inflammation, and neonatal inflammation-initiating illness seem to interact in contributing risk information and/or directly damaging the developing brain of newborns delivered very preterm.
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Udo MS, Sandini TM, Reis TM, Bernardi MM, Spinosa HS. Prenatal exposure to a low fipronil dose disturbs maternal behavior and reflex development in rats. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2014; 45:27-33. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ntt.2014.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2013] [Revised: 05/11/2014] [Accepted: 05/13/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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Watanabe M, Miyajima M, Ogino I, Nakajima M, Arai H. Cerebellar Purkinje cells exhibit increased expression of HMGB-1 and apoptosis in congenital hydrocephalic H-Tx rats. Neurosurgery 2013. [PMID: 23208066 DOI: 10.1227/neu.0b013e31827fcd83] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Highly integrated anatomic and functional interactions between the cerebrum and the cerebellum during development have been reported. In our previous study, we conducted a proteome analysis to identify the proteins present in the congenital noncommunicating hydrocephalus in the cerebellum. We found higher expression of high-mobility group box-1 protein (HMGB-1) in hydrocephalic H-Tx rats. OBJECTIVE We studied the expression pattern of HMGB-1 in the cerebellum. METHODS We studied congenital hydrocephalic H-Tx rats aged 1 day and 7 days along with age-matched nonhydrocephalic H-Tx and Sprague-Dawley rats as controls. Gene and protein expressions of HMGB-1 in the cerebellum were assayed by real-time polymerase chain reaction and Western blotting, respectively; furthermore, immunohistochemical analyses were performed by using HMGB-1 (indicator of apoptosis), single-stranded DNA; adhesion factor related to cell migration, HNK-1; and the Purkinje cell-specific antibody, calbindin. RESULTS Cytoplasmic HMGB-1 expression observed in Purkinje cells in the 1-day-old hydrocephalic group was stronger than that in the nonhydrocephalic and Sprague-Dawley groups. Double fluorescent staining with single-stranded DNA confirmed that Purkinje cells were undergoing apoptosis. HNK-1 expression was lower in the Purkinje cell layer in the 7-day-old rats in the hydrocephalic group, and Purkinje cells were disrupted in comparison with the control groups. Morphological changes in the cerebellum were observed in the 7-day-old rats in the hydrocephalic group in comparison with the control groups. CONCLUSION Our results suggest that cerebellar neuronal cell damage in the early postnatal period may be related to the higher expression of HMGB-1 in the Purkinje cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitsuya Watanabe
- Department of Neurosurgery and Research Institute for Diseases of Old Age, Juntendo University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan.
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Kneeland RE, Fatemi SH. Viral infection, inflammation and schizophrenia. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2013; 42:35-48. [PMID: 22349576 PMCID: PMC3408569 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2012.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2011] [Revised: 01/06/2012] [Accepted: 02/02/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a severe neurodevelopmental disorder with genetic and environmental etiologies. Prenatal viral/bacterial infections and inflammation play major roles in the genesis of schizophrenia. In this review, we describe a viral model of schizophrenia tested in mice whereby the offspring of mice prenatally infected with influenza at E7, E9, E16, and E18 show significant gene, protein, and brain structural abnormalities postnatally. Similarly, we describe data on rodents exposed to bacterial infection or injected with a synthetic viral mimic (PolyI:C) also demonstrating brain structural and behavioral abnormalities. Moreover, human serologic data has been indispensible in supporting the viral theory of schizophrenia. Individuals born seropositive for bacterial and viral agents are at a significantly elevated risk of developing schizophrenia. While the specific mechanisms of prenatal viral/bacterial infections and brain disorder are unclear, recent findings suggest that the maternal inflammatory response may be associated with fetal brain injury. Preventive and therapeutic treatment options are also proposed. This review presents data related to epidemiology, human serology, and experimental animal models which support the viral model of schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel E. Kneeland
- Department of Psychiatry, Division of Neuroscience Research, University of Minnesota Medical School, 420 Delaware St. SE, MMC 392, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States
| | - S. Hossein Fatemi
- Department of Psychiatry, Division of Neuroscience Research, University of Minnesota Medical School, 420 Delaware St. SE, MMC 392, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States,Department of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota Medical School, 310 Church St. SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States and Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota Medical School, 310 Church St. SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States,Corresponding author at: 420 Delaware Street SE, MMC 392, Minneapolis, MN 55455. Tel.: +1 612 626 3633; fax: +1 612 624 8935. (R.E. Kneeland), (S.H. Fatemi)
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Perinatal cerebellar injury in human and animal models. Neurol Res Int 2012; 2012:858929. [PMID: 22530126 PMCID: PMC3317029 DOI: 10.1155/2012/858929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2011] [Accepted: 11/29/2011] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cerebellar injury is increasingly recognized through advanced neonatal brain imaging as a complication of premature birth. Survivors of preterm birth demonstrate a constellation of long-term neurodevelopmental deficits, many of which are potentially referable to cerebellar injury, including impaired motor functions such as fine motor incoordination, impaired motor sequencing and also cognitive, behavioral dysfunction among older patients. This paper reviews the morphogenesis and histogenesis of the human and rodent developing cerebellum, and its more frequent injuries in preterm. Most cerebellar lesions are cerebellar hemorrhage and infarction usually leading to cerebellar abnormalities and/or atrophy, but the exact pathogenesis of lesions of the cerebellum is unknown. The different mechanisms involved have been investigated with animal models and are primarily hypoxia, ischemia, infection, and inflammation Exposure to drugs and undernutrition can also induce cerebellar abnormalities. Different models are detailed to analyze these various disturbances of cerebellar development around birth.
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Lasting developmental effects of neonatal fentanyl exposure in preweanling rats. Anesthesiol Res Pract 2011; 2012:180124. [PMID: 22028707 PMCID: PMC3199102 DOI: 10.1155/2012/180124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2011] [Accepted: 08/13/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study aimed to determine whether neonatal treatment with fentanyl has lasting effects on stressed developing brain. Six-day-old rats were assigned to one of three groups (10 males/group): (1) fentanyl (incision+fentanyl), (2) saline (incision+0.9% saline), and (3) unoperated (unoperated sham). Pups with a plantar paw incision received repetitive subcutaneous injections of fentanyl or vehicle through postnatal days (PNDs) 6 to 8. A nonoperated sham group served as nonstressed control. Studies included assessment of development from PND 6 to PND 21 (growth indices and behavioral testing). Fentanyl administered twice daily for three days after surgical incision had no impact on early growth and development, as measured on PND 9, but showed a lasting impact on later growth, enhanced behavioral development, and lower anxiety, as measured through PNDs 10–21. While this does not completely support a benefit from such treatment, our findings may contribute to support the neonatal use of fentanyl, when indicated, even in premature newborns.
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Owens MY, Wallace KL, Mamoon N, Wyatt-Ashmead J, Bennett WA. Absence of neurotoxicity with medicinal grade terbutaline in the rat model. Reprod Toxicol 2011; 31:447-53. [PMID: 21262341 PMCID: PMC3970845 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2011.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2010] [Revised: 12/29/2010] [Accepted: 01/11/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
To evaluate neurological effects of terbutaline, rats were injected with saline, terbutaline (Sigma or American Pharmaceutical Partners (APP™)) at 0.5 mg/kg-d or 10 mg/kg-d between postnatal days (PND) 2-5 or 11-14. Brains collected 24 h after last injection were used to determine corpus-callosum thickness, Purkinje cell and neuronal number in the cerebellum. Ambulation, distance traveled, resting time and time on rotarod were analyzed. Terbutaline (both doses/grades at PND 11-14) decreased corpus-callosum thickness. Ambulation time was significantly decreased in the 10 mg/kg-d (Sigma) and 0.5 mg/kg-d of terbutaline (APP™) (PND 2-5) juvenile-rats and 10 mg/kg-d-Sigma adult-rats, 0.5 mg/kg-d APP™ (PND 11-14) adult-rats. Resting time was increased in both doses of APP™ (PND 2-5) in juvenile-rats, 10 mg/kg-d Sigma adult-rats. 10 mg/kg-d-Sigma (PND 2-5) decreased distance traveled in adult-rats. 0.5 mg/kg-d-Sigma (PND 2-5 and PND 11-14) decreased the time spent on rotarod (30 RPM) in adult-rats. Sigma terbutaline Sigma had 2× as much free base compared to APP™. In conclusion, APP™ terbutaline did not have a deleterious effect on the developing rat brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Y Owens
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS 39216-4505, USA.
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