A semi-automated programme for tracking myoblast migration following mechanical damage: manipulation by chemical inhibitors

Cellular dynamics of myogenic cell migration: molecular mechanisms and implications for skeletal muscle cell therapies

Directional cell migration is a critical process underlying morphogenesis and post-natal tissue regeneration. During embryonic myogenesis, migration of skeletal myogenic progenitors is essential to generate the anlagen of limbs, diaphragm and tongue, whereas in post-natal skeletal muscles, migration of muscle satellite (stem) cells towards regions of injury is necessary for repair and regeneration of muscle fibres. Additionally, safe and efficient migration of transplanted cells is critical in cell therapies, both allogeneic and autologous. Although various myogenic cell types have been administered intramuscularly or intravascularly, functional restoration has not been achieved yet in patients with degenerative diseases affecting multiple large muscles. One of the key reasons for this negative outcome is the limited migration of donor cells, which hinders the overall cell engraftment potential. Here, we review mechanisms of myogenic stem/progenitor cell migration during skeletal muscle development and post-natal regeneration. Furthermore, strategies utilised to improve migratory capacity of myogenic cells are examined in order to identify potential treatments that may be applied to future transplantation protocols.

Murine myoblast migration: influence of replicative ageing and nutrition

Cell migration is central to skeletal muscle repair following damage. Leucine and β-Hydroxy β-methylbutyric acid (HMB) are supplements consumed for recovery from muscle damaging exercise in humans, however, their impact on muscle cell migration with age is not yet understood. We hypothesised that replicatively aged ("aged"; P46-P48) myoblasts would be less efficient at basal and supplemented repair versus parental controls ("control"; P12-P16). Aged and control myoblasts were scratch-damaged and migration velocity, directionality and distance assessed over 48 h in the absence and presence of leucine (10 mM) or HMB (10 mM) ± PI3K/Akt (LY294002 10 μM), ERK (PD98059 5 μM) or mTOR (rapamycin 0.5 μM) inhibition. Opposing our hypothesis, aged cells displayed increased velocities, directionality and distance migrated (P < 0.001) versus control. Leucine and HMB significantly increased (P < 0.001) the same parameters in control cells. The supplements were with smaller, albeit significant impact on aged cell velocity (P < 0.001) and in the presence of HMB only, distance (P = 0.041). Inhibitor studies revealed that, PI3K and ERK activation were essential for velocity, directionality and migration distance of aged cells in basal conditions, whereas mTOR was important for directionality only. While PI3K activation was critical for all parameters in control cells (P < 0.001), inhibition of ERK or mTOR improved, rather than reduced, control cell migration distance. Enhanced basal velocity, directionality and distance in aged cells required ERK and PI3K activation. By contrast, in control cells, basal migration was underpinned by PI3K activation, and facilitated by leucine or HMB supplementation, to migration levels seen in aged cells. These data suggest that replicatively aged myoblasts are not anabolically resistant per se, but are capable of efficient repair, underpinned by altered signaling pathways, compared with unaged control myoblasts.

Methods for Observing and Quantifying Muscle Satellite Cell Motility and Invasion In Vitro

Motility and/or chemotaxis of satellite cells has been suggested or observed in multiple in vitro and in vivo contexts. Satellite cell motility also affects the efficiency of muscle regeneration, particularly in the context of engrafted exogenous cells. Consequently, there is keen interest in determining what cell-autonomous and environmental factors influence satellite cell motility and chemotaxis in vitro and in vivo. In addition, the ability of activated satellite cells to relocate in vivo would suggest that they must be able to invade and transit through the extracellular matrix (ECM), which is supported by studies in which alteration or addition of matrix metalloprotease (MMP) activity enhanced the spread of engrafted satellite cells. However, despite its potential importance, analysis of satellite cell motility or invasion quantitatively even in an in vitro setting can be difficult; one of the most powerful techniques for overcoming these difficulties is timelapse microscopy. Identification and longitudinal evaluation of individual cells over time permits not only quantification of variations in motility due to intrinsic or extrinsic factors, it permits observation and analysis of other (frequently unsuspected) cellular activities as well. We describe here three protocols developed in our group for quantitatively analyzing satellite cell motility over time in two dimensions on purified ECM substrates, in three dimensions on a living myofiber, and in three dimensions through an artificial matrix.

Impaired hypertrophy in myoblasts is improved with testosterone administration

We investigated the ability of testosterone (T) to restore differentiation in multiple population doubled (PD) murine myoblasts, previously shown to have a reduced differentiation in monolayer and bioengineered skeletal muscle cultures vs. their parental controls (CON) (Sharples et al., 2011, 2012 [7,26]). Cells were exposed to low serum conditions in the presence or absence of T (100nM)±PI3K inhibitor (LY294002) for 72h and 7 days (early and late muscle differentiation respectively). Morphological analyses were performed to determine myotube number, diameter (μm) and myonuclear accretion as indices of differentiation and myotube hypertrophy. Changes in gene expression for myogenin, mTOR and myostatin were also performed. Myotube diameter in CON and PD cells increased from 17.32±2.56μm to 21.02±1.89μm and 14.58±2.66μm to 18.29±3.08μm (P≤0.05) respectively after 72h of T exposure. The increase was comparable in both PD (+25%) and CON cells (+21%) suggesting a similar intrinsic ability to respond to exogenous T administration. T treatment also significantly increased myonuclear accretion (% of myotubes expressing 5+ nuclei) in both cell types after 7 days exposure (P≤0.05). Addition of PI3K inhibitor (LY294002) in the presence of T attenuated these effects in myotube morphology (in both cell types) suggesting a role for the PI3K pathway in T stimulated hypertrophy. Finally, PD myoblasts showed reduced responsiveness to T stimulated mRNA expression of mTOR vs. CON cells and T also reduced myostatin expression in PD myoblasts only. The present study demonstrates testosterone administration improves hypertrophy in myoblasts that basally display impaired differentiation and hypertrophic capacity vs. their parental controls, the action of testosterone in this model was mediated by PI3K/Akt pathway.

Phospho-tyrosine phosphatase inhibitor Bpv(Hopic) enhances C2C12 myoblast migration in vitro. Requirement of PI3K/AKT and MAPK/ERK pathways

Muscle progenitor cell migration is an important step in skeletal muscle myogenesis and regeneration. Migration is required for muscle precursors to reach the site of damage and for the alignment of myoblasts prior to their fusion, which ultimately contributes to muscle regeneration. Limited spreading and migration of donor myoblasts are reported problems of myoblast transfer therapy, a proposed therapeutic strategy for Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy, warranting further investigation into different approaches for improving the motility and homing of these cells. In this article, the effect of protein phospho-tyrosine phosphatase and PTEN inhibitor BpV(Hopic) on C2C12 myoblast migration and differentiation was investigated. Applying a wound healing migration model, it is reported that 1 μM BpV(Hopic) is capable of enhancing the migration of C2C12 myoblasts by approximately 40 % in the presence of myotube conditioned media, without significantly affecting their capacity to differentiate and fuse into multinucleated myotubes. Improved migration of myoblasts treated with 1 μM BpV(Hopic) was associated with activation of PI3K/AKT and MAPK/ERK pathways, while their inhibition with either LY294002 or UO126, respectively, resulted in a reduction of C2C12 migration back to control levels. These results propose that bisperoxovanadium compounds may be considered as potential tools for enhancing the migration of myoblasts, while not reducing their differentiation capacity and underpin the importance of PI3K/AKT and MAPK/ERK signalling for the process of myogenic progenitor migration.

Potential vulnerability markers within the affective domain in subjects at genetic and clinical high risk for schizophrenia

BACKGROUND

Relative to ample high-risk studies on neurocognitive function, only a few high-risk studies have examined affective functioning components as possible vulnerability markers. In this study, we comprehensively assessed baseline affective functioning in subjects at clinical high risk (CHR) and genetic high risk (GHR) for schizophrenia, and healthy controls (HC), and compared the results to elucidate possible vulnerability markers in the affective domain.

METHODS

We studied 3 groups of subjects: those with CHR (n = 28) or GHR (n = 28) and a HC group (n = 24). Affective-process- and affective-content-related functioning were assessed using 5 emotion-related scales.

RESULTS

In affective process, CHR subjects showed impairments in emotional awareness and mood repair, with some trend of impaired emotional expressivity as well as aggression control relative to either HC or GHR subjects, whereas GHR subjects showed only a trend of impairment in mood repair. In affective content, CHR subjects had less positive and more negative affect scores than the other 2 groups.

CONCLUSIONS

These results correspond to previous findings of prodrome studies of schizophrenia and chronic schizophrenia and suggest that impaired mood repair and emotional awareness, as well as less positive and more negative affect may be potential candidates of vulnerability markers.