1
|
Vorhees CV, Williams MT. Tests for learning and memory in rodent regulatory studies. Curr Res Toxicol 2024; 6:100151. [PMID: 38304257 PMCID: PMC10832385 DOI: 10.1016/j.crtox.2024.100151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2023] [Revised: 01/11/2024] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 02/03/2024] Open
Abstract
For decades, regulatory guidelines for safety assessment in rodents for drugs, chemicals, pesticides, and food additives with developmental neurotoxic potential have recommended a single test of learning and memory (L&M). In recent years some agencies have requested two such tests. Given the importance of higher cognitive function to health, and the fact that different types of L&M are mediated by different brain regions assessing higher functions represents a step forward in providing better evidence-based protection against adverse brain effects. Given the myriad of tests available for assessing L&M in rodents this leads to the question of which tests best fit regulatory guidelines. To address this question, we begin by describing the central role of two types of L&M essential to all mammalian species and the regions/networks that mediate them. We suggest that the tests recommended possess characteristics that make them well suited to the needs in regulatory safety studies. By brain region, these are (1) the hippocampus and entorhinal cortex for spatial navigation, which assesses explicit L&M for reference and episodic memory and (2) the striatum and related structures for egocentric navigation, which assesses implicit or procedural memory and path integration. Of the tests available, we suggest that in this context, the evidence supports the use of water mazes, specifically, the Morris water maze (MWM) for spatial L&M and the Cincinnati water maze (CWM) for egocentric/procedural L&M. We review the evidentiary basis for these tests, describe their use, and explain procedures that optimize their sensitivity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Charles V. Vorhees
- Corresponding author at: Div. of Neurology, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, 3333 Burnet Ave., Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
2
|
Arts JHE, Faulhammer F, Schneider S, Salverda JGW. Investigations on learning and memory function in extended one-generation reproductive toxicity studies - when considered needed and based on what? Crit Rev Toxicol 2023; 53:372-384. [PMID: 37540214 DOI: 10.1080/10408444.2023.2236134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Revised: 06/29/2023] [Accepted: 07/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/05/2023]
Abstract
To justify investigations on learning and memory (L&M) function in extended one-generation reproductive toxicity studies (EOGRTS; Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) test guideline (TG) 443) for registration under Registration, Evaluation, Authorization, and Restriction of Chemical (REACH), the European Chemicals Agency has referred to three publications based on which the Agency concluded that "perturbation of thyroid hormone signaling in offspring affects spatial cognitive abilities (learning and memory)" and "Therefore, it is necessary to conduct spatial learning and memory tests for F1 animals". In this paper, the inclusion of the requested L&M tests in an EOGRTS is challenged. In addition, next to the question on the validity of rodent models in general for testing thyroid hormone-dependent perturbations in brain development, the reliability of the publications specifically relied upon by the agency is questioned as these contain numerous fundamental errors in study methodology, design, and data reporting, provide contradicting results, lack crucial information to validate the results and exclude confounding factors, and finally show no causal relationship. Therefore, in our opinion, these publications cannot be used to substantiate, support, or conclude that decreases in blood thyroid (T4) hormone level on their own would result in impaired L&M in rats and are thus not adequate to use as fundament to ask for L&M testing as part of an EOGRTS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Josje H E Arts
- Nouryon Functional Chemicals B.V., Deventer, The Netherlands
| | - Frank Faulhammer
- GB Product Stewardship - Regulations, Toxicology and Ecology, BASF SE, Ludwigshafen, Germany
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
3
|
Kaki S, DeRosa H, Timmerman B, Brummelte S, Hunter RG, Kentner AC. Developmental Manipulation-Induced Changes in Cognitive Functioning. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2023; 63:241-289. [PMID: 36029460 PMCID: PMC9971379 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2022_389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder with as-yet no identified cause. The use of animals has been critical to teasing apart the potential individual and intersecting roles of genetic and environmental risk factors in the development of schizophrenia. One way to recreate in animals the cognitive impairments seen in people with schizophrenia is to disrupt the prenatal or neonatal environment of laboratory rodent offspring. This approach can result in congruent perturbations in brain physiology, learning, memory, attention, and sensorimotor domains. Experimental designs utilizing such animal models have led to a greatly improved understanding of the biological mechanisms that could underlie the etiology and symptomology of schizophrenia, although there is still more to be discovered. The implementation of the Research and Domain Criterion (RDoC) has been critical in taking a more comprehensive approach to determining neural mechanisms underlying abnormal behavior in people with schizophrenia through its transdiagnostic approach toward targeting mechanisms rather than focusing on symptoms. Here, we describe several neurodevelopmental animal models of schizophrenia using an RDoC perspective approach. The implementation of animal models, combined with an RDoC framework, will bolster schizophrenia research leading to more targeted and likely effective therapeutic interventions resulting in better patient outcomes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sahith Kaki
- School of Arts and Sciences, Health Psychology Program, Massachusetts College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Holly DeRosa
- School of Arts and Sciences, Health Psychology Program, Massachusetts College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Boston, MA, USA
- University of Massachusetts Boston, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Brian Timmerman
- Department of Psychology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Susanne Brummelte
- Department of Psychology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA
- Translational Neuroscience Program, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA
| | | | - Amanda C Kentner
- School of Arts and Sciences, Health Psychology Program, Massachusetts College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Boston, MA, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Singh JV, Thakur S, Kumar N, Singh H, Mithu VS, Singh H, Bhagat K, Gulati HK, Sharma A, Singh H, Sharma S, Bedi PMS. Donepezil-Inspired Multitargeting Indanone Derivatives as Effective Anti-Alzheimer's Agents. ACS Chem Neurosci 2022; 13:733-750. [PMID: 35195392 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.1c00535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In continuous efforts to develop anti-Alzheimer's agents, we rationally designed and synthesized a series of multitargeting molecules by incorporating the essential molecular features of the standard drug donepezil. Among the series, compound 4b showed multitargeting properties to act as an anti-Alzheimer's agent, which is better tolerable in vivo than donepezil. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition data showed that compound 4b inhibits the enzyme with a half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) value of 0.78 μM and also showed DNA protection, which was confirmed through the DNA nicking assay, suggesting the protective effect of 4b against oxidative DNA damage. Compound 4b also showed 53.04% inhibition against Aβ1-42 aggregations, which was found comparable to that of the standard compound curcumin. Molecular dynamics simulations were performed to check the stability of compound 4b with the enzyme AChE, which showed that the enzyme-ligand complex is stable enough to block the hydrolysis of acetylcholine in the brain. Its higher LD50 cutoff value (50 mg/kg) in comparison to donepezil (LD50: 25 mg/kg) made it safer, suggesting that it can be used in further clinical experiments. To evaluate its anti-Alzheimer property, a mice model with melamine-induced cognitive dysfunction was used, and Morris water maze and Rotarod tests were performed. A significant improvement in memory was observed after the treatment with compound 4b and donepezil. The study postulated that the introduction of important structural features of donepezil (dimethoxyindanone moiety as ring-A) embarked with terminal aromatic ether (ring-B and ring-C) made 4b a multitargeting molecule that offers a way for developing alternative therapeutics in the future against Alzheimer's disease (AD).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jatinder Vir Singh
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar 143005, Punjab, India
| | - Shubham Thakur
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar 143005, Punjab, India
| | - Nitish Kumar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar 143005, Punjab, India
- Drug and Pollution Testing Laboratory, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar 143005, Punjab, India
| | - Harjeet Singh
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar 143005, Punjab, India
| | - Venus Singh Mithu
- Department of Chemistry, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar 143005, Punjab, India
| | - Harpreet Singh
- Department of Chemistry, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar 143005, Punjab, India
| | - Kavita Bhagat
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar 143005, Punjab, India
| | - Harmandeep Kaur Gulati
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar 143005, Punjab, India
| | - Anchal Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar 143005, Punjab, India
| | - Harbinder Singh
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar 143005, Punjab, India
| | - Sahil Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar 143005, Punjab, India
| | - Preet Mohinder Singh Bedi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar 143005, Punjab, India
- Drug and Pollution Testing Laboratory, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar 143005, Punjab, India
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Shukla M, Vincent B. Methamphetamine abuse disturbs the dopaminergic system to impair hippocampal-based learning and memory: An overview of animal and human investigations. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 131:541-559. [PMID: 34606820 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2021] [Revised: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Diverse intellectual functions including memory are some important aspects of cognition. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter of the catecholamine family, which contributes to the experience of pleasure and/or emotional states but also plays crucial roles in learning and memory. Methamphetamine is an illegal drug, the abuse of which leads to long lasting pathological manifestations in the brain. Chronic methamphetamine-induced neurotoxicity results in an alteration of various parts of the memory systems by affecting learning processes, an effect attributed to the structural similarities of this drug with dopamine. An evolving field of research established how cognitive deficits in abusers arise and how they could possibly trigger neurodegenerative disorders. Thus, the drugs-induced tenacious neurophysiological changes of the dopamine system trigger cognitive deficits, thereby affirming the influence of this addictive drug on learning, memory and executive function in human abusers. Here we present an overview of the effects of methamphetamine abuse on cognitive functions, dopaminergic transmission and hippocampal integrity as they have been validated in animals and in humans during the past 20 years.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mayuri Shukla
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom, 73170, Thailand
| | - Bruno Vincent
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom, 73170, Thailand; Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 2 Rue Michel Ange, 75016, Paris, France.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Tharmatt A, Thakur S, Singh A, Kaur M, Shahtaghi NR, Malhotra D, Jain SK. Olive oil and oleic acid-based self nano-emulsifying formulation of omega-3-fatty acids with improved strength, stability, and therapeutics. J Microencapsul 2021; 38:298-313. [PMID: 33863269 DOI: 10.1080/02652048.2021.1914760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
AIM To develop, characterise, and optimise SNEDDS formulation to enhance organoleptics, bioavailability, physical & oxidative-stability, and extend shelf-life of pure Ω-3-fatty acids oil for use in the food fortification industry as nutraceuticals. METHODS SNEDDS formulations were prepared using a simple stirring technique and optimised based on in-vitro characterisation. RESULTS The optimised SNEDDS formulation (F3) had a mean diameter of 52.9 ± 0.4 nm, PDI of 0.229 ± 0.02, zeta potential of -17.3 ± 0.1 mV, cloud temperature of 92 ± 0.2 °C, self-emulsification time of 50 ± 0.2 sec, and stable under accelerated stability conditions. Intestinal permeability study on rat ileum depicted absorption of 88.5 ± 0.2% DHA at 5 h for F3 formulation in comparison to 61.5 ± 0.2% for commercial counterpart. F3 formulation exhibited better therapeutics for melamine-induced cognitive dysfunction. CONCLUSIONS The developed Ω-3-loaded SNEDDS heralds the future for an efficacious, safer, and higher strength formulation intended as a better substitute for currently available formulations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Abhay Tharmatt
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, India
| | - Shubham Thakur
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, India
| | - Amrinder Singh
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, India
| | - Manjot Kaur
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, India
| | - Navid Reza Shahtaghi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, India
| | - Divay Malhotra
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, India
| | - Subheet Kumar Jain
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, India
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Tse R, Kesha K, Morrow P, Glenn C, Stables S. Commentary on: Kenneally M, Byard RW. Increasing methamphetamine detection in cases of early childhood fatalities. J Forensic Sci doi: 10.1111/1556-4029.14321. Epub 2020 Mar 23. J Forensic Sci 2020; 65:1384. [PMID: 32510633 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.14459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2020] [Accepted: 05/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rexson Tse
- Department of Forensic Pathology, LabPLUS, Auckland City Hospital, Building 31, Grafton, Auckland, 1148, New Zealand
| | - Kilak Kesha
- Department of Forensic Pathology, LabPLUS, Auckland City Hospital, Building 31, Grafton, Auckland, 1148, New Zealand
| | - Paul Morrow
- Department of Forensic Pathology, LabPLUS, Auckland City Hospital, Building 31, Grafton, Auckland, 1148, New Zealand
| | - Charley Glenn
- Department of Forensic Pathology, LabPLUS, Auckland City Hospital, Building 31, Grafton, Auckland, 1148, New Zealand
| | - Simon Stables
- Department of Forensic Pathology, LabPLUS, Auckland City Hospital, Building 31, Grafton, Auckland, 1148, New Zealand
| |
Collapse
|