Effects of Coronary Artery Disease-Associated Variants on Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells

Assessment of causal association between autoimmune thyroiditis and thyroid cancer: A Mendelian randomization study

Currently, the precise interplay between autoimmune thyroiditis, particularly Hashimoto thyroiditis, and thyroid cancer remains ambiguous. While certain observational studies suggest autoimmune thyroiditis (including Hashimoto thyroiditis) as a predisposing factor for thyroid cancer. Nevertheless, it is still uncertain whether autoimmune thyroiditis is independently associated with thyroid cancer. We employed Mendelian randomization (MR) study methodology, a genetic analysis approach, to evaluate the causal impact of autoimmune thyroiditis on the occurrence of thyroid cancer. We obtained and synthesized statistical data by utilizing public available genome-wide association studies (GWAS). Our study utilized GWAS summary statistics datasets associated with autoimmune thyroiditis (including Hashimoto thyroiditis) as the exposure data source and selected GWAS summary statistics datasets related to thyroid cancer as the outcome data source. Single nucleotide polymorphisms closely associated with autoimmune thyroiditis were chosen as instrumental variables. We conducted 2-sample MR analyses to elucidate the causal association between autoimmune thyroiditis and thyroid cancer. The inverse variance-weighted (IVW) method was employed as the primary methodology, supplemented by additional MR methods including MR-Egger regression, weighted median, simple mode, and weighted mode analyses, to bolster the robustness of our findings. The MR analysis conducted using the IVW method did not confirm a causal relationship between autoimmune thyroiditis and thyroid cancer (odds ratio [OR] = 0.8554, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.7193 to 1.0172, P = .0772; OR = 0.8477, 95% CI: 0.7159 to 1.0039, P = .0555; and OR = 1.1324, 95% CI: 0.9342 to 1.3725, P = .2052, from 3 eligible dataset analyses, respectively). Additionally, MR analysis did not observe a causal association between Hashimoto thyroiditis and thyroid cancer (OR = 1.0449, 95% CI: 0.9400 to 1.1615, P = .4155; and OR = 0.9897, 95% CI: 0.8174 to 1.1984, P = .9159, from 2 eligible dataset analyses, respectively). Consistency in results across alternative MR methods was observed. This study employing MR methodology indicates the absence of significant causal relationship between exposure to autoimmune thyroiditis (including Hashimoto thyroiditis) and thyroid cancer. Further validation through larger-scale studies with increased sample sizes is warranted in future investigations.

The mechanisms of Chr.9p21.3 risk locus in coronary artery disease: where are we today?

Despite the advancements and release of new therapeutics in the past few years, cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) have remained the number one cause of death worldwide. Genetic variation of a 9p21.3 genomic locus has been identified as the most significant and robust genetic CVD risk marker on the population level, with the strongest association with coronary artery disease (CAD) and other diseases, including diabetes and cancer. Several mechanisms of 9p21.3 in CVDs have been proposed, but their effects on CVDs have remained elusive. Moreover, most of the single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with CAD are located on a sequence of a long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) called ANRIL. ANRIL has several linear and circular splicing isoforms, which seem to have different effects and implications for CVDs. The mechanisms of the 9p21.3 locus and the interplay of its coding and noncoding transcripts in different diseases require further research. Circular RNAs have generally raised interest due to their beneficial features as biomarkers and therapeutic molecules. Here, we review the literature of 9p21.3 from its identification in 2007 and draw the current knowledge on its function, implications in CVDs, and therapeutic potential.

Using omics data and genome editing methods to decipher GWAS loci associated with coronary artery disease

Coronary artery disease (CAD) is due to atherosclerosis, a pathophysiological process that involves several cell-types and results in the accumulation of lipid-rich plaque that disrupt the normal blood flow through the coronary arteries to the heart. Genome-wide association studies have identified 1000s of genetic variants robustly associated with CAD or its traditional risk factors (e.g. blood pressure, blood lipids, type 2 diabetes, smoking). However, gaining biological insights from these genetic discoveries remain challenging because of linkage disequilibrium and the difficulty to interpret the functions of non-coding regulatory elements in the human genome. In this review, we present different statistical methods (e.g. Mendelian randomization) and molecular datasets (e.g. expression or protein quantitative trait loci) that have helped connect CAD-associated variants with genes, biological pathways, and cell-types or tissues. We emphasize that these various strategies make predictions, which need to be validated in orthologous systems. We discuss specific examples where the integration of omics data with GWAS results has prioritized causal CAD variants and genes. Finally, we review how targeted and genome-wide genome editing experiments using the CRISPR/Cas9 toolbox have been used to characterize new CAD genes in human cells. Researchers now have the statistical and bioinformatic methods, the molecular datasets, and the experimental tools to dissect comprehensively the loci that contribute to CAD risk in humans.

MDMNI-DGD: A novel graph neural network approach for druggable gene discovery based on the integration of multi-omics data and the multi-view network

Accurately predicting druggable genes is of paramount importance for enhancing the efficacy of targeted therapies, reducing drug-related toxicities and improving patients' survival rates. Nevertheless, accurately predicting candidate cancer-druggable genes remains a critical challenge in translational medicine due to the high heterogeneity and complexity of cancer data. In this study, we proposed a novel graph neural approach called Druggable Gene Discovery based on the Integration of Multi-omics Data and the Multi-view Network (MDMNI-DGD), aiming to predict and evaluate cancer-druggable genes. MDMNI-DGD integrated a comprehensive set of multi-omics data, including copy number variations, DNA methylation, somatic mutations, and gene expression profiles. Simultaneously, it constructed the multi-view gene association network based on protein-protein interactions (PPI), protein structural domains, gene co-expression, pathway co-occurrence, gene sequence and gene ontology. Compared to other state-of-the-art approaches, MDMNI-DGD exhibits excellent performance in key evaluation metrics such as AUROC and AUPR. Moreover, the case study has also demonstrated the efficacy of our approach in discovering potentially druggable genes. Among more than 20,000 protein-coding genes, MDMNI-DGD successfully identified 872 potentially druggable genes. The findings from this investigation may serve to bolster the assessment of pan-cancer druggable genes, potentially catalyzing the development of more personalized and efficacious therapeutic interventions.

The Association of PLA2G7 Gene Polymorphisms with Serum Lp-PLA2 Activity and Lipid Profile in Han Chinese Patients with Coronary Heart Disease

Purpose

This study aimed to investigate the distribution patterns of PLA2G7 gene variants in Han Chinese patients with coronary heart disease (CHD), and their relationships with serum lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 (Lp-PLA2) levels and lipid profiles.

Methods

A total of 93 han Chinese CHD patients were recruited. Serum Lp-PLA2 levels were determined using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), while comprehensive analysis of PLA2G7 gene polymorphisms was conducted through whole-exome sequencing. Concurrently, multiple lipid parameters were measured and analyzed.

Results

Among these Han Chinese CHD patients, the PLA2G7 gene rs1051931 (c.1136T>C p.Val379Ala) rare variant was highly prevalent (variant rate: 94.62%) among the study population, and showed negative correlation with serum Lp-PLA2 activity. The rs1765208290 (c.233G>A p.Gly78Asp) rare variant showed positive correlation with TG, ApoA, ApoB, HDL, LDL and TCHO levels in the serum. Strong linkage disequilibrium was observed between the rs1805018 (c.593T>C p.Ile198Thr) and rs76863441 (c.835G>T p.Val279Phe), both of which were related to lower Lp-PLA2 activity.

Conclusion

In these Han Chinese CHD patients, the rs1051931 (c.1136T>C p.Val379Ala) rare variant in the PLA2G7 gene is closely linked to decreased Lp-PLA2 activity, whereas the rs1765208290 (c.233G>A p.Gly78Asp) rare variant influences lipid homeostasis. The strong LD between rs1805018 (c.593T>C p.Ile198Thr) and rs76863441 (c.835G>T p.Val279Phe) loci may act synergistically to reduce Lp-PLA2 activity.

Aryl-hydrocarbon receptor in smooth muscle cells protect against dioxin induced adverse remodeling of atherosclerosis

Introduction

Environmental exposure to dioxin has been linked to increased myocardial infarction. Smooth muscle cells (SMC) in the coronary vasculature play a critical role in atherosclerotic plaque remodeling due to their phenotypic plasticity, however, the detailed mechanism linking dioxin exposure to adverse SMC modulation is not well understood.

Methods

Single-cell RNA and ATAC sequencing and histological analyses were performed on the aorta from mouse models of atherosclerosis exposed to 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) or control. Primary human coronary artery SMC (HCASMC) treated in culture with TCDD were used to perform RNA-Seq, ATAC-Seq, and functional phenotypic assays. ChIP-Seq was performed with antibodies against Aryl-hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) and TCF21, two of known SMC modulating transcription factors.

Results

Modulated SMC were the most transcriptionally responsive cell type to dioxin in the atherosclerotic aorta. Dioxin accelerated disease phenotype by promoting a modulated SMC phenotype early, resulting in increased lesion size, migration of SMC, and macrophage recruitment to the lesion. We found C3 expressing modulated SMCs to be likely contributing to the increased macrophage recruitment and inflammation. Analysis of the RNA-Seq data from HCASMC treated with TCDD showed differential enrichment of biological pathways related to cell migration, localization, and inflammation. Furthermore, ATAC-Seq data showed a significant activation for pathways regulating vascular development, cell migration, inflammation, and apoptosis. With TCDD treatment, there was also enrichment of AHR ChIP-Seq peaks, while the TCF21 enrichment decreased significantly. The SMC-specific Ahr knockout resulted in increased oxidative stress in SMC, increased lesion size and macrophage content, and loss of SMC lineage cells in the lesion cap when exposed to TCDD, consistent with a more vulnerable plaque phenotype.

Conclusion

Dioxin adversely remodels atherosclerotic plaque by accelerating the SMC- phenotypic modulation, and increasing inflammation and oxidative stress resulting in increased macrophage recruitment and lesion size. Dioxin may adversely affect the SMC phenotype and disease state by affecting the TCF21 occupancy in the open chromatin regions. Furthermore, we observed that SMC-specific deletion of Ahr in mice resulted in worsening of dioxin mediated SMC modulation and atherosclerosis, suggesting that Ahr in SMC confers protection against dioxin by promoting a stable plaque phenotype and reducing dioxin induced oxidative stress.

Summary

Exposure to dioxin, an environmental pollutant present in tobacco smoke and air pollution, accelerates smooth muscle cell modulation, and atherosclerosis.Dioxin exposure leads to inflammatory smooth muscle cell phenotype characterized by complement pathway activation and increased macrophage recruitment to plaqueAryl-hydrocarbon receptor in SMC protects against oxidative stress, and promotes a stable plaque phenotype.

Summary data-based Mendelian randomization and single-cell RNA sequencing analyses identify immune associations with low-level LGALS9 in sepsis

Sepsis is one of the major challenges in intensive care units, characterized by the complexity of the host immune status. To gain a deeper understanding of the pathogenesis of sepsis, it is crucial to study the phenotypic changes in immune cells and their underlying molecular mechanisms. We conducted Summary data-based Mendelian randomization analysis by integrating genome-wide association studies data for sepsis with expression quantitative trait locus data, revealing a significant decrease in the expression levels of 17 biomarkers in sepsis patients. Furthermore, based on single-cell RNA sequencing data, we elucidated potential molecular mechanisms at single-cell resolution and identified that LGALS9 inhibition in sepsis patients leads to the activation and differentiation of monocyte and T-cell subtypes. These findings are expected to assist researchers in gaining a more in-depth understanding of the immune dysregulation in sepsis.

Mechanisms modulating foam cell formation in the arterial intima: exploring new therapeutic opportunities in atherosclerosis

In recent years, the role of macrophages as the primary cell type contributing to foam cell formation and atheroma plaque development has been widely acknowledged. However, it has been long recognized that diffuse intimal thickening (DIM), which precedes the formation of early fatty streaks in humans, primarily consists of lipid-loaded smooth muscle cells (SMCs) and their secreted proteoglycans. Recent studies have further supported the notion that SMCs constitute the majority of foam cells in advanced atherosclerotic plaques. Given that SMCs are a major component of the vascular wall, they serve as a significant source of microvesicles and exosomes, which have the potential to regulate the physiology of other vascular cells. Notably, more than half of the foam cells present in atherosclerotic lesions are of SMC origin. In this review, we describe several mechanisms underlying the formation of intimal foam-like cells in atherosclerotic plaques. Based on these mechanisms, we discuss novel therapeutic approaches that have been developed to regulate the generation of intimal foam-like cells. These innovative strategies hold promise for improving the management of atherosclerosis in the near future.

Genetic influence on vascular smooth muscle cell apoptosis

Vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation, migration, and apoptosis play important roles in many physiological processes and pathological conditions. To identify genetic influences on VSMC behavior, we measured these traits and undertook genome-wide association studies in primary umbilical artery-derived VSMCs from >2000 individuals. Although there were no genome-wide significant associations for VSMC proliferation or migration, genetic variants at two genomic loci (7p15.3 and 7q32.3) showed highly significant associations with VSMC apoptosis (P = 1.95 × 10-13 and P = 7.47 × 10-9, respectively). The lead variant at the 7p51.3 locus was associated with increased expression of the GSDME and PALS2 genes in VSMCs. Knockdown of GSDME or PALS2 in VSMCs attenuated apoptotic cell death. A protein co-immunoprecipitation assay indicated that GSDME complexed with PALS2. PALS2 knockdown attenuated activated caspase-3 and GSDME fragmentation, whilst GSDME knockdown also reduced activated caspase-3. These findings provide new insights into the genetic regulation of VSMC apoptosis, with potential utility for therapeutic development.

Network-based prioritization and validation of regulators of vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation in disease

Aberrant vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) homeostasis and proliferation characterize vascular diseases causing heart attack and stroke. Here we elucidate molecular determinants governing VSMC proliferation by reconstructing gene regulatory networks from single-cell transcriptomics and epigenetic profiling. We detect widespread activation of enhancers at disease-relevant loci in proliferation-predisposed VSMCs. We compared gene regulatory network rewiring between injury-responsive and nonresponsive VSMCs, which suggested shared transcription factors but differing target loci between VSMC states. Through in silico perturbation analysis, we identified and prioritized previously unrecognized regulators of proliferation, including RUNX1 and TIMP1. Moreover, we showed that the pioneer transcription factor RUNX1 increased VSMC responsiveness and that TIMP1 feeds back to promote VSMC proliferation through CD74-mediated STAT3 signaling. Both RUNX1 and the TIMP1-CD74 axis were expressed in human VSMCs, showing low levels in normal arteries and increased expression in disease, suggesting clinical relevance and potential as vascular disease targets.

EGR1 transcriptionally regulates SVEP1 to promote proliferation and migration in human coronary artery smooth muscle cells

A low-frequency variant of sushi, von Willebrand factor type A, EGF, and pentraxin domain-containing protein 1 (SVEP1) is associated with the risk of coronary artery disease, as determined by a genome-wide association study. SVEP1 induces vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and an inflammatory phenotype to promote atherosclerosis. In the present study, qRT‒PCR demonstrated that the mRNA expression of SVEP1 was significantly increased in atherosclerotic plaques compared to normal tissues. Bioinformatics revealed that EGR1 was a transcription factor for SVEP1. The results of the luciferase reporter assay, siRNA interference or overexpression assay, mutational analysis and ChIP confirmed that EGR1 positively regulated the transcriptional activity of SVEP1 by directly binding to its promoter. EGR1 promoted human coronary artery smooth muscle cell (HCASMC) proliferation and migration via SVEP1 in response to oxidized low-density lipoprotein (ox-LDL) treatment. Moreover, the expression level of EGR1 was increased in atherosclerotic plaques and showed a strong linear correlation with the expression of SVEP1. Our findings indicated that EGR1 binding to the promoter region drive SVEP1 transcription to promote HCASMC proliferation and migration.

Role of vascular smooth muscle cell clonality in atherosclerosis

Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease remains the leading cause of death worldwide. While many cell types contribute to the growing atherosclerotic plaque, the vascular smooth muscle cell (SMC) is a major contributor due in part to its remarkable plasticity and ability to undergo phenotype switching in response to injury. SMCs can migrate into the fibrous cap, presumably stabilizing the plaque, or accumulate within the lesional core, possibly accelerating vascular inflammation. How SMCs expand and react to disease stimuli has been a controversial topic for many decades. While early studies relying on X-chromosome inactivation were inconclusive due to low resolution and sensitivity, recent advances in multi-color lineage tracing models have revitalized the concept that SMCs likely expand in an oligoclonal fashion during atherogenesis. Current efforts are focused on determining whether all SMCs have equal capacity for clonal expansion or if a "stem-like" progenitor cell may exist, and to understand how constituents of the clone decide which phenotype they will ultimately adopt as the disease progresses. Mechanistic studies are also beginning to dissect the processes which confer cells with their overall survival advantage, test whether these properties are attributable to intrinsic features of the expanding clone, and define the role of cross-talk between proliferating SMCs and other plaque constituents such as neighboring macrophages. In this review, we aim to summarize the historical perspectives on SMC clonality, highlight unanswered questions, and identify translational issues which may need to be considered as therapeutics directed against SMC clonality are developed as a novel approach to targeting atherosclerosis.

The Greatly Under-Represented Role of Smooth Muscle Cells in Atherosclerosis

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This article summarizes previous and recent research on the fundamental role of arterial smooth muscle cells (SMCs) as drivers of initial and, along with macrophages, later stages of human atherosclerosis.

RECENT FINDINGS

Studies using human tissues and SMC lineage-tracing mice have reinforced earlier observations that SMCs drive initial atherogenesis in humans and contribute a multitude of phenotypes including foam cell formation hitherto attributed primarily to macrophages in atherosclerosis. Arterial smooth muscle cells (SMCs) are the primary cell type in human pre-atherosclerotic intima and are responsible for the retention of lipoproteins that drive the development of atherosclerosis. Despite this, images of atherogenesis still depict the process as initially devoid of SMCs, primarily macrophage driven, and indicate only relatively minor roles such as fibrous cap formation to intimal SMCs. This review summarizes historical and recent observations regarding the importance of SMCs in the formation of a pre-atherosclerotic intima, initial and later foam cell formation, and the phenotypic changes that give rise to multiple different roles for SMCs in human and mouse lesions. Potential SMC-specific therapies in atherosclerosis are presented.

The Genetics of Coronary Artery Disease: A Vascular Perspective

Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified a large number of genetic loci for coronary artery disease (CAD), with many located close to genes associated with traditional CAD risk pathways, such as lipid metabolism and inflammation. It is becoming evident with recent CAD GWAS meta-analyses that vascular pathways are also highly enriched and present an opportunity for novel therapeutics. This review examines GWAS-enriched vascular gene loci, the pathways involved and their potential role in CAD pathogenesis. The functionality of variants is explored from expression quantitative trait loci, massively parallel reporter assays and CRISPR-based gene-editing tools. We discuss how this research may lead to novel therapeutic tools to treat cardiovascular disorders.

Swiss Vascular Biobank: Evaluation of Optimal Extraction Method and Admission Solution for Preserving RNA from Human Vascular Tissue

Proper biobanking is essential for obtaining reliable data, particularly for next-generation sequencing approaches. Diseased vascular tissues, having extended atherosclerotic pathologies, represent a particular challenge due to low RNA quality. In order to address this issue, we isolated RNA from vascular samples collected in our Swiss Vascular Biobank (SVB); these included abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA), peripheral arterial disease (PAD), healthy aorta (HA), and muscle samples. We used different methods, investigated various admission solutions, determined RNA integrity numbers (RINs), and performed expression analyses of housekeeping genes (ACTB, GAPDH), ribosomal genes (18S, 28S), and long non-coding RNAs (MALAT1, H19). Our results show that RINs from diseased vascular tissue are low (2-4). If the isolation of primary cells is intended, as in our SVB, a cryoprotective solution is a better option for tissue preservation than RNAlater. Because RNA degradation proceeds randomly, controls with similar RINs are recommended. Otherwise, the data might convey differences in RNA degradation rather than the expressions of the corresponding genes. Moreover, since the 18S and 28S genes in the diseased vascular samples were degraded and corresponded with the low RINs, we believe that DV200, which represents the total RNA's disintegration state, is a better decision-making aid in choosing samples for omics analyses.

Exploring the genetic basis of coronary artery disease using functional genomics

Genome-wide Association Studies (GWAS) have identified more than 300 loci associated with coronary artery disease (CAD), defining the genetic risk map of the disease. However, the translation of the association signals into biological-pathophysiological mechanisms constitute a major challenge. Through a group of examples of studies focused on CAD, we discuss the rationale, basic principles and outcomes of the main methodologies implemented to prioritize and characterize causal variants and their target genes. Additionally, we highlight the strategies as well as the current methods that integrate association and functional genomics data to dissect the cellular specificity underlying the complexity of disease mechanisms. Despite the limitations of existing approaches, the increasing knowledge generated through functional studies helps interpret GWAS maps and opens novel avenues for the clinical usability of association data.

Genetic Regulation of SMC Gene Expression and Splicing Predict Causal CAD Genes

BACKGROUND

Coronary artery disease (CAD) is the leading cause of death worldwide. Recent meta-analyses of genome-wide association studies have identified over 175 loci associated with CAD. The majority of these loci are in noncoding regions and are predicted to regulate gene expression. Given that vascular smooth muscle cells (SMCs) play critical roles in the development and progression of CAD, we aimed to identify the subset of the CAD loci associated with the regulation of transcription in distinct SMC phenotypes.

METHODS

We measured gene expression in SMCs isolated from the ascending aortas of 151 heart transplant donors of various genetic ancestries in quiescent or proliferative conditions and calculated the association of their expression and splicing with ~6.3 million imputed single-nucleotide polymorphism markers across the genome.

RESULTS

We identified 4910 expression and 4412 splicing quantitative trait loci (sQTLs) representing regions of the genome associated with transcript abundance and splicing. A total of 3660 expression quantitative trait loci (eQTLs) had not been observed in the publicly available Genotype-Tissue Expression dataset. Further, 29 and 880 eQTLs were SMC-specific and sex-biased, respectively. We made these results available for public query on a user-friendly website. To identify the effector transcript(s) regulated by CAD loci, we used 4 distinct colocalization approaches. We identified 84 eQTL and 164 sQTL that colocalized with CAD loci, highlighting the importance of genetic regulation of mRNA splicing as a molecular mechanism for CAD genetic risk. Notably, 20% and 35% of the eQTLs were unique to quiescent or proliferative SMCs, respectively. One CAD locus colocalized with a sex-specific eQTL (TERF2IP), and another locus colocalized with SMC-specific eQTL (ALKBH8). The most significantly associated CAD locus, 9p21, was an sQTL for the long noncoding RNA CDKN2B-AS1, also known as ANRIL, in proliferative SMCs.

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively, our results provide evidence for the molecular mechanisms of genetic susceptibility to CAD in distinct SMC phenotypes.

The FES Gene at the 15q26 Coronary-Artery-Disease Locus Inhibits Atherosclerosis

BACKGROUND

Genome-wide association studies have discovered a link between genetic variants on human chromosome 15q26.1 and increased coronary artery disease (CAD) susceptibility; however, the underlying pathobiological mechanism is unclear. This genetic locus contains the FES (FES proto-oncogene, tyrosine kinase) gene encoding a cytoplasmic protein-tyrosine kinase involved in the regulation of cell behavior. We investigated the effect of the 15q26.1 variants on FES expression and whether FES plays a role in atherosclerosis.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Analyses of isogenic monocytic cell lines generated by CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats)-mediated genome editing showed that monocytes with an engineered 15q26.1 CAD risk genotype had reduced FES expression. Small-interfering-RNA-mediated knockdown of FES promoted migration of monocytes and vascular smooth muscle cells. A phosphoproteomics analysis showed that FES knockdown altered phosphorylation of a number of proteins known to regulate cell migration. Single-cell RNA-sequencing revealed that in human atherosclerotic plaques, cells that expressed FES were predominately monocytes/macrophages, although several other cell types including smooth muscle cells also expressed FES. There was an association between the 15q26.1 CAD risk genotype and greater numbers of monocytes/macrophage in human atherosclerotic plaques. An animal model study demonstrated that Fes knockout increased atherosclerotic plaque size and within-plaque content of monocytes/macrophages and smooth muscle cells, in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice fed a high fat diet.

CONCLUSIONS

We provide substantial evidence that the CAD risk variants at the 15q26.1 locus reduce FES expression in monocytes and that FES depletion results in larger atherosclerotic plaques with more monocytes/macrophages and smooth muscle cells. This study is the first demonstration that FES plays a protective role against atherosclerosis and suggests that enhancing FES activity could be a potentially novel therapeutic approach for CAD intervention.