Pet Ownership, but Not ACE Inhibitor Therapy, Blunts Home Blood Pressure Responses to Mental Stress

The LGBTQ+ People-Animal Bond: A Systematic Review of the Effects of Companion Animals on LGBTQ+ People

LGBTQ+ people tend to experience prejudice, stigma, and discrimination, which increases their risk of developing mental health difficulties. Support networks, including companion animals, can be used to cope with these challenges. We performed a systematic review of studies related to the effects of human-animal interactions on the LGBTQ+ population. The review included 18 empirical studies; the findings showed that participants tended to view companion animals as family members, as well as providers of love, acceptance, and social support. Thus, companion animals could alleviate stress and increase resilience. However, certain costs were also cited and, under some circumstances, poorer health was observed. The results are discussed considering three unique aspects of the "LGBTQ+ people-animal bond": (1) it promotes self-acceptance, (2) provides a sense of protection against sexuality-based stigma and social acts of aggression based on sex or gender, and (3) exposes animal guardians requesting animal care services to potential discrimination. By characterizing the LGBTQ+ people-animal bond, more effective responses to meet their needs and promote inclusion may be achieved.

An island of sanity during COVID-19 pandemic: Does pet attachment support buffer employees' stress due to job insecurity?

Drawing on the transactional theory of stress, the current study investigates whether employee job insecurity triggers employee behavioral strain reactions (i.e., alcohol use, marijuana use, and cigarette use) and psychological strain reactions (i.e., emotional exhaustion and depression) through stress during the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition, we integrate social support theory and expect the moderating role of pet attachment support in the above relationships. By collecting two-wave data from 187 employees with pets in the United States, we found that during the COVID-19 pandemic, stress mediated the relationships between job insecurity and predicted behavioral and psychological reactions. Moreover, pet attachment support buffered the relationships between stress and these behavioral and psychological strain reactions (all except cigarette use). Pet attachment support also alleviated the conditional indirect effects job insecurity had on the two types of strain reactions via stress. We discuss theoretical and practical implications of this study.

Breast cancer treatment and recovery: pets' roles as emotional buffers and stressors

BACKGROUND

Research suggests pets foster affection, connection, and physical activity, yet has failed to address the challenges people diagnosed with cancer face in caring for their pets. The objective of this study was to better understand how pets serve as emotional buffers and/or stressors for people diagnosed with breast cancer, and how their ability to meet their pet's needs affects their well-being.

METHODS

A cross-section study of people diagnosed with breast cancer in the United States was conducted. Adults diagnosed with stages 0 (in situ) -IV breast cancer and currently the primary guardian of at least one dog or cat and owned the animal(s) for at least 6 months, were recruited for the study. A total of 211 responses, obtained between July - November 2022 were analyzed. The survey included questions about participants' demographics; attachment to their pets; physical, emotional, and functional well-being; social support received from their pet; and 'pet parenting' concerns. Descriptive statistics were calculated to describe participants' demographics. Multiple regression analyses were conducted to determine predictors of pet attachment, well-being, support from pet, and 'pet parenting' concerns.

RESULTS

People diagnosed with breast cancer derive substantial support from their pets (80% feel their pet makes them feel loved, needed, and offers a positive presence in the home), yet only 50% of participants feel this relationship is supported by their medical team. Controlling for owner demographics, heightened levels of pet-related guilt and concerns, along with lower perceived support from their pet, are all significant predictors of a lower quality of life.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings highlight the benefits pets offer people diagnosed with breast cancer, yet also the distress they feel in trying to meet their pet's needs. Assessment conversations about pet ownership, including pet-related support systems, are needed to validate people's concerns and support the identification and development of pet support teams. Medical team facilitated discussions about pet care needs is suggested to demonstrate support for the pet-parent bond and help normalize feelings of guilt related to challenges in meeting their pet's needs. These discussions could be aided through the development of research-driven intervention strategies and online, freely accessible targeted tools.

Group Changes in Cortisol and Heart Rate Variability of Children with Down Syndrome and Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder during Dog-Assisted Therapy

Dog-assisted therapy is hypothesized to lower stress in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and children with Down syndrome (DS), which may be visible on a physiological level. In this study, we measured heart rate variability (HRV) and salivary cortisol of 20 children with DS or ASD at the beginning and end of six weekly sessions of dog-assisted therapy. We found a decrease of cortisol levels during single sessions, but no overall effect after six sessions (six weeks). The effect of dog-assisted therapy on the increase of HRV could not be confirmed. This study is one of the first to use physiological measurements to test the effects of DAT.

Age modifies the association between pet ownership and cardiovascular disease

Introduction

Studies examining associations between pet ownership and cardiovascular disease have yielded inconsistent results. These discrepancies may be partially explained by variations in age and sex across study populations. Our study included 6,632 American Gut Project participants who are US residents ≥40 years.

Methods

We first estimated the association of pet ownership with cardiovascular disease risk using multivariable-adjusted logistic regression, and further investigated effect modifications of age and sex.

Results

Cat but not dog ownership was significantly associated with lower cardiovascular disease risk (OR: 0.56 [0.42, 0.73] and OR: 1.17 [0.88, 1.39], respectively). Cat and dog ownership significantly interacted with age but not sex, indicating that cardiovascular risk varies by the age-by-pet ownership combination. Compared to the reference group (40-64 years, no cat or dog), participants 40-64 years with only a cat had the lowest cardiovascular disease risk (OR: 0.40 [0.26, 0.61]). Those ≥65 years with no pets had the highest risk (OR: 3.85 [2.85, 5.24]).

Discussion

This study supports the importance of pets in human cardiovascular health, suggesting optimal pet choice is age-dependent. Having both a cat and dog can be advantageous to people ≥65 years, while having only a cat may benefit those 40-64 years. Further studies are needed to assess causality.

Animal-Assisted Interventions and Animal Welfare-An Exploratory Survey in Germany

BACKGROUND

Animals play a crucial role in social occupational fields. The positive effects of animals are described in theory and practice. However, the significance of animal welfare in animal-assisted intervention settings has not yet been extensively researched, so that the aim of this explorative study was to investigate the perception and significance as well as the understanding of animal welfare and its implementation on the part of professionals working with animals.

METHODS

In the present project, 270 animal-assisted professionals from Germany were interviewed about their individual perceptions of animal welfare and their implementation of animal welfare with the help of questionnaires with closed questions (5-point agreement scale) and open questions. The quantitative data were analyzed using the statistical software SPSS and MS Excel. The qualitative data were analyzed using thematic coding.

RESULTS

The quantitative and qualitative results show that animal welfare poses high importance for people working in animal-assisted interventions. The structure and design of assignments, animal-related aspects and conditions, and education and knowledge are mentioned as generally relevant conditions for ensuring animal welfare from the perspective of animal-assisted intervention practitioners. In addition, different concrete courses of action to ensure animal welfare are described, which are characterized as stopping or changing the setting at different levels.

CONCLUSIONS

Animal welfare plays a central role for professionals working with animals. However, further studies are necessary in order to record other animal welfare-relevant aspects in the animal-assisted interventions, depending on the respective animal species, and to examine the implementation of animal welfare-related measures.

The Impact of Sustained Ownership of a Pet on Cognitive Health: A Population-Based Study

Objectives: To examine associations between sustained ownership of a pet and cognitive outcomes among a national sample of U.S. adults. Methods: Weighted linear mixed models were estimated using the Health and Retirement Study (2010-2016, n = 1369) to compare repeated measures of cognitive function between respondents who endorsed owning a pet in a sustained manner (>5 years), versus those who owned a pet ≤5 years, and non-pet owners. Results: Respondents aged 65+ who owned a pet >5 years demonstrated higher composite cognitive scores, compared to non-pet owners (β = .76, p = .03). Sustained pet ownership was associated with higher immediate (β = .3, p = .02) and delayed (β = .4, p = .007) word recall scores. There were no significant differences in cognitive scores between pet owners and non-owners aged < 65. Discussion: Sustained ownership of a pet could mitigate cognitive disparities in older adults. Further studies are needed to examine potential causal pathways, including physical activity and stress buffering, versus selection effects.

Understanding the Experiences of Elderly Bereaved Men and the Bond With Their Pets

The purpose of this transcendental phenomenological study was to understand the bereaved Older males' experiences with the interaction and ownership of a companion animal after the death of their partner. The primary researcher recruited 13 participants via a criterion-based purposeful sampling method to assure the quality of the information collected. Results revealed six themes: (a) bonds with their pets grew stronger and closer after the loss of their wife; (b) men were able to express their grief to their pets; (c) companion animals helped the men psychologically during grief; (d) pets were influential during times when the wife's presence would have been valuable; (e) companion animals helped men with loneliness and social connection; and (f) companion animals helped men find a new normal by providing a purpose and routine during bereavement. The pets proved to be a source of support for these widowed men.

Coping mechanisms used by pharmacists to deal with stress, what is helpful and what is harmful?

Background

Australian pharmacists encountered increased stressors during the COVID-19 pandemic. This has raised questions regarding the effectiveness of the coping mechanisms used to manage this high work-related stress. Identifying useful and harmful coping mechanisms is critical for providing advice regarding addressing pharmacists' future work-related stress.

Objectives

This study aimed to explore the impact of pharmacy work on stress experienced by Australian pharmacists and the coping mechanisms used during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study also aimed to evaluate the pharmacists' perceptions of the impact of these coping mechanisms on their stress.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted. Practising pharmacists and interns were recruited to complete an online survey that included the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), which was used to measure pharmacists' work-related stress, and the Brief-COPE scale, used to assess the coping mechanisms used during the COVID-19 pandemic. The key outcome measure was the PSS score. A multiple regression analysis was used to evaluate the relationship between coping mechanisms and stress levels in a sample of Australian pharmacists.

Results

A total of 173 pharmacists and interns were recruited. The mean PSS was 18.02 (SD = 6.7). Avoidant coping mechanisms such as social withdrawal (β = 0.31; p = 0.0001) were significantly positively associated with work-related stress. In contrast, exercise was significantly negatively associated with work-related stress (β = -0.21; p = 0.009). The most frequently reported perceived barrier to seeking help was feeling burnt out and underappreciated.

Conclusions

This study highlights the association of coping mechanisms used by pharmacists during the COVID-19 pandemic with work-related stress. The study results demonstrate the importance of physical activity and spending time with pets in reducing work-related stress levels. Avoiding harmful coping mechanisms such as social withdrawal and drinking alcohol is recommended. This study also highlights the need for interventional studies to reduce work-related stress levels among pharmacists by addressing useful coping mechanisms.

Unleashing the Furr-Recovery Method: Interacting with Pets in Teleworking Replenishes the Self's Regulatory Resources: Evidence from a Daily-Diary Study

This study is based on the conservation of resources theory and the recovery step model in order to further explore the furr-recovery method-a mechanism through which workers break their routine by taking micro-moments to interact with their "furry co-workers," thus relieving their fatigue and tension or other negative affective states. Based on this, we argue that this method not only serves the purpose of restoring self-regulatory resources but also ameliorates mental health. Accordingly, this study aims to analyze how daily human-animal interactions during teleworking positively influence teleworkers' mental health, via recovering their self-regulatory resources, at the within-person level. Full-time teleworkers completed multiple online surveys for 5 consecutive workdays (N = 211 × 5 = 1055 daily observations). Multilevel path analysis results showed that on days on which employees had more micro-moments to interact with their "furry co-workers" during the day, they experienced a higher self-regulatory capacity and felt better while working. In sum, the findings give support for the theoretical resource perspective of interacting with pets as an effective energy management strategy while at work. This research extends the theoretical understanding of regulatory resources as a cognitive mechanism that links HAIs to employee mental health. Moreover, the findings outlined here offer practical implications by highlighting the furr-recovery method, a method that teleworkers who own pets may use as a strategy during the working day to restore resources needed to be healthier.

"In times of stress, it is good to be with them": experience of dog owners from a rural district of Sri Lanka

BACKGROUND

The dog has been man's best companion since ancient times. And, dog ownership is associated with improved physical activity and cardiovascular health. We aim to explore the experience of dog owners on dog ownership and its effects on personal and family health in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. Such studies are scarce in developing countries and rural regions.

METHODS

A qualitative study was conducted using in-depth interviews with dog owners in the Anuradhapura district, Sri Lanka. Interviews were tape-recorded and transcribed and thematic analysis was performed.

RESULTS

The study findings were reported under the themes of experience of dog owners, pet dogs for children, village dogs as pets, the role of pet dogs in personal and family health, and participants' advice on dog ownership. Participants highlighted companionship as a positive aspect of pet dogs. However, expenses and reduced travel were the concerns of dog ownership. A child's preference was important in owning a pet dog. Also, participants were willing to adopt the village dogs. Further, they perceived stress reduction and mental satisfaction when interacting with their pet dogs. Moreover, participants seldom experienced major health risks from their pet dogs.

CONCLUSIONS

Human-dog interaction seems to improve the participants' mental well-being, and future research should focus on its possible consequences. Further, the village dogs were adopted as pets. Guided promotion of such activities could ease concerns related to village dogs in developing and rural regions.

Pet ownership, feelings of loneliness, and mood in people affected by the first COVID-19 lockdown

The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic has caused dramatic changes to our lifestyle, particularly affecting our ability to interact “in person” with our social network. These changes have had a detrimental effect on the mental welfare of the global population. The international questionnaire “Pets in Lockdown” was designed to investigate whether feelings of loneliness were affecting the mood of people during the COVID-19 lockdown and whether pet ownership may have had a positive influence on both loneliness and general mood. As expected, higher loneliness scores were associated with higher negative and lower positive affective states. In addition, lower loneliness scores were associated with pet ownership and living with other people, but not with more frequent interactions with people from outside the household, suggesting that physical and close contact has an important role in decreasing feelings of loneliness. Besides the effects on the loneliness score, pet ownership was not associated with positive or negative affective states. The strength of the attachment to animals, measured as the amount of comfort that people obtain from their pets, was stronger in people with potentially limited access to affiliative physical human contact and was associated with both higher positive and negative affective states. Additionally, people obtained significantly more comfort from dogs and horses compared with other pet species. The results suggest that during the confinement period, pets may have benefited people with smaller social networks by alleviating loneliness and offering comfort and embodied close contact.

The effect of similarity between owner’s values and their perceptions of their pet’s values on life satisfaction

It is often assumed that pet ownership improves peoples’ wellbeing, but evidence of this pet effect has been mixed. We extended past research on pet personality, the pet effect, and value congruence to examine whether people perceive their pets to have humanlike values and if owner-pet values similarity has a positive effect on owners’ life satisfaction. In a large and diverse sample of Australian dog and cat owners, we find that people imbue their dogs and cats with humanlike values in a way that reflects the theoretical circular structure of values. Importantly, perceptions of the values of dogs and cats differed in that dogs were perceived to prioritize more social-focus values, whereas cats were perceived to prioritize more personal-focus values. Additionally, we find that similarity in the values profile of dog owners and their dogs is positively associated with life satisfaction, but this was not the case for cats. However, when we examined associations between individual values similarity and life satisfaction, our results suggest a more complex and nuanced picture of both direct and indirect similarity effects.

Reactivation of a Hospital-Based Therapy Dog Visitation Program during the COVID-19 Pandemic

This study examined human−animal interactions during the reactivation of a hospital-based therapy dog program during the COVID-19 pandemic. Data were collected from human−dog interactions at an academic medical center in Virginia. Interaction length, participant role, age group (pediatric or adult), and observed gender were recorded. Handler adherence to human and animal safety protocols (donning personal protective equipment (PPE), using hand sanitizer, and limiting visit length) was measured. Observations from 1016 interactions were collected. t-tests and analysis of variance were conducted. Most visit recipients were healthcare workers (71.69%). Patients received longer visits than other participants (F(4880) = 72.90, p = <0.001); post hoc Bonferroni analyses (p = 0.05/4) showed that patients, both adult (M = 2.58 min, SD = 2.24) (95% C.I = 0.35−1.68) and pediatric (M = 5.81, SD = 4.38) (95% C.I. 3.56−4.97), had longer interaction times than healthcare workers (M = 1.56, SD = 1.92) but not visitors (p = 1.00). Gender differences were not statistically significant (t(552) = −0.736), p = 0.462). Hand sanitizer protocols were followed for 80% of interactions. PPE guidelines were followed for 100% of visits. Most interactions occurred with healthcare workers, suggesting that therapy dog visits are needed for this population. High adherence to COVID-19 safety protocols supports the decision to reactivate therapy animal visitation programs in hospitals. Challenges to safety protocol adherence included ultra-brief interactions and crowds of people surrounding the dog/handler teams. Program staff developed a “buddy system” mitigation strategy to minimize departures from safety protocols and reduce canine stress.

Disenfranchised Guilt—Pet Owners’ Burden

Simple Summary

Guilt is the unpleasant emotion associated with one’s behaviors, thoughts, or intentions, and it is based on the possibility that one may be in the wrong or others may have this perception. Parental guilt is one common type of guilt and is often associated with work–family conflict (WFC). WFC and related guilt have been found to be related to depression and anxiety. The current study was designed to explore dog owners’ guilt surrounding their dogs through an online anonymous survey. Results suggest that dog owners’ guilt and WFC associated with their dog are at similar levels to those reported in human family studies. Additionally, the relationship between dog owners’ guilt and discrepancy between their actual and ideal self, in regard to the role of a dog owner, also mirrored human-only family research. Because pet-related guilt is unrecognized, acknowledged, or supported, we suggest it is disenfranchised. In this period of post-COVID-19 pandemic time, as people return to work, it is important that companies and communities acknowledge pet owner guilt and pet-related WFC and help owners find practical, effective solutions.

Abstract

Guilt refers to an unpleasant emotional state associated with one’s behaviors, thoughts, or intentions, and it is based on the possibility that one may be in the wrong or that others may have this perception. Parental guilt is one common subtype and is often associated with work–family conflict (WFC). WFC and related guilt have been found to be associated with depression and anxiety. Through an online anonymous survey, the current study was designed to explore dog owners’ guilt surrounding their dogs. Results suggest that dog owners’ guilt and WFC associated with their dog are at levels similar to those reported in human family studies. Additionally, the relationship between dog owners’ guilt and discrepancy between participants’ actual and ideal self, in regard to the role of a dog owner, also mirrored human-only family research. Because pet-related guilt is unrecognized, acknowledged, or supported, we suggest it is disenfranchised. As people return to work, in this period of post-COVID-19 pandemic time, it is paramount that companies and communities acknowledge pet owner guilt and WFC and help owners find practical, effective solutions.

Pet Ownership and the Risk of Arterial Hypertension and Cardiovascular Disease

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Hypertension prevention and cardiovascular risk reduction are cornerstones in the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases. Potential applicability of nontraditional cardiovascular risk reduction methods, such as pet ownership, raises a growing interest.

RECENT FINDINGS

Studies show that having pets may reduce the risk of death from any cause, particularly from cardiovascular causes. Furthermore, results of some studies indicate that having pets may reduce the risk of developing hypertension and improve blood pressure control in patients with established hypertension. In addition, there is evidence that having pets may improve the prognosis of patients after myocardial infarction and stroke. One of the most important cardioprotective mechanisms of pet ownership is reduction in activity of the sympathetic nervous system. Pet ownership has a positive effect on the cardiovascular system, likely related to antihypertensive and cardioprotective mechanisms.

Canine Caregivers: Paradoxical Challenges and Rewards

Companion dogs are increasingly popular, 38.4% of households in the United States include at least one dog. There are numerous benefits to sharing one’s home with a dog, but because they age more rapidly than people and have shorter lifespans, acquiring a dog often includes caring for it during its senior years. Caring for an elderly dog can be physically and emotionally challenging, yet the impact on guardians’ lives when caring for an aging dog has received minimal scientific attention. This study was designed to better understand dog guardians’ experiences and perceptions related to caring for their aging dog. Utilizing an exploratory mixed methods design, this study asked dog guardians to complete an online anonymous survey. From a total of 284 participants, we found that the impact on guardians when caring for an aging dog appears to share many similarities with caregivers of human family members. Our quantitative and qualitative results suggest that, for many guardians, caring for an aging dog is a complex dynamic with both positive and negative factors that offers an opportunity to deepen the human-animal bond and create positive, rewarding experiences and memories.

Pet ownership and psychological well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic

The question of pet ownership contributing to human well-being has received mixed empirical evidence. This contrasts with the lay intuition that pet ownership contributes positively to wellness. In a large representative sample, we investigate the differences that may exist between pet vs. non-pet owners in terms of their well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic, and examine among different sociodemographic strata, for whom pet ownership can be more vs. less beneficial. A cross-sectional questionnaire survey was conducted among Canadian adults (1220 pet owners, 1204 non-pet owners). Pet owners reported lower well-being than non-pet owners on a majority of well-being indicators; this general pet ownership effect held when accounting for pet species (dogs, cats, other species) and number of pets owned. Compared to owners of other pets, dog owners reported higher well-being. When examining the effect of pet ownership within different socioeconomic strata, being a pet owner was associated with lower well-being among: women; people who have 2 + children living at home; people who are unemployed. Our results offer a counterpoint to popular beliefs emphasising the benefits of pets to human wellness during the COVID-19 pandemic and confirm the importance of accounting for sociodemographic factors to further understand the experience of pet ownership.

Lack of Effects of the Presence of a Dog on Pain Perception in Healthy Participants-A Randomized Controlled Trial

Animal-assisted interventions (AAIs) have been shown to be effective in the treatment of pain. Studies suggest that relationships with animals can have comparable qualities to relationships with humans and that this enables animals to provide social support. Further, the presence of an animal can strengthen the therapeutic alliance between patients and treatment providers. This suggests that the analgesic effects of AAI might be mediated by social support from an animal or by strengthening the alliance between the patient and the treatment provider. To test these assumptions, we examined the effects of the presence of a dog on experimentally induced pain in a pain assessment and a pain therapy context. Hundred thirty-two healthy participants were randomly assigned to the conditions “pain,” “pain + dog,” “pain + placebo,” or “pain + placebo + dog.” We collected baseline and posttreatment measurements of heat-pain tolerance and the heat-pain threshold and of the corresponding subjective ratings of heat-pain intensity and unpleasantness as well as of participants' perceptions of the study investigator. The primary outcome was heat-pain tolerance. The presence of the dog did not influence the primary outcome (“pain” vs. “pain + dog”: difference = 0.04, CI = −0.66 to 0.74, p = 0.905; “pain + placebo” vs. “pain + placebo + dog”: difference = 0.43, CI = −0.02 to 0.88, p = 0.059). Participants did also not perceive the study investigator to be more trustworthy in the presence of the dog (“pain” vs. “pain + dog”: difference = 0.10, CI = −0.67 to 0.87, p = 0.796; “pain + placebo” vs. “pain + placebo + dog”: difference = 0.11, CI = −0.43 to 0.64, p = 0.695). The results indicate that the mere presence of a dog does not contribute to pain reduction and that the analgesic effects of AAI that previous studies have found is not replicated in our study as AAI did not increase perceived social support and had no effect on the alliance between the participant and the treatment provider. We assume that the animal most likely needs to be an integrated and plausible part of the treatment rationale so that participants are able to form a treatment-response expectation toward AAI.

Clinical Trial Registration: This study was preregistered as a clinical trial on www.clinicaltrials.gov (Identifier: NCT0389814).

Stray Dogs and Public Health: Population Estimation in Punjab, India

The overpopulation of stray dogs is a serious public health and animal welfare concern in India. Neglected zoonotic diseases such as rabies and echinococcosis are transmitted at the stray–dog human interface, particularly in low to middle-income countries. The current study was designed to estimate the stray dog populations in Punjab to enhance the implementation of animal birth and disease (for example, rabies vaccination) control programs. This is the first systematic estimation of the stray dog population using a recommended method (mark–re-sight) in Punjab, India. The study was conducted from August 2016 to November 2017 in selected villages or wards in Punjab. For the rural areas, 22 sub-districts in each district were randomly selected, then one village from each of the 22 selected sub-districts was selected (by convenience sampling). For urban areas, 3 towns (less than 100,000 human population) and 2 large cities (more than or equal to 100,000 human population) were randomly selected, followed by convenience selection of two wards from each of the 5 selected towns/cities. To estimate the dog population size, we used a modified mark–re-sight procedure and analysed counts using two methods; the Lincoln–Petersen formula with Chapman’s correction, and an application of Good–Turing theory (SuperDuplicates method; estimated per km2 and per 1000 adult humans and were compared between localities (villages vs. towns), dog sex (male vs. female) and age group (young vs. adult) using linear mixed models with district as a random effect. The predicted mean (95% CI) count of the dogs per village or ward were extrapolated to estimate the number of stray dogs in Punjab based on (a) the number of villages and wards in the state; (b) the adult human population of the state and (c) the built-up area of the state. Median stray dog populations per village and per ward using the Lincoln–Petersen formula with Chapman’s correction were estimated to be 33 and 65 dogs, respectively. Higher estimates of 61 per village and 112 per ward are reported using the SuperDuplicates method. The number of males was significantly higher than the number of females and the number of adult dogs was about three times the number of young dogs. Based on different methods, estimates of the mean stray dog population in the state of Punjab ranged from 519,000 to 1,569,000. The current study revealed that there are a substantial number of stray dogs and a high number reside in rural (versus urban) areas in Punjab. The estimated stray dog numbers pose a potential public health hazard in Punjab. This impact requires assessment. The estimated stray dog numbers will help develop a dog population and rabies control program in which information about the logistics required as well as costs of implementing such programmes in Punjab can be incorporated.

Animal-Assisted Intervention and Health Care Workers’ Psychological Health: A Systematic Review of the Literature

Healthcare settings have recently increased the use of companion animals in the workplace to provide emotional support to people with disabilities, but there is limited empirical research on the effects of these programs on healthcare workers. However, it is reasonable to speculate that Animal-Assisted Interventions (AAIs) may have positive effects on health care workers (HCWs) by buffering the negative effects of work-related stress and other occupational psychosocial risk factors. The aim of this review was to examine the beneficial effects of AAIs on the psychological well-being of HCWs. A systematic review was conducted in December 2021 to gain insight into the positive effects of pets on HCWs in the workplace. Searches were conducted in the following databases: Scopus, PubMed/Medline, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, including studies between 2001 and December 2021, and 12 articles were included in the review. The results indicate that implementing the AAI program in a busy clinic is feasible and that the program is accepted by medical professionals because of the immense psychological benefits it provides. However, the healthcare professionals disliked the experimental design that forced them to leave their workplaces at a certain time.

Friends with Benefits: The Positive Consequences of Pet-Friendly Practices for Workers’ Well-Being

Although there is evidence that pets may help individuals who are facing significant daily stressors, little is known about the benefits of pet-friendly practices for their owners’ well-being. Based on the social exchange theory and on the Rusbult investment model, we argue that organizational pet-friendly practices will be viewed as a source of support from an organization that increases workers’ organizational identification, which in turn will lead to higher levels of psychological well-being and life satisfaction. For this study, 208 working adults answered an online questionnaire. Results from the study showed that the more pet-friendly practices the higher the workers’ organizational identification, which led to higher indices of psychological well-being and life satisfaction. This study contributes to a better understanding of the human–animal interaction and how pets can function as a resource for individuals’ well-being at work.

A Measurement Equivalence Study of the Family Bondedness Scale: Measurement Equivalence Between Cat and Dog Owners

About 38.4% of U.S. households include a dog, and 25.4% a cat, as pets, and a recent poll suggested over 90% of pet owners feel their companion animal is a family member. Numerous studies have suggested pet ownership has physical, mental, and social health benefits, though much of this research has yielded mixed results. Results of a recent review suggested significant measurement problems in human-animal interaction (HAI) and human-animal bond (HAB) research, including the absence of validity evidence, overly long measures, lack of evidence for measurement equivalence across species of pets, and measures lacking a basis in important psychological, family, and attachment theories. This article describes the development and results of a measurement equivalence study of a new measure of the HAB called the family bondedness scale (FBS). This scale, and the research results, address multiple gaps in HAB measurement. Results of multi-group confirmatory factor analyses with multiple covariates indicated the scores on the FBS showed equivalence between cat and dog owners. The use of the FBS in both veterinary research and practice, as well as in research and practice in other disciplines, such as social work and psychology, are considered.

Can "Rover" help with mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic? Results from the Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging (CLSA)

COVID-19 has negatively affected the mental health and well-being of adults, and thus it is important to examine potential factors which may influence mental health during the pandemic. We thus examined the association between pet ownership and depression/anxiety symptoms based on mental health disorder status during the COVID-19 pandemic. We included 12,068 cognitively healthy participants (45-86 years at study entry) from the Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging (CLSA) comprehensive cohort who completed the first follow-up ([FU1]; 2015-2018), and COVID-19 Survey entry (April-May 2020) and exit (September-December 2020). Participants self-reported at FU1 if they owned a pet (yes/no). Participants were dichotomized as with or without a mental health disorder based on self-reported diagnosis of depression, anxiety, or mood disorders at baseline assessment (2011-2015) or FU1. Depressive symptoms were indexed using the 10-item Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CESD-10) at FU1, and COVID-19 entry/exit surveys. Anxiety symptoms were assessed using the General Anxiety Disorder Questionnaire (GAD-7) at COVID-19 entry/exit surveys. Final models adjusted for age, sex, body mass index, income, education, living status, smoking status, relationship status, and alcohol intake. Forty-percent of participants owned a pet at FU1. Among those without a mental health disorder, there were no significant differences in CESD-10 between participants who owned pets compared with those without pets. For people with a mental health disorder, pet owners had higher CESD-10 (estimated mean difference range: 0.56-1.02 points; p < 0.05) and GAD-7 scores (estimated mean difference range: 0.28-0.57 points; p < 0.05) at both COVID-19 entry and exit surveys. Among people with mental health disorders, pet ownership was associated with poor mental health symptoms during April 2020 to December 2020 of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Effect of the presence of an aquarium in the waiting area on the stress, anxiety and mood of adult dental patients: A controlled clinical trial

BACKGROUND

Interaction with fish is known to reduce stress and anxiety in humans.

OBJECTIVE

This trial evaluated the effect of an aquarium present in a geriatric dental clinic waiting-area (WA) on blood pressure (BP), heart-rate (HR), anxiety, and mood of waiting patients.

METHODS

Participants were recruited into three groups: control (CG): WA without aquarium; partially-stocked aquarium (PSA): aquarium without fish; fully-stocked aquarium (FSA): aquarium with fish. BP and HR of the participants were recorded upon arrival and after 20-minutes of waiting, along with anxiety [State trait anxiety inventory (STAI-6)] and mood [Feeling scale (FS), Felt arousal scale (FAS)] scores. A purpose-built questionnaire evaluated the subjective assessment of the participants' experience in the WA. ANOVA with repeated measures and nonparametric tests were used for statistical analysis (p<0.05).

RESULTS

392 patients (mean age: 65.07±16.9y) completed this trial. There was an effect of time on the BP [systolic: F(1, 120) = 44.82, p<0.001; diastolic: F(1, 120) = 25.10, p<0.001] and HR [F(1, 120) = 40.94, p<0.001]. No effect of groups on BP [systolic: F(1, 120) = 1.01, p = 0.32; diastolic: F(1, 120) = 0.01, p = 0.92] was revealed, but a decrease of HR [F(1, 120) = 21.59, p<0.001]. No effect of time*group on BP [systolic: F(1, 120) = 0.89, p = 0.35; diastolic: F(1, 120) = 0.31, p = 0.58], or HR [F(1, 120) = 1.04, p-0.31]. WA groups had no effects on the participants' anxiety [H(2) = 2.76, p = 0.25], or mood [FS: H(2) = 2.28, p = 0.32; FAS: H(2) = 1.54, p = 0.46]. Patients rated FSA higher than others [H(2) = 20.98, p<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

There was no influence of the presence of an aquarium on the patients' blood pressure, heart rate, anxiety, or mood.

Dog-related activities and human well-being in Brazilian dog owners: A framework and cross-cultural comparison with a British study

Despite the abundance of studies investigating the benefits of having a dog, the specific aspects of dog ownership that impacts human well-being are not well understood. This study used a qualitative approach to create a framework of the main dog-related activities perceived by Brazilian owners to impact their well-being and compared the findings with those of a similar study in England. Thirty-two Brazilian dog owners from the five regions of the country were remotely interviewed. The thematic analysis of the transcripts generated a total of 58 dog-related activities, organised into 13 themes. Most activities were reported to have a positive effect on participants' well-being, accounting for 76.8% of the total number of mentions in the interviews. 'Playing with dog' and 'Dog presence' were the themes most frequently associated with positive well-being outcomes, whereas 'Unwanted behaviours' and 'Failing to meet dog's needs' were the most commonly associated with negative outcomes. The dog-related activities reported by Brazilian dog owners and the well-being outcomes linked to those activities were consistent with the previous British sample in the framework that emerged. These findings suggest reliability between the two methods used to gather data (remote interview versus focus group) and, most importantly, provide consistent cross-cultural evidence for how certain activities impact dog owner's well-being.

Can Pets Replace Children? The Interaction Effect of Pet Attachment and Subjective Socioeconomic Status on Fertility Intention

A growing number of young people tend to regard their pets as their surrogate children, yet research examining the relationship between pet attachment and fertility intention remains scarce. Moreover, individuals’ fertility intention is affected by economic resources. Therefore, we conducted two studies to examine the interaction effect of pet attachment and subjective socioeconomic status (SES) on childbearing-aged individuals’ fertility intention. In Study 1, we utilized questionnaires to measure Chinese pet owners’ pet attachment, subjective SES, and fertility intention. In Study 2, participants’ pet attachment was experimentally manipulated by reading articles about the benefits of petkeeping. The results of the two studies consistently demonstrated that the effect of pet attachment on fertility intention was moderated by subjective SES. Specifically, pet attachment was negatively associated with fertility intention when individuals had a high level of subjective SES, whereas this effect disappeared when individuals had low subjective SES. These findings suggest an explanation for why individuals with high subjective SES delay or even opt out of childbearing. The limitations and implications of the current study are discussed.

Demographic and contextual factors as moderators of the relationship between pet ownership and health

OBJECTIVE

Companion animals are an important feature of the family system, and human-animal interaction is increasingly being recognized as an important social determinant of health. However, there is a need for more nuanced assessment of not only who owns pets, but how pet ownership is related to various health outcomes, and which sociodemographic and contextual factors moderate these associations.

DESIGN

Secondary analysis of cross-sectional data collected from an online, probability-based panel to generate a nationally representative sample of adults in the United States (n = 1267). Data were analyzed using hierarchical and logistic regression models.

RESULTS

Results suggested that pet owners are systematically different from non-pet owners on a number of key demographic and contextual characteristics, and these differences vary somewhat when looking at dog owners and cat owners. When controlling for individual and family-level covariates, pet ownership was not associated with overall health status or Body Mass Index, but dog ownership was associated with higher levels of physical activity. Pet ownership was associated with higher odds of having an anxiety disorder with gender moderating this relationship, but this association was not present for dog or cat owners, suggesting this relationship is limited to other types of pets. Higher odds of depression were associated with pet ownership (for both dog and cat owners), with employment status significantly moderating the relationship between dog ownership status and depression.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that pet ownership is a complex and context specific phenomenon. Future research should carefully consider and control for sociodemographic predictors and use measurement and analysis approaches sensitive to the variations in human-animal relationships to fully understand how pets contribute to individual and family health and well-being.

Companion Animals as Buffer against the Impact of Stress on Affect: An Experience Sampling Study

Simple Summary

Companion animals have been identified as a unique source of social support and as contributors to mental wellbeing. In order to identify whether a companion animal buffers against the aversive effects of stress on affect or whether it has a general effect on its owner’s affective state, this study uses a mobile app to question participant’s stress levels for five consecutive days (ten times a day in the moment), the presence and interactions with their companion animal, and on their affective states. The results show that the presence of a companion animal buffers against the detrimental effects of stress on positive affect. The association between the presence of a companion animal and positive affect is only present when experiencing stress. When not under stress, positive affect does not benefit from the presence of a companion animal. Positive affect, however, does benefit from the interaction with a companion animal: In the presence of a companion animal, individuals experience less negative affect. These effects are present in all levels of stress. In conclusion, having a companion animal around alleviates negativity, interacting with it increases positivity, and, when an individual is under stress, simply having your cat or dog around helps you to retain your positive feelings.

Abstract

Companion animals have been identified as a unique source of social support and as contributors to mental wellbeing. This study uses the Experience Sampling Method to test whether this effect is due to stress-buffering. A total of 159 dog and cat owners responded to a series of randomly scheduled questionnaires on their smartphones. At each measurement moment, they reported in whether a pet is present at that moment and to what extent they have interacted with the pet. They also reported on stressful activities and events and on their current positive (PA) and negative (NA) affect. Multilevel regression analyses showed that when a companion animal was present (vs. absent) the negative association between stress and PA is less pronounced (event stress: B = 0.13, p = 0.002, 95% CI = 0.05; 0.21 activity stress: B = 0.08, p < 0.001, 95% CI = 0.04; 0.12). No additional main effect was revealed when tested in a subsample of records that reported low or no stress. Main effects were found for the presence of a companion animal on negative affect (B = 0.08, p < 0.001; 95% CI = 0.12; 0.05) and for interacting with a companion animal on positive affect (B = 0.06, p < 0.001; 95% CI = 0.04; 0.08). This shows that the presence of a companion animal buffers against the negative consequences of stress on positive affect, indicating stress-buffering as a mechanism behind the pet-effect. It is, however, not the only mechanism and more research is required to further elucidate how companion animals contribute to human wellbeing.

Association between Early Life Child Development and Family Dog Ownership: A Prospective Birth Cohort Study of the Japan Environment and Children's Study

Pets may play a role in the social-emotional development of children. In particular, some studies have suggested that family dog ownership is associated with better health outcomes. To date, no study has assessed child development in association with dog ownership of different time points. The purpose of the current study was primary to investigate whether “ever” family dog ownership was associated with early child development, and secondary to further examine whether associations between family dog ownership and early child development differ among family dog ownership of status, including “past only”, “current only”, and “always” groups, using the data of family dog ownership obtained at multiple time points. Associations between family dog ownership and infant development at 3 years of age were examined using data from a nationwide prospective birth cohort study, the Japan Environment and Children’s Study (n = 78,941). “Ever” family dog ownership was categorized to “past only”, “current only”, and “always”. We observed that children with “ever” family dog ownership showed a significantly decreased risk of developmental delay in the communication (odds ratio [OR] = 0.87; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.78, 0.96), gross motor (OR = 0.83; 95% CI: 0.76, 0.92), problem-solving (OR = 0.89; 95% CI: 0.83, 0.96) and personal-social (OR = 0.86; 95% CI: 0.72, 0.92) domains compared to children with “never” family dog ownership. Furthermore, a significantly decreased risk of developmental delay in gross motor function was observed in association with living with dogs in the “past only” (OR = 0.83; 95% CI: 0.73, 0.95) and “always” (OR = 0.86; 95% CI: 0.75, 0.98). In addition, a decreased risk of developmental delay in the problem-solving domain was associated with “past” family dog ownership (OR = 0.87; 95% CI: 0.79, 0.97) and in the personal-social domain was associated with “always” family dog ownership (OR = 0.81; 95% CI = 0.68, 0.95). Given the possible positive association between early life child development and family dog ownership, living with dogs may be an important factor to be considered when assessing child development.

Community Veterinary Medicine Programs: Pet Owners' Perceptions and Experiences

Many American pet owners struggle financially, and the COVID-19 pandemic has only exacerbated this problem. Yet, the positive effects that companion animals have in people's lives create the need for supportive systems to ensure that financial limitations, and other barriers, do not preclude pet ownership. To help address these barriers, and reach underserved communities, various forms of community-based veterinary medicine programs have been developed across the country. This study assesses two community-based veterinary programs in North Carolina, USA. In addition to perceptions surrounding veterinary services, this study paid specific attention to communication and respect; two additional elements needed for successful community-based veterinary programs. Surveys were given to clients accessing Asheville Humane Society (AHS) mobile veterinary care clinic and Asheville Humane Society (AHS) Affordable Pet Care Clinic. Results of the anonymous survey indicate that the majority of clients had positive veterinary care experiences in terms of both veterinary services and client communication. In conclusion, low-cost or free community veterinary programs—with effective communication, empathy, and cultural competence—can help open the door to future positive veterinary experiences for disadvantaged pet owners.

Dogs as Pets and Pests: Global Patterns of Canine Abundance, Activity, and Health

Dogs (Canis familiaris) were the first domesticated species and, at an estimated population of 1 billion individuals, are globally ubiquitous today. Describing the tremendous morphometric diversity and evolutionary origins of dogs is a scientific endeavor that predates Darwin, yet our interdisciplinary understanding of the species is just beginning. Here, I present global trends in dog abundance, activity, and health. While the human-dog relationship has for millennia been close, it is also complicated. As pets, companion dogs are often treated as family members and constitute the largest sector of the ever-growing >$200 billion USD global pet care industry. As pests, free-roaming dogs are an emerging threat to native species via both predation and nonconsumptive effects (e.g., disturbance, competition for resources, and hybridization). Furthermore, I briefly discuss mounting evidence of dogs as not only infectious disease reservoirs but also as bridges for the transmission of pathogens between wild animals and humans in zoonotic spillover events, triggering intensive dog population management strategies such as culling. Dog mobility across the urban-wildland interface is an important driver for this and other adverse effects of canines on wildlife populations and is an active topic of disease ecologists and conservation biologists. Other canine scientists, including veterinary clinicians and physiologists, study more mechanistic aspects of dog mobility: the comparative kinetics, kinematics, and energetics of dog locomotor health. I outline the prevalent methodological approaches and breed-specific findings within dog activity and health research, then conclude by recognizing promising technologies that are bridging disciplinary gaps in canine science.

Canine-Assisted Interventions in Hospitals: Best Practices for Maximizing Human and Canine Safety

Canine-assisted interventions (CAI) are becoming more popular in hospital settings, representing a crucial intersection between animals, veterinary medicine, and society. However, standardized policies and procedures to minimize risk and maximize benefit to vulnerable humans and protect therapy dog welfare are lacking, posing a challenge to safe practice. Few intervention programs are evaluated to document efficacy compounding the potential risk. This paper presents a rationale for CAI in hospitals and describes the evidence, issues, and challenges to establishing and maintaining safe and effective programs for humans and animals. Recommendations are made for best practices based on the existing scientific evidence and a model program in place in a major medical center for 19 years. Scientific and practical implications are considered.

Man's Best Friend? The Effects of Being Rejected by a Pet

Introduction: People can be rejected by friends, strangers, hated outgroups, or computer simulations. The present research examines whether people can be rejected by pets.

Methods: Two studies examined whether people can feel rejected by pets and how this affects their mood, fundamental needs, and aggression. Participants in Study 1 were directly rejected by a pet using an adapted version of the video message paradigm, and then reported on their mood, fundamental needs, and aggression. Study 2 directly compared differences in needs when writing about a rejection experience by a pet, a rejection experience by a person, and a control experience.

Results: Study 1 confirmed that people can feel rejected by their pets by demonstrating that those who were rejected felt more negatively and less positively and had decreased need satisfaction, however they did not experience any changes in their aggression. Finally, in Study 2, people who were rejected by a pet or by a person experienced decreased need satisfaction as compared to a control experience.

Discussion: Ultimately, these studies confirm pets can be perpetrators of rejection and such rejection hurts similarly to if a human perpetrated it. This may add to the growing body of research suggesting that pets do not provide uniformly positive effects on people.

Pet ownership in utero and in childhood decreases the effects of environmental tobacco smoke exposure on hypertension in children: A large population based cohort study

BACKGROUND

Little is known about whether exposure to pets influences the association between hypertension and environmental tobacco smoke (ETS). The current study aims to examine the interaction of pet ownership on ETS exposure and the development of hypertension in children.

METHODS

From 2012 to 2013, a total of 9354 children, 5 to 17 years of age, were recruited from 62 schools in seven northeastern cities. BP in children was measured and hypertension was defined as an average diastolic blood pressure (DBP) or systolic blood pressure (SBP) at or above the 95th percentile for that child's age, sex, and height. Pet ownership in three different time periods (in utero, past 2 years, and currently) and ETS exposure data were collected from parents via a questionnaire. Two-level regressions were used for the data analyses.

RESULTS

The data show consistent, significant interactions between exposure to pets and effects from ETS. Children who were not exposed to pets experienced stronger effects from ETS on hypertension when compared to those exposed to pets, and the protective effect of pet ownership became stronger with a greater number of pets in the home. Exposure to in utero ETS was associated with hypertension [adjusted odds ratio (aOR) = 1.32, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.13-1.54] only for those children without pet exposure in utero but not for those with pets (aOR = 0.75; 95% CI: 0.49-1.15) (p_interaction < 0.05). Moreover, household dog ownership was related to significantly lower effects of current ETS on hypertension (aOR = 0.80, 95% CI: 0.61-1.05) compared with children without dogs (aOR = 1.26, 95% CI: 1.11-1.44) (p_interaction = 0.001). Interaction associations between ETS and pet ownership were more robust for girls than for boys and for younger than older children.

CONCLUSION

This study indicates an inverse relationship between pet ownership and ETS, potentially pointing to pet ownership as protecting against the development of hypertension in children.

Pet Ownership and Cardiovascular Health in the US General Population

The 2013 American Heart Association Scientific Statement on pet ownership and cardiovascular risk suggested that dog ownership is probably associated with decreased cardiovascular risk. Several studies have been shown that pet ownership, particularly of dogs, is associated with increased physical activity levels, social support, and improved outcomes after a major cardiovascular event. We hypothesized that pet ownership is associated with a lower risk of cardiovascular disease in the US general population. Using the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, we identified all patients with heart failure, coronary artery disease, systemic hypertension (SH), diabetes mellitus, and stroke between 1999 and 2016. Multivariable analyses were performed to adjust for demographic factors such as age, gender, marital status, education, co-morbidities, cigarette smoking, family income, working hours, sleeping duration, depression, and lipid profiles. Of 42,038 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey participants, 10,905 (31%) were inquired about pet ownership. Pet owners were older, less likely to be women or widowed, and more likely to be white, more educated, tobacco users, and work more than 35 hours per week than non-owners (all p values <0.05). Pet owners had higher hemoglobin, lower low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and a lower prevalence of DM, SH, and stroke (all p values <0.05). After adjusting for potential confounders, pet ownership (either cat or dog ownership) was independently associated with a lower prevalence of SH (odds ratio 0.67; 95% confidence interval 0.49 to 0.89; p = 0.01), but not heart failure, coronary artery disease, DM, or stroke, compared with non-owners. In conclusions, using a large national database, we found that pet ownership is associated with a decreased prevalence of SH. Further longitudinal studies are needed to draw a conclusion on the protective effect of pet ownership in patients with cardiovascular disease.

Effect of Dog Presence on Stress Levels in Students under Psychological Strain: A Pilot Study

As university students face many stressful situations, especially during the examination period, this study focused on the use of animal-assisted activities (AAAs) with a dog as a means of relieving students’ stress before a final exam. The aim was to determine whether a 10-min interaction with a dog affected subjectively evaluated stress and mood, objective blood pressure, and heart rate. Ninety-three female students (mean age = 22.5 years; standard deviation = 3.8 years) were divided into three groups according to their preference. The first group underwent AAAs (n = 26), the second group chose a relaxation technique (n = 28), and the last one was a control group (n = 39). Physiological values were measured using a pressure gauge and the subjective feelings of stress and mood were evaluated by the Likert scale 1–5. The AAA group showed significant improvement after 10 min of interaction in both mood and stress, with no change in heart rate and blood pressure. The remaining groups showed a significant decrease in blood pressure, but not in heart rate, with different evaluations of mood and stress. AAAs with a dog appear to be effective in improving students’ mood and stress without affecting their physiological parameters.

Association of Dog and Cat Ownership with Incident Frailty among Community-Dwelling Elderly Japanese

Accumulating evidence from studies of human–animal interaction highlights the physiological, psychological, and social benefits for older owners of dogs and cats. This longitudinal study examined whether experience of dog/cat ownership protects against incident frailty in a population of community-dwelling older Japanese. Among 7881 non-frail community-dwelling adults aged 65 years or older who completed a mail survey in 2016, 6,197 (mean [SD] age, 73.6 [5.3] years; 53.6% women) were reevaluated in a 2018 follow-up survey. Frailty was assessed with the Kaigo-Yobo Checklist. Incident frailty was defined as a score of four or higher in the follow-up survey. Overall, 870 (14.0%) were current dog/cat owners, 1878 (30.3%) were past owners and 3449 (55.7%) were never owners. During the 2-year follow-up period, 918 (14.8%) developed incident frailty. Mixed-effects logistic regression models showed that the odds ratio for incident frailty among dog/cat owners, as compared with never owners, current owners were 0.87 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.69–1.09) and past owner were 0.84 (0.71–0.98), after controlling for important confounders at baseline. In stratified analysis, the risk of incident frailty was lower for past dog owners than for cat owners. Longer experience of caring for a dog requires physical activity and increases time outdoors spent dog walking and thus may have an important role in maintaining physical and social function and reducing frailty risk among older adults.

Friends with malefit. The effects of keeping dogs and cats, sustaining animal-related injuries and Toxoplasma infection on health and quality of life

Many studies show that keeping cats and dogs has a positive impact on humans' physical and mental health and quality of life. The existence of this "pet phenomenon" is now widely discussed because other studies performed recently have demonstrated a negative impact of owning pets or no impact at all. The main problem of many studies was the autoselection-participants were informed about the aims of the study during recruitment and later likely described their health and wellbeing according to their personal beliefs and wishes, not according to their real status. To avoid this source of bias, we did not mention pets during participant recruitment and hid the pet-related questions among many hundreds of questions in an 80-minute Internet questionnaire. Results of our explorative study performed on a sample of 10,858 subjects showed that liking dogs has a weak positive association with quality of life. However, keeping pets, especially cats, and even more being injured by pets, were strongly negatively associated with many facets of quality of life. Our data also confirmed that infection by the cat parasite Toxoplasma had a very strong negative effect on quality of life, especially on mental health. However, the infection was not responsible for the observed negative effects of keeping pets, as these effects were much stronger in 1,527 Toxoplasma-free subjects than in the whole population. Any cross-sectional study cannot discriminate between a cause and an effect. However, because of the large and still growing popularity of keeping pets, the existence and nature of the reverse pet phenomenon deserve the outmost attention.

Dog Ownership and Survival: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

Dog ownership has been associated with decreased cardiovascular risk. Recent reports have suggested an association of dog companionship with lower blood pressure levels, improved lipid profile, and diminished sympathetic responses to stress. However, it is unclear if dog ownership is associated with improved survival as previous studies have yielded inconsistent results. Thus, we performed a systematic review and meta-analysis to evaluate the association of dog ownership with all-cause mortality, with and without prior cardiovascular disease, and cardiovascular mortality.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Studies published between 1950 and May 24, 2019 were identified by searching Embase and PubMed. Observational studies that evaluated baseline dog ownership and subsequent all-cause mortality or cardiovascular mortality. Two independent reviewers extracted the data. We assessed pooled data using random-effects model. A possible limitation was that the analyses were not adjusted for confounders. Ten studies were included yielding data from 3 837 005 participants (530 515 events; mean follow-up 10.1 years). Dog ownership was associated with a 24% risk reduction for all-cause mortality as compared to nonownership (relative risk, 0.76; 95% CI, 0.67-0.86) with 6 studies demonstrating significant reduction in the risk of death. Notably, in individuals with prior coronary events, living in a home with a dog was associated with an even more pronounced risk reduction for all-cause mortality (relative risk, 0.35; 95% CI, 0.17-0.69; I², 0%). Moreover, when we restricted the analyses to studies evaluating cardiovascular mortality, dog ownership conferred a 31% risk reduction for cardiovascular death (relative risk, 0.69; 95% CI, 0.67-0.71; I², 5.1%).

CONCLUSIONS

Dog ownership is associated with lower risk of death over the long term, which is possibly driven by a reduction in cardiovascular mortality. Systematic Review Registration URL: http://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/. Unique identifier: CRD42018111048.

Dog Ownership and Survival After a Major Cardiovascular Event: A Register-Based Prospective Study

BACKGROUND

Dog ownership is associated with increased physical activity levels and increased social support, both of which could improve the outcome after a major cardiovascular event. Dog ownership may be particularly important in single-occupancy households where ownership provides substitutive companionship and motivation for physical activity.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We used the Swedish National Patient Register to identify all patients aged 40 to 85 presenting with an acute myocardial infarction (n=181 696; 5.7% dog ownership) or ischemic stroke (n=154 617; 4.8% dog ownership) between January 1, 2001 and December 31, 2012. Individual information was linked across registers for cause of death, sociodemographic, and dog ownership data. We evaluated all-cause mortality and risk of recurrent hospitalization for the same cause until December 31, 2012. Models were adjusted for socioeconomic, health, and demographic factors at study inclusion such as age, marital status, the presence of children in the home, area of residence, and income, as well as all registered comorbidities and hospitalization for cardiovascular disease in the past 5 years. Dog owners had a lower risk of death after hospitalization for acute myocardial infarction during the full follow-up period of 804 137 person-years, with an adjusted hazard ratio (HR) of 0.67 (95% CI, 0.61 to 0.75) for those who lived alone, and HR of 0.85 (95% CI, 0.80 to 0.90) for those living with a partner or a child. Similarly, after an ischemic stroke, dog owners were at lower risk of death during the full follow-up of 638 219 person-years adjusted HR of 0.73 (95% CI, 0.66 to 0.80) for those who lived alone and HR of 0.88 (95% CI, 0.83 to 0.93) for those living with a partner or a child. We further found an association of dog ownership with reduced risk of hospitalization for recurrent myocardial infarction (HR, 0.93; 95% CI, 0.87 to 0.99).

CONCLUSIONS

We found evidence of an association of dog ownership with a better outcome after a major cardiovascular event. Although our models are adjusted for many potential confounders, there are also unmeasured confounders such as smoking that prevent us from drawing conclusions regarding a possible causal effect.

Examining How Dog 'Acquisition' Affects Physical Activity and Psychosocial Well-Being: Findings from the BuddyStudy Pilot Trial

Dog owners are more physically active than non-dog owners, but evidence of a causal relationship between dog acquisition and increased physical activity is lacking. Such evidence could inform programs and policies that encourage responsible dog ownership. Randomized controlled trials are the 'gold standard' for determining causation, but they are prohibited in this area due to ethical concerns. In the BuddyStudy, we tested the feasibility of using dog fostering as a proxy for dog acquisition, which would allow ethical random assignment. In this single-arm trial, 11 participants fostered a rescue dog for six weeks. Physical activity and psychosocial data were collected at baseline, 6, and 12 weeks. At 6 weeks, mean change in steps/day was 1192.1 ± 2457.8. Mean changes on the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale and the Perceived Stress Scale were -4.9 ± 8.7 and -0.8 ± 5.5, respectively. More than half of participants (55%) reported meeting someone new in their neighborhood because of their foster dog. Eight participants (73%) adopted their foster dog after the 6-week foster period; some maintained improvements in physical activity and well-being at 12 weeks. Given the demonstrated feasibility and preliminary findings of the BuddyStudy, a randomized trial of immediate versus delayed dog fostering is warranted.

The Effect of Animal-Assisted Therapy on the State of Patients' Health After a Stroke: A Pilot Study

A stroke is a condition that can give rise to consequences such as cognitive and physical constraints, which sometimes manifest in the psychological condition of the patient. Such patients commence rehabilitation as soon as is possible, which involves a multi-disciplinary approach to treatment. One aspect of complementary rehabilitation could be animal-assisted therapy (AAT). A total of 15 individuals were split into an experimental group comprising 6 patients (2 males, 4 females), and a control group of 9 patients (3 males, 6 females). The participants in the control group were aged from 43 to 87 years and the experimental group featured participants aged from 45 to 76 years. Both groups received standard physiotherapy and occupational therapy. In addition, the experimental group was supplemented with AAT, with the animal in question being a dog. The tools primarily applied to measure the outcomes were the Barthel index, blood pressure, and heart rate measurements, whereas the Likert scale was employed to discern the mood of the patients. The results showed that changes in the values for heart rate and blood pressure were insignificant. However, a statistically significant aspect of the research pertained to the patients confirming that they felt better after the AAT sessions. Hence, AAT could potentially bolster the effectiveness of other therapies.

Cross-sectional survey of pet ownership, veterinary service utilisation, and pet-related expenditures in New Zealand

Aims: To describe the demographics of and predictors for pet ownership, reasons for visiting a veterinarian, and pet-related expenditure in pet owners in New Zealand. Methods: A cross-sectional online survey was conducted from 18-22 June 2015 using a permission-based panel of New Zealand residents aged ≥18 years. Questions included demographics of respondents, number of pets and reasons for owning or not owning pets, number of visits and reasons for visiting a veterinarian, and pet-related expenditure. Results: Of the 1,572 respondents who completed the survey, 1,013 (64.4%) owned ≥1 pet. Of these, 443 owned dogs, 696 cats, 32 horses, 103 birds, 55 rabbits, and 159 owned fish. Companionship was the most common reason for getting dogs, cats, and birds; horses were mostly owned as a hobby, rabbits to provide fun for children, and fish as a source of relaxation. The majority of dog, cat, and rabbit owners considered their pets to be family members; horse owners almost equally considered their horses a hobby or a family member. The odds of pet ownership increased for respondents from a rural region, having a higher household income, having children and being female. Overall, 711/1,013 (70.2%) pet-owning respondents had taken ≥1 animal to the veterinarian in the previous year, with the most common reasons being for vaccination or annual check-ups or health issues. Respondents who considered their pets trusted companions, had a higher income, and owned dogs or cats compared with other species, were most likely to have taken their pet to a veterinarian. The greatest pet-related expenditure for all species was food. The median yearly veterinary expenditure was $200-499 by dog owners, $100-199 by cat owners, and <$100 by horse, bird, rabbit, and fish owners. The best source of information for pet-related issues was considered to be veterinarians by 724/1,001 (72.3%) owners, and the internet by 509/1,001 (50.8%) owners. Conclusions: Among survey respondents, pet ownership was common and pets filled a variety of roles in the household. Pet owners reported spending considerable amounts of money on their pets each year, but some of them may be underutilising veterinary services despite veterinarians being considered as valuable sources of information about pet-related issues.

Cardiovascular reactivity to emotional stress: The hidden challenge for pets in the urbanized environment

Emotional stress is currently considered an important risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. Experimental evidence clearly shows robust autonomic cardiovascular effects in animals exposed to stress stimuli. Considering the remarkable variability of stressors, the urban environment can pose a severe challenge to cardiovascular control. Interestingly, pet ownership is indicated as an efficient non-pharmacological therapy to attenuate stress effects that can reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. However, the risk of cardiovascular diseases in pets themselves living in urban environment has not received attention it deserves. Here, we review the central mechanisms involved in the autonomic cardiovascular response to emotional stress. Next, we discuss experimental evidence showing the cardiovascular effects produced by emotional stressors in animals, aiming to establish a parallel with common urban stressors. Association of additional risk factors such as sedentarism, obesity and ambient temperature are also considered. Our aim is to identify and raise awareness of the risk of cardiovascular disease in pets exposed to quotidian emotional stressors present in the urban environment.

The effects of interacting with fish in aquariums on human health and well-being: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Most research into the health benefits of human-animal interaction has focused on species that interact physically with humans, such as dogs. This may be unsuitable for certain populations for reasons including accessibility and the risk of negative consequences to both the person and the animal. However, some research has associated viewing fish in aquariums with positive well-being outcomes; as there is no physical contact with the animal, this form of interaction carries less risk. At present, little is known about the specific benefits of human-fish interaction.

OBJECTIVES

To explore current evidence relating to the psychological and physiological benefits of interacting with fish in aquariums.

METHODS

Systematic searches were conducted to identify relevant primary research of any design. All forms of interaction were considered, including keeping fish as companion animals and fish aquarium-based interventions. "Non-live" alternatives, such as videos, were also considered. This review was conducted according to a registered protocol (PROSPERO ID: CRD42018090466).

RESULTS

Nineteen studies were included. Two provided tentative evidence that keeping home aquaria is associated with relaxation. The remaining studies involved novel interactions with fish in home or public aquariums. Outcomes relating to anxiety, relaxation and/or physiological stress were commonly assessed; evidence was mixed with both positive and null findings. Preliminary support was found for effects on mood, pain, nutritional intake and body weight, but not loneliness. All studies had methodological issues and risk of bias was either high or unclear.

CONCLUSIONS

Review findings suggest that interacting with fish in aquariums has the potential to benefit human well-being, although research on this topic is currently limited. Future research should aim to address gaps in the evidence, such as whether and how the type of human-fish interaction can influence well-being outcomes. Researchers should also aim to address the methodological concerns highlighted in this review.