Surface photo-grafting of polyurethane with 2-hydroxyethyl acrylate for promotion of human endothelial cell adhesion and growth

Acrylates Polymerization on Covalent Plasma-Assisted Functionalized Graphene: A Route to Synthesize Hybrid Functional Materials

The modification of the surface properties of graphene with polymers provides a method for expanding its scope into new applications as a hybrid material. Unfortunately, the chemical inertness of graphene hinders the covalent functionalization required to build them up. Developing new strategies to enhance the graphene chemical activity for efficient and stable functionalization, while preserving its electronic properties, is a major challenge. We here devise a covalent functionalization method that is clean, reproducible, scalable, and technologically relevant for the synthesis of a large-scale, substrate-supported graphene-polymer hybrid material. In a first step, hydrogen-assisted plasma activation of p-aminophenol (p-AP) linker molecules produces their stable and covalent attachment to large-area graphene. Second, an in situ radical polymerization reaction of 2-hydroxyethyl acrylate (HEA) is carried out on the functionalized surface, leading to a graphene-polymer hybrid functional material. The functionalization with a hydrophilic and soft polymer modifies the hydrophobicity of graphene and might enhance its biocompatibility. We have characterized these hybrid materials by atomic force microscopy (AFM), X-Ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and Raman spectroscopy and studied their electrical response, confirming that the graphene/p-AP/PHEA architecture is anchored covalently by the sp3 hybridization and controlled polymerization reaction on graphene, retaining its suitable electronic properties. Among all the possibilities, we assess the proof of concept of this graphene-based hybrid platform as a humidity sensor. An enhanced sensitivity is obtained in comparison with pristine graphene and related materials. This functional nanoarchitecture and the two-step strategy open up future potential applications in sensors, biomaterials, or biotechnology fields.

Nonspherical Nanoparticle Shape Stability Is Affected by Complex Manufacturing Aspects: Its Implications for Drug Delivery and Targeting

The shape of nanoparticles is known recently as an important design parameter influencing considerably the fate of nanoparticles with and in biological systems. Several manufacturing techniques to generate nonspherical nanoparticles as well as studies on in vitro and in vivo effects thereof have been described. However, nonspherical nanoparticle shape stability in physiological-related conditions and the impact of formulation parameters on nonspherical nanoparticle resistance still need to be investigated. To address these issues, different nanoparticle fabrication methods using biodegradable polymers are explored to produce nonspherical nanoparticles via the prevailing film-stretching method. In addition, systematic comparisons to other nanoparticle systems prepared by different manufacturing techniques and less biodegradable materials (but still commonly utilized for drug delivery and targeting) are conducted. The study evinces that the strong interplay from multiple nanoparticle properties (i.e., internal structure, Young's modulus, surface roughness, liquefaction temperature [glass transition (T_g ) or melting (T_m )], porosity, and surface hydrophobicity) is present. It is not possible to predict the nonsphericity longevity by merely one or two factor(s). The most influential features in preserving the nonsphericity of nanoparticles are existence of internal structure and low surface hydrophobicity (i.e., surface-free energy (SFE) > ≈55 mN m^-1 , material-water interfacial tension <6 mN m^-1 ), especially if the nanoparticles are soft (<1 GPa), rough (R_rms > 10 nm), porous (>1 m² g^-1 ), and in possession of low bulk liquefaction temperature (<100 °C). Interestingly, low surface hydrophobicity of nanoparticles can be obtained indirectly by the significant presence of residual stabilizers. Therefore, it is strongly suggested that nonsphericity of particle systems is highly dependent on surface chemistry but cannot be appraised separately from other factors. These results and reviews allot valuable guidelines for the design and manufacturing of nonspherical nanoparticles having adequate shape stability, thereby appropriate with their usage purposes. Furthermore, they can assist in understanding and explaining the possible mechanisms of nonspherical nanoparticles effectivity loss and distinctive material behavior at the nanoscale.

Influence of Quaternized Polyurethane Membrane Surfaces on Human Endothelial Cell Attachment and Growth

Poly(ester urethane) (PU) membranes with cationic groups on the surface was prepared by grafting N,N-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate (DMA), followed by quaternization with iodomethane. Fourier transform infrared-attenuated total reflectance (FTIR-ATR) spectroscopy, X-ray photo-eletron spectroscopy (XPS) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) evaluations verified the occurrence of the grafting polymerization and the quaternization. The endothelial cell attachment, viability, proliferation and morphology were investigated by in vitro cultures of the cationic membrane (PU-g-PDMAQ). The results show that the cytocompatibility of the cationic membrane with a specific amount of PDMAQ was improved. However, compared with its precursor, the PDMA grafted membrane (PU-g-PDMA), the cytocompatibility was not very different. These results suggest that the positive charges do not significantly improve the cytocompatibility to endothelial cells in comparison with the PU-g-PDMA neutral surface.

Polyurethane modification with acrylic acid by Ce(IV)-initiated graft polymerization

This paper presents a method for polyurethane surface functionalization for tissue engineering applications. Functionalization has been carried out by grafting acrylic acid to the polyurethane surface with the use of radical polymerization with a Ce4+ initiator. Contrary to other papers suggesting that the presence of hydroxyl groups are essential for successful grafting via ceric ions, we propose a method with the omission of the surface hydroxylation step. The influence of reaction conditions: reaction time, reaction temperature and monomer concentration on carboxyl groups surface density has been analyzed and described. The quantity of carboxyl groups on the surface was determined with the use of the TBO method. Materials grafted with acrylic acid have been subjected to conjugation with a peptide using sulfoNHS/ EDC chemistry. Successful incorporation of the peptide has been confirmed by an ELISA assay. Additionally, for better characterization, after each step of modification materials were subjected to SEM, FTIR-ATR, XPS and contact angle measurement analysis.

Acyclic N-halamine-immobilized polyurethane: Preparation and antimicrobial and biofilm-controlling functions

Hydroxyl groups were introduced onto polyurethane surfaces through 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate activation, followed by diethanolamine hydroxylation. Polymethacrylamide was covalently attached to the hydroxylated polyurethane through surface grafting polymerization of methacrylamide using cerium (IV) ammonium nitrate as an initiator. After bleach treatment, the amide groups of the covalently bound polymethacrylamide chains were transformed into N-halamines. The new N-halamine-immobilized polyurethane provided a total sacrifice of 10⁷-10⁸ colony forming units per milliliter of Staphylococcus aureus (Gram-positive bacteria), Escherichia coli (Gram-negative bacteria), and Candida albicans (fungi) within 10 min and successfully prevented bacterial and fungal biofilm formation. The antimicrobial and biofilm-controlling effects were both durable and rechargeable, pointing to great potentials of the new acyclic N-halamine-immobilized polyurethane for a broad range of related applications.

An N-halamine-based rechargeable antimicrobial and biofilm controlling polyurethane

An N-halamine precursor, 5,5-dimethylhydantoin (DMH), was covalently linked to the surface of polyurethane (PU) with 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI) as the coupling agent. The reaction pathways were investigated using propyl isocyanate (PI) as a model compound. The results suggested that the imide and amide groups of DMH have very similar reactivities toward the isocyanate groups on PU surfaces activated with HDI. After bleach treatment the covalently bound DMH moieties were transformed into N-halamines. The new N-halamine-based PU provided potent antimicrobial effects against Staphylococcus aureus (Gram-positive bacterium), Escherichia coli (Gram-negative bacterium), methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA, drug-resistant Gram-positive bacterium), vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium (VRE, drug-resistant Gram-positive bacterium), and Candida albicans (fungus), and successfully prevented bacterial and fungal biofilm formation. The antimicrobial and biofilm controlling effects were stable for longer than 6 months under normal storage in open air. Furthermore, if the functions were lost due to prolonged use they could be recharged by another chlorination treatment. The recharging could be repeated as needed to achieve long-term protection against microbial contamination and biofilm formation.

Rechargeable biofilm-controlling tubing materials for use in dental unit water lines

A simple and practical surface grafting approach was developed to introduce rechargeable N-halamine-based antimicrobial functionality onto the inner surfaces of continuous small-bore polyurethane (PU) dental unit waterline (DUWL) tubing. In this approach, tetrahydrofuran (THF) solution of a free-radical initiator, dicumyl peroxide (DCP), flowed through the PU tubing (inner diameter of 1/16 in., or 1.6 mm) to diffuse DCP into the tubing's inner walls, which was used as initiator in the subsequent grafting polymerization of methacrylamide (MAA) onto the tubing. Upon chlorine bleach treatment, the amide groups of the grafted MAA side chains were transformed into acyclic N-halamines. The reactions were confirmed with attenuated total reflectance infrared (ATR) spectra and iodometric titration. The mechanical properties of the tubing were not significantly affected by the grafting reactions. The biofilm-controlling function of the new N-halamine-based PU tubing was evaluated with Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa), one of the most isolated water bacteria from DUWLs, in a continuous bacterial flow model. Bacteria culturing and SEM studies showed that the inner surfaces of the new N-halamine-based PU tubing completely prevented bacterial biofilm formation for at least three to four weeks. After that, bacteria began to colonize the tubing surface. However, the lost function was fully regenerated by exposing the tubing inner surfaces to diluted chlorine bleach. The recharging process could be repeated periodically to further extend the biofilm-controlling duration for long-term applications.

Enhancing Endothelial Cell Retention on ePTFE Constructs by siRNA-Mediated SHP-1 Gene Silencing

Polymeric vascular grafts hold great promise for vascular reconstruction, but the lack of endothelial cells renders these grafts susceptible to intimal hyperplasia and restenosis, precluding widespread clinical applications. The purpose of this study is to establish a stable endothelium on expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE) membrane by small interfering RNA (siRNA)-induced suppression of the cell adhesion inhibitor SH2 domain-containing protein tyrosine phosphatase-1 (SHP-1). Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were treated with scrambled siRNA as a control or SHP-1 specific siRNA. Treated cells were seeded onto fibronectin-coated ePTFE scaffolds and exposed to a physiological range of pulsatile fluid shear stresses for 1 h in a variable-width parallel plate flow chamber. Retention of cells was measured and compared between various shear stress levels and between groups treated with scrambled siRNA and SHP-1 specific siRNA. HUVECs seeded on ePTFE membrane exhibited shear stress-dependent retention. Exposure to physiological shear stress (10 dyn/cm2) induced a reduction in the retention of scrambled siRNA treated cells from 100% to 85% at 1 h. Increased shear stress (20 dyn/cm2) further reduced retention of scrambled siRNA treated cells to 55% at 1 h. SHP-1 knockdown mediated by siRNA enhanced endothelial cell retention from approximately 60% to 85% after 1 h of exposure to average shear stresses in the range of 15–30 dyn/cm2. This study demonstrates that siRNA-mediated gene silencing may be an effective strategy for improving the retention of endothelial cells within vascular grafts.

Mechanical properties of ultrahigh molecular weight PHEMA hydrogels synthesized using initiated chemical vapor deposition

In this work, poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) (PHEMA), a widely used hydrogel, is synthesized using initiated chemical vapor deposition (iCVD), a one-step surface polymerization that does not use any solvents. iCVD synthesis is capable of producing linear stoichiometric polymers that are free from entrained unreacted monomer or solvent and, thus, do not require additional purification steps. The resulting films, therefore, are found to be noncytotoxic and also have low nonspecific protein adsorption. The kinetics of iCVD polymerization are tuned so as to achieve rapid deposition rates ( approximately 1.5 microm/min), which in turn yield ultrahigh molecular weight polymer films that are mechanically robust with good water transport and swellability. The films have an extremely high degree of physical chain entanglement giving rise to high tensile modulus and storage modulus without the need for chemical cross-linking that compromises hydrophilicity.

Plasma polymerized n-butyl methacrylate coating with potential for re-endothelialization of intravascular stent devices

Rapid re-endothelialization at an atherosclerotic lesion after stent employment is essential for reducing or preventing local thrombus formation and restenosis. To prevent these complications via enhanced rapid re-endothelialization, poly n-butyl methacrylate (PPBMA) coating was deposited on the stent surface through a radio-frequency plasma polymerization process, with oxygen as the carrier gas. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) characterization confirmed the occurrence of the plasma polymerization and the chemistry properties of the PPBMA. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed a smooth and dense surface. The wettability of the polymeric films measured by the contact angle indicated that the surface was more hydrophilic (2.0 +/- 1 degrees ) than the original surface (24 +/- 1 degrees ) by the introduction of the PPBMA coating, with a slight decrease even after 4 days. The results of the culture of human umbilical cord veins endothelial cells (HUVEC) in vitro showed that compared with the control of 316L stainless steel, the attachment and growth of cells on the PPBMA-coated surface was significantly enhanced, and a confluent endothelial cells layer was formed after a 4-day culture. A platelet adhesion experiment revealed that the blood compatibility of the substrate surface after PPBMA deposition was also obviously improved. The PPBMA coating remained intact on the stent surface after expansion according to the clinic protocol, indicating that the adhesive strength of PPBMA coating was high enough to withstand the external force in the process of stent expansion. This in vitro pilot study prior to in vivo experiments suggested that this plasma PPBMA was promising for coating stent materials for rapid re-endothelialization.

Design and fabrication of an artificial cornea based on a photolithographically patterned hydrogel construct

We describe the design and fabrication of an artificial cornea based on a photolithographically patterned hydrogel construct, and demonstrate the adhesion of corneal epithelial and fibroblast cells to its central and peripheral components, respectively. The design consists of a central "core" optical component and a peripheral tissue-integrable "skirt." The core is composed of a poly(ethylene glycol)/poly(acrylic acid) (PEG/PAA) double-network with high strength, high water content, and collagen type I tethered to its surface. Interpenetrating the periphery of the core is a microperforated, but resilient poly(hydroxyethyl acrylate) (PHEA) hydrogel skirt that is also surface-modified with collagen type I. The well-defined microperforations in the peripheral component were created by photolithography using a mask with radially arranged chrome discs. Surface modification of both the core and skirt elements was accomplished through the use of a photoreactive, heterobifunctional crosslinker. Primary corneal epithelial cells were cultured onto modified and unmodified PEG/PAA hydrogels to evaluate whether the central optic material could support epithelialization. Primary corneal fibroblasts were seeded onto the PHEA hydrogels to evaluate whether the peripheral skirt material could support the adhesion of corneal stromal cells. Cell growth in both cases was shown to be contingent on the covalent tethering of collagen. Successful demonstration of cell growth on the two engineered components was followed by fabrication of core-skirt constructs in which the central optic and peripheral skirt were synthesized in sequence and joined by an interpenetrating diffusion zone.

Surface modification and property analysis of biomedical polymers used for tissue engineering

The response of host organism in macroscopic, cellular and protein levels to biomaterials is, in most cases, closely associated with the materials' surface properties. In tissue engineering, regenerative medicine and many other biomedical fields, surface engineering of the bio-inert synthetic polymers is often required to introduce bioactive species that can promote cell adhesion, proliferation, viability and enhanced ECM-secretion functions. Up to present, a large number of surface engineering techniques for improving biocompatibility have been well established, the work of which generally contains three main steps: (1) surface modification of the polymeric materials; (2) chemical and physical characterizations; and (3) biocompatibility assessment through cell culture. This review focuses on the principles and practices of surface engineering of biomedical polymers with regards to particular aspects depending on the authors' research background and opinions. The review starts with an introduction of principles in designing polymeric biomaterial surfaces, followed by introduction of surface modification techniques to improve hydrophilicity, to introduce reactive functional groups and to immobilize functional protein molecules. The chemical and physical characterizations of the modified biomaterials are then discussed with emphasis on several important issues such as surface functional group density, functional layer thickness, protein surface density and bioactivity. Three most commonly used surface composition characterization techniques, i.e. ATR-FTIR, XPS, SIMS, are compared in terms of their penetration depth. Ellipsometry, CD, EPR, SPR and QCM's principles and applications in analyzing surface proteins are introduced. Finally discussed are frequently applied methods and their principles to evaluate biocompatibility of biomaterials via cell culture. In this section, current techniques and their developments to measure cell adhesion, proliferation, morphology, viability, migration and gene expression are reviewed.

Density quantification of collagen grafted on biodegradable polyester: Its application to esophageal smooth muscle cell

An improved technique for quantification of collagen immobilized on polymeric substrates is needed as tissue engineering evolves. Current immobilized protein quantification methods are indirect, time-consuming, and/or inaccurate. In this study, Sirius red colorimetric microassay was shown to be feasible for quantifying the density of collagen immobilized on aminolyzed poly(L-lactic acid) (PLLA) surfaces using the specific bonding of Sirius dye to collagen. It offers a number of advantages over traditional methods, including direct staining, high sensitivity, and high stability of the dye. The detection limit is approximately 0.1 microg/cm(2), and the dynamic range is greater than 50. Sirius red dye has not been used previously for quantification of protein immobilized on polymers. The collagen densities achieved with each of the two crosslinking reagents investigated, namely glutaraldehyde (GA) and genipin, were compared. The latter is an alternative crosslinker derived from a traditional Chinese medicine. The collagen densities immobilized by the two reagents were measured to be similar. This was confirmed by the similar behaviors of esophageal primary smooth muscle cells (ESMCs) on these two modified PLLA membranes; collagen grafted with either coupler was found to greatly promote, to a similar extent, cell attachment and both short-term (4 days) and long-term (12 days) proliferation compared with unmodified PLLA. Smooth muscle cells on both modified membranes were stained to display contractile alpha-actin protein filaments.

A novel glass slide-based peptide array support with high functionality resisting non-specific protein adsorption

Glass slides have been modified with a multifunctional poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-based polymer with respect to array applications in the growing field of proteome research. We systematically investigated the stepwise synthesis of the PEG films starting from self-assembled alkyl silane monolayers via monolayer peroxidation and subsequent graft polymerization of PEG methacrylate (PEGMA). Chemical composition was examined by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS); infrared spectroscopy provided information about order and composition of the films as well; film thickness was determined by ellipsometry; using fluorescence microscopy and again XPS, the amount of proteins adsorbed on the slides was investigated. The novel support material allows a versatile modification of the amino group surface density up to 40 nmol/cm(2) for the linkage of probe molecules. Further on, we carried out standard peptide synthesis based on the well-established 9-fluorenylmethoxycarbonyl (Fmoc) chemistry, which was monitored by UV/Vis quantification of the Fmoc deblocking and mass spectrometry. The polymer coating is stable with respect to a wide range of chemical and thermal conditions, and prevents the glass surface from unspecific protein adsorption. Finally, we applied our modified glass slides in immunoassays and thus examined specific interactions of monoclonal antibodies with appropriate peptide epitopes.

Initiated chemical vapor deposition of linear and cross-linked poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) for use as thin-film hydrogels

Initiated chemical vapor deposition (iCVD) is able to synthesize linear and cross-linked poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) (PHEMA) thin films, in one step, from vapors of 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA), ethylene glycol diacrylate (EGDA), and tert-butyl peroxide (TBPO) without using any solvents. This all-dry technique also allows control of the cross-link density by adjusting the partial pressure of the cross-linking agent EGDA in the vapor phase. Films with specific cross-link densities and hence thermal, wetting, and swelling properties can be created in one single vacuum processing step. Through selective thermal decomposition of the initiator TBPO, films with well-defined chemical structures and full functionality retention can be deposited, which is evident in the Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analyses. These spectroscopic methods also facilitate determination of EGDA incorporation in the cross-linked films based on the fact that HEMA contains a hydroxyl group but EGDA does not. For the linear PHEMA depositions, the growth rate was found to be nonlinear in the partial pressure of HEMA, possibly due to nonlinear multilayer adsorption and/or primary termination. The EGDA/HEMA ratio in the films systematically increased from 0.00 to 0.46 as the EGDA partial pressure was raised. The onset temperatures of decomposition were between 270 and 302 degrees C for the linear and the most cross-linked films, respectively. Thermal annealing at approximately 430 degrees C resulted in minuscule amounts of residue for all films, linear or cross-linked. The most cross-linked film had approximately 99.50% thickness removed after annealing. The contact angle was found to increase with increasing cross-link density. Significant contact-angle hysteresis was observed, indicating surface reconfiguration, and the lowest receding angle was 17 degrees for the linear film. Swelling measurements using spectroscopic ellipsometry showed that the degree of swelling decreased with increasing EGDA incorporation. The water content decreased from 35% (v/v) for the linear film to below 10% (v/v) for the most cross-linked film. These results show that iCVD is able to produce PHEMA thin films that function as hydrogels when soaked in water. The spectroscopic results, the contact-angle results, and the swelling analysis altogether prove the retention of the hydrophilic pendant groups in the iCVD process.

Surface engineering of electrospun polyethylene terephthalate (PET) nanofibers towards development of a new material for blood vessel engineering

Non-woven polyethylene terephthalate nanofiber mats (PET NFM) were prepared by electrospinning technology and were surface modified to mimic the fibrous proteins in native extracellular matrix towards constructing a biocompatible surface for endothelial cells (ECs). The electrospun PET NFM was first treated in formaldehyde to yield hydroxyl groups on the surface, followed by the grafting polymerization of methacrylic acid (MAA) initiated by Ce(IV). Finally, the PMAA-grafted PET NFM was grafted with gelatin using water-soluble carbodiimide as coupling agent. Plane PET film was also surface modified and characterized for basic understanding of the surface modification process. The grafting of PMAA and gelatin on PET surface was confirmed by XPS spectroscopy and quantitatively analyzed by colorimetric methods. ECs were cultured on the original and gelatin-modified PET NFM and the cell morphology, proliferation and viability were studied. Three characteristic surface makers expressed by ECs were studied using immuno-florescent microscopy. The gelatin grafting method can obviously improve the spreading and proliferation of the ECs on the PET NFM, and moreover, can preserve the EC's phenotype.

Photografting of poly(hydroxylethyl acrylate) onto porous polyurethane scaffolds to improve their endothelial cell compatibility

In order to improve the cytocompatibility of polyurethane (PU) porous scaffolds obtained by thermally-induced phase separation, poly(hydroxylethyl acrylate) (PHEA) was covalently immobilized by grafting copolymerization of HEA by photo-oxidation of the scaffolds and initiation of UV light. FT-IR-ATR spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) characterizations confirmed the occurrence of the grafting co-polymerization of HEA on the porous PU scaffolds. The measurement of water absorption demonstrated the improvement of the hydrophilicity after grafting with PHEA. The results obtained in a human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC) culture proved that the porous PU scaffold modified with the hydrophilic PHEA had better cytocompatibility than the control. The influence of surface pore size on the HUVEC growth behavior was assessed regarding cell anchorage, proliferation and viability, as well as morphology. An overall increase of cell number and viability with the decrease of the surface pore size was found.

Endothelium regeneration on luminal surface of polyurethane vascular scaffold modified with diamine and covalently grafted with gelatin

Using the recently developed surface modification technique, free amino groups have been introduced onto polyester-type polyurethane (PU) scaffolds. The introduction of these free amino groups increases the surface energy and provides a convenient way to further immobilize bioactive species such as gelatin, collagen or chitosan, etc. on the scaffold surface by employing glutaraldehyde as a coupling agent. These modifications are advantageous to enhance cell-material interaction. The culture of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) in vitro proved that the cell proliferation ratio of both the aminolyzed and the biomacromolecules-immobilized PU membranes was improved greatly comparing with the control PU. Scanning electron microscopy and confocal laser scanning microscopy observations displayed that the gelatin-immobilized PU vascular scaffold had formed a monolayer of endothelial intima on its luminal surface after HUVECs were cultured for 6 d. Therefore, the aminolysis and the following biomacromolecule immobilization is a promising way to enhance the cell-PU interaction that can accelerate the endothelium regeneration, which is crucial for blood vessel tissue engineering.

Surface modification of poly-L-lactic acid (PLLA) membrane by grafting acrylamide: an effective way to improve cytocompatibility for chondrocytes

Poly-L-lactic acid (PLLA) membranes were photo-oxidized in hydrogen peroxide solution under ultraviolet light (UV) to introduce hydroperoxide groups onto the PLLA membrane surfaces. The photo-oxidized membranes were then immersed in acrylamide (AAm) solution containing Fe2+ to graft polyacrylamide (PAAm) onto the PLLA membrane surfaces. The density of the hydroperoxide groups introduced on the PLLA membrane surfaces varied with the temperature and the photo-oxidization time. The occurrence of grafting was verified by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The degree of grafting increased with the monomer concentration and the polymerization time. Water contact angle measurements showed that the wettability of the modified PLLA membranes had improved. Chondrocytes proliferated more rapidly and were more spread out on the modified membrane than on the control PLLA membrane, indicating that the PAAm-grafted PLLA membrane has better cytocompatibility for chondrocytes.

Engineering porous polyurethane scaffolds by photografting polymerization of methacrylic acid for improved endothelial cell compatibility

Using a preadsorbing-monomer method, polyurethane (PU) porous scaffolds were modified by grafting polymerization of methacrylic acid (MAA) initiated under UV light. Fourier transform infrared-attenuated total reflection spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy characterizations confirmed the occurrence of the grafting polymerization of poly(methacrylic acid) (PMAA) on PU scaffolds and the measurement of water adsorption also demonstrated enhanced hydrophilicity. The PMAA grafting degree correlated to the amount of MAA adsorbed, the pore average diameter, and the porosity. It was verified that the higher porosity the scaffold has, the larger porous area (or the larger contact area with MAA) it has, and therefore the higher amount of MAA adsorbed and higher grafting degree obtained. The results of human endothelial cells cultured in vitro showed that the PU scaffolds modified with the hydrophilic PMAA had more improved cell compatibility than the control matrix.

Surface modification of polycaprolactone with poly(methacrylic acid) and gelatin covalent immobilization for promoting its cytocompatibility

Polycaprolactone (PCL) membrane was modified by grafting copolymerization of methacrylic acid (MAA) initiated under UV light. The covalent immobilization of gelatin on PCL-g-PMAA surface was consequently performed by using condensing agent, 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylamino propyl) carbodiimide hydrochloride. The occurrence of grafting copolymerization of PMAA and further immobilization of gelatin was confirmed by ATR-FTIR and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy characterizations. The existence of carboxyl groups grafted on PCL surface was verified quantitatively by absorbance spectroscopy where rhodamine 6G was employed to react with carboxyl groups to generate an absorbance at 512 nm. The endothelial cell culture proved that the PCL membrane slightly modified with suitable amount of PMAA or gelatin had better cytocompatibility than control PCL or PCL membrane heavily modified with PMAA or gelatin.

Surface modification of polycaprolactone membrane via aminolysis and biomacromolecule immobilization for promoting cytocompatibility of human endothelial cells

Amino groups were covalently introduced onto a polycaprolactone (PCL) surface by the reaction between 1,6-hexanediamine and the ester groups of PCL. The occurrence of the aminolysis and the introduction of free NH(2) groups were verified qualitatively by fluorescence spectroscopy, where rhodamine B isothiocyanate was employed to label NH(2) groups, and quantitatively by absorbance spectroscopy, where ninhydrin was used to react with NH(2) to generate a blue product. Due to the presence of deep pores on the PCL membrane, the aminolysis reaction could penetrate as deep as 50 microm to yield NH(2) density as high as 2 x 10(-7) mol/cm(2). By use of the NH(2) groups as active sites, biocompatible macromolecules such as gelatin, chitosan, or collagen were further immobilized on the aminolyzed PCL membrane via a cross-linking agent, glutaraldehyde. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and surface wettability measurements confirmed the coupling of the biomacromolecules. The endothelial cell culture proved that the cytocompatibility of the aminolyzed PCL was improved slightly regardless of the NH(2) amount on the surface. After immobilization of the biomacromolecules, however, the cell attachment and proliferation ratios were obviously improved and the cells showed a similar morphology to those on tissue culture polystyrene. Measurement of the von Willebrand factor (vWF) secreted by these endothelial cells (ECs) verified the endothelial function. Hence, a better EC-compatible PCL was produced.