1
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Caramalho R, Tyndall JDA, Monk BC, Larentis T, Lass-Flörl C, Lackner M. Intrinsic short-tailed azole resistance in mucormycetes is due to an evolutionary conserved aminoacid substitution of the lanosterol 14α-demethylase. Sci Rep 2017; 7:15898. [PMID: 29162893 PMCID: PMC5698289 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-16123-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2017] [Accepted: 11/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Mucormycoses are emerging and potentially lethal infections. An increase of breakthrough infections has been found in cohorts receiving short-tailed azoles prophylaxis (e.g. voriconazole (VCZ)). Although VCZ is ineffective in vitro and in vivo, long-tailed triazoles such as posaconazole remain active against mucormycetes. Our goal was to validate the molecular mechanism of resistance to short-tailed triazoles in Mucorales. The paralogous cytochrome P450 genes (CYP51 F1 and CYP51 F5) of Rhizopus arrhizus, Rhizopus microsporus, and Mucor circinelloides were amplified and sequenced. Alignment of the protein sequences of the R. arrhizus, R. microsporus, and M. circinelloides CYP51 F1 and F5 with additional Mucorales species (n = 3) and other fungi (n = 16) confirmed the sequences to be lanosterol 14α-demethylases (LDMs). Sequence alignment identified a pan-Mucorales conservation of a phenylalanine129 substitution in all CYP51 F5s analyzed. A high resolution X-ray crystal structure of Saccharomyces cerevisiae LDM in complex with VCZ was used for generating a homology model of R. arrhizus CYP51 F5. Structural and functional knowledge of S. cerevisiae CYP51 shows that the F129 residue in Mucorales CYP51 F5 is responsible for intrinsic resistance of Mucorales against short-tailed triazoles, with a V to A substitution in Helix I also potentially playing a role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Caramalho
- Division of Hygiene and Medical Microbiology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Schöpfstraße, number 41, 2nd floor, A-6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Joel D A Tyndall
- School of Pharmacy, University of Otago, Dunedin, 9054, New Zealand
| | - Brian C Monk
- Sir John Walsh Research Institute and the Department of Oral Sciences, New Zealand's National Centre for Dentistry, University of Otago, Dunedin, 9054, New Zealand
| | - Thomas Larentis
- Division of Hygiene and Medical Microbiology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Schöpfstraße, number 41, 2nd floor, A-6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Cornelia Lass-Flörl
- Division of Hygiene and Medical Microbiology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Schöpfstraße, number 41, 2nd floor, A-6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Michaela Lackner
- Division of Hygiene and Medical Microbiology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Schöpfstraße, number 41, 2nd floor, A-6020, Innsbruck, Austria.
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2
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Abstract
Since its initial misidentification as a trypanosome some 100 years ago, Pneumocystis has remained recalcitrant to study. Although we have learned much, we still do not have definitive answers to such basic questions as, where is the reservoir of infection, how does Pneumocystis reproduce, what is the mechanism of infection, and are there true species of Pneumocystis? The goal of this review is to provide the reader the most up to date information available about the biology of Pneumocystis and the disease it produces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francis Gigliotti
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Rochester Medical School, Rochester, New York 14642
| | - Andrew H Limper
- Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, Minnesota 55905
| | - Terry Wright
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Rochester Medical School, Rochester, New York 14642
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3
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de Oliveira Ceita G, Vilas-Boas LA, Castilho MS, Carazzolle MF, Pirovani CP, Selbach-Schnadelbach A, Gramacho KP, Ramos PIP, Barbosa LV, Pereira GAG, Góes-Neto A. Analysis of the ergosterol biosynthesis pathway cloning, molecular characterization and phylogeny of lanosterol 14 α-demethylase (ERG11) gene of Moniliophthora perniciosa. Genet Mol Biol 2014; 37:683-93. [PMID: 25505843 PMCID: PMC4261968 DOI: 10.1590/s1415-47572014005000017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2014] [Accepted: 06/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The phytopathogenic fungus Moniliophthora perniciosa (Stahel) Aime & Philips-Mora, causal agent of witches' broom disease of cocoa, causes countless damage to cocoa production in Brazil. Molecular studies have attempted to identify genes that play important roles in fungal survival and virulence. In this study, sequences deposited in the M. perniciosa Genome Sequencing Project database were analyzed to identify potential biological targets. For the first time, the ergosterol biosynthetic pathway in M. perniciosa was studied and the lanosterol 14α-demethylase gene (ERG11) that encodes the main enzyme of this pathway and is a target for fungicides was cloned, characterized molecularly and its phylogeny analyzed. ERG11 genomic DNA and cDNA were characterized and sequence analysis of the ERG11 protein identified highly conserved domains typical of this enzyme, such as SRS1, SRS4, EXXR and the heme-binding region (HBR). Comparison of the protein sequences and phylogenetic analysis revealed that the M. perniciosa enzyme was most closely related to that of Coprinopsis cinerea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geruza de Oliveira Ceita
- Laboratório de Pesquisa em Microbiologia,
Departamento de Ciências Biológicas,
Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana,
Feira de Santana,
BA,
Brazil
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular,
Instituto de Biologia,
Departamento de Biologia Geral,
Universidade Federal da Bahia,
Salvador,
BA,
Brazil
| | - Laurival Antônio Vilas-Boas
- Centro de Ciências Biológicas,
Departamento de Biologia Geral,
Universidade Estadual de Londrina,
Londrina,
PR,
Brazil
| | - Marcelo Santos Castilho
- Laboratório de Bioinformática e Modelagem Molecular,
Departamento do Medicamento,
Faculdade de Farmácia,
Universidade Federal da Bahia,
Salvador,
BA,
Brazil
| | - Marcelo Falsarella Carazzolle
- Laboratório de Genômica e Proteômica,
Departamento de Genética e Evolução,
Universidade Estadual de Campinas,
Campinas,
SP,
Brazil
| | - Carlos Priminho Pirovani
- Centro de Biotecnologia e Genética,
Departamento de Ciências Biológicas,
Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz,
Ilhéus,
BA,
Brazil
| | - Alessandra Selbach-Schnadelbach
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular,
Instituto de Biologia,
Departamento de Biologia Geral,
Universidade Federal da Bahia,
Salvador,
BA,
Brazil
| | - Karina Peres Gramacho
- Laboratório de Fitopatologia Molecular,
Centro de Pesquisas do Cacau,
Ilhéus,
BA,
Brazil
| | - Pablo Ivan Pereira Ramos
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular,
Instituto de Biologia,
Departamento de Biologia Geral,
Universidade Federal da Bahia,
Salvador,
BA,
Brazil
| | - Luciana Veiga Barbosa
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular,
Instituto de Biologia,
Departamento de Biologia Geral,
Universidade Federal da Bahia,
Salvador,
BA,
Brazil
| | | | - Aristóteles Góes-Neto
- Laboratório de Pesquisa em Microbiologia,
Departamento de Ciências Biológicas,
Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana,
Feira de Santana,
BA,
Brazil
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4
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Porollo A, Meller J, Joshi Y, Jaiswal V, Smulian AG, Cushion MT. Analysis of current antifungal agents and their targets within the Pneumocystis carinii genome. Curr Drug Targets 2013; 13:1575-85. [PMID: 22934582 DOI: 10.2174/138945012803530107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2012] [Revised: 07/11/2012] [Accepted: 08/29/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) remains a leading opportunistic infection in patients with weakened immune systems. The fungus causing the infection belongs to the genus, Pneumocystis, and its members are found in a large variety of mammals. Adaptation to the lung environment of a host with an intact immune system has been a key to its successful survival. Unfortunately, the metabolic strategies used by these fungi to grow and survive in this context are largely unknown. There were considerable impediments to standard approaches for investigation of this unique pathogen, the most problematic being the lack of a long term in vitro culture system. The absence of an ex vivo cultivation method remains today, and many fundamental scientific questions about the basic biology, metabolism, and life cycle of Pneumocystis are unanswered. Recent progress in sequencing of the Pneumocystis carinii genome, a species infecting rats, permitted a more informative search for genes and biological pathways within this pathogen that are known to be targets for existing antifungal agents. In this work, we review the classes of antifungal drugs with respect to their potential applicability to the treatment of PCP. Classes covered in the review are the azoles, polyenes, allylamines, and echinocandins. Factors limiting the use of standard antifungal treatments and the currently available alternatives (trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, atovaquone, and pentamidine) are discussed. A summary of genomic sequences within Pneumocystis carinii associated with the corresponding targeted biological pathways is provided. All sequences are available via the Pneumocystis Genome Project at http://pgp.cchmc.org/.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksey Porollo
- Department of Environmental Health, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45267-0056, USA.
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5
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NKININ STEPHENSONW, STRINGER JAMESR, KEELY SCOTTP, SETCHELL KENNETHD, GINER JOSÉLUIS, KANESHIRO EDNAS. Pneumocystis carinii Sterol 14α-Demethylase Activity in Saccharomyces cerevisiae erg11 Knockout Mutant: Sterol Biochemistry. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2011; 58:383-92. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.2011.00556.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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6
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Joffrion TM, Cushion MT. Sterol biosynthesis and sterol uptake in the fungal pathogen Pneumocystis carinii. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2010; 311:1-9. [PMID: 20528942 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.2010.02007.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Members of the fungal genus Pneumocystis colonize healthy mammalian hosts without causing apparent disease, but colonization in immunocompromised hosts may result in a potentially fatal pneumonia known as Pneumocystis pneumonia. Although Pneumocystis are fungi, this genus has characteristics that make it atypical among other fungi. Pneumocystis do not appear to synthesize the major fungal sterol, ergosterol, and biochemical analyses have shown that they utilize cholesterol rather than ergosterol as the bulk sterol. Pneumocystis carinii appears to scavenge exogenous sterols, including cholesterol, from its mammalian host. As a result, it has long been held that their ability to scavenge cholesterol from their hosts, and their inability to undergo sterol biosynthesis, makes them resistant to antifungal drugs that target ergosterol or ergosterol biosynthesis. However, genome scans and in vitro assays indicate the presence of sterol biosynthetic genes within the P. carinii genome, and targeted inhibition of these enzymes resulted in reduced viability of P. carinii, suggesting that these enzymes are functional within the organism. Heterologous expression of P. carinii sterol genes, along with biochemical analyses of the lipid content of P. carinii cellular membranes, have provided an insight into sterol biosynthesis and the sterol-scavenging mechanisms used by these fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany M Joffrion
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, USA.
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7
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Functional characterization and localization of Pneumocystis carinii lanosterol synthase. EUKARYOTIC CELL 2009; 9:107-15. [PMID: 19897737 DOI: 10.1128/ec.00264-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Organisms in the genus Pneumocystis are ubiquitous, opportunistic pathogenic fungi capable of causing a lethal pneumonia in immunocompromised mammalian hosts. Pneumocystis spp. are unique members of the fungal kingdom due to the absence of ergosterol in their cellular membranes. Although these organisms were thought to obtain cholesterol by scavenging, transcriptional analyses indicate that Pneumocystis carinii encodes gene homologs involved in sterol biosynthesis. To better understand the sterol pathway in these uncultivable fungi, yeast deletion strains were used to interrogate the function and localization of P. carinii lanosterol synthase (ERG7). The expression of PcErg7p in an ERG7-null mutant of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae did not alter its growth rate and produced a functional lanosterol synthase, as evidenced by the presence of lanosterol detected by gas chromatographic analysis in levels comparable to that produced by the yeast enzyme. Western blotting and fluorescence microscopy revealed that, like the S. cerevisiae Erg7p, the PcErg7p localized to lipid particles in yeast. Using fluorescence microscopy, we show for the first time the presence of apparent lipid particles in P. carinii and the localization of PcErg7p to lipid particles in P. carinii. The detection of lipid particles in P. carinii and their association with PcErg7p therein provide strong evidence that the enzyme serves a similar function in P. carinii. Moreover, the yeast heterologous system should be a useful tool for further analysis of the P. carinii sterol pathway.
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8
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Haque AK, Adegboyega PA. Pneumocystis jiroveci Pneumonia. DAIL AND HAMMAR’S PULMONARY PATHOLOGY 2008. [PMCID: PMC7121032 DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-68792-6_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) is one of the most common pulmonary infections in persons with impaired cell-mediated immunity, and particularly those infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).1–7 Pneumocystis was first described in the lungs of guinea pigs, during experiments on American trypanosomiasis by Carlos Chagas8 in 1909 and by Antonio Carinii9 in 1910. Both considered the cysts of Pneumocystis as part of the trypanosome’s life cycle. Shortly afterward the Delanoes10 found identical forms in the lungs of rats that had not been infected with trypanosomes and recognized the organism as a separate species. The name Pneumocystis carinii, was given to this organism as a generic name (Greek:pneumon, “lung”; kystis, “cyst”), honoring Carinii.11
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9
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Kottom TJ, Kennedy CC, Limper AH. Pneumocystis PCINT1, a molecule with integrin-like features that mediates organism adhesion to fibronectin. Mol Microbiol 2007; 67:747-61. [PMID: 18179594 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2007.06093.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Pneumocystis species cause severe pneumonia during chronic immunosuppression, especially in patients with AIDS or malignancy. Adhesion of Pneumocystis to extracellular matrix proteins, particularly fibronectin, associated with alveolar epithelial cell surfaces, triggers organism proliferative pathways. Herein, we report the characterization of a novel Pneumocystis molecule with considerable structural features of an integrin-like extracellular matrix adhesion receptor. A PCINT1115 bp probe was initially identified from partial sequence present within the Pneumocystis genome project database. A full-length 3018 bp cDNA was subsequently obtained with extensive homology to the C-terminal region of Candida albicans INT1 (31% blastx), a gene originally described as encoding an integrin-like molecule implicated in adhesion, growth, and virulence. Sequence analysis of PCINT1 indicated that the Pneumocystis molecule contained both a putative internal RGD motif and four Metal Ion-Dependent Attachment Sites (MIDAS) motifs required for coordination of divalent cations, as well as a specific tyrosine residue found in the cytoplasmic tails of some integrin receptors and C. albicans INT1. Northern, Western and immunofluorescence studies demonstrated that the trophic forms of Pneumocystis, known to be the life cycle forms that tightly adhere to lung epithelium, expressed the molecule to a substantially greater degree than cystic forms. Heterologous expression of PCINT1 in yeast followed by application to human fibronectin-coated surfaces demonstrated these yeast display PCINT1 on their surfaces and subsequently gain the ability to bind fibronectin in a cation dependent fashion. Taken together, these results indicate that Pneumocystis expresses a novel integrin-like PCINT1 molecule sufficient to mediate interactions with extracellular matrix fibronectin, an integral component of host-cell organism interactions during this infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theodore J Kottom
- Thoracic Diseases Research Unit, Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care and Internal Medicine, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
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10
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Cushion MT, Smulian AG, Slaven BE, Sesterhenn T, Arnold J, Staben C, Porollo A, Adamczak R, Meller J. Transcriptome of Pneumocystis carinii during fulminate infection: carbohydrate metabolism and the concept of a compatible parasite. PLoS One 2007; 2:e423. [PMID: 17487271 PMCID: PMC1855432 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0000423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2006] [Accepted: 04/08/2007] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Members of the genus Pneumocystis are fungal pathogens that cause pneumonia in a wide variety of mammals with debilitated immune systems. Little is known about their basic biological functions, including life cycle, since no species can be cultured continuously outside the mammalian lung. To better understand the pathological process, about 4500 ESTS derived from sequencing of the poly(A) tail ends of P. carinii mRNAs during fulminate infection were annotated and functionally characterized as unassembled reads, and then clustered and reduced to a unigene set with 1042 members. Because of the presence of sequences from other microbial genomes and the rat host, the analysis and compression to a unigene set was necessarily an iterative process. BLASTx analysis of the unassembled reads (UR) vs. the Uni-Prot and TREMBL databases revealed 56% had similarities to existing polypeptides at E values of<or=10(-6), with the remainder lacking any significant homology. The most abundant transcripts in the UR were associated with stress responses, energy production, transcription and translation. Most (70%) of the UR had similarities to proteins from filamentous fungi (e.g., Aspergillus, Neurospora) and existing P. carinii gene products. In contrast, similarities to proteins of the yeast-like fungi, Schizosaccharomyces pombe and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, predominated in the unigene set. Gene Ontology analysis using BLAST2GO revealed P. carinii dedicated most of its transcripts to cellular and physiological processes ( approximately 80%), molecular binding and catalytic activities (approximately 70%), and were primarily derived from cell and organellar compartments (approximately 80%). KEGG Pathway mapping showed the putative P. carinii genes represented most standard metabolic pathways and cellular processes, including the tricarboxylic acid cycle, glycolysis, amino acid biosynthesis, cell cycle and mitochondrial function. Several gene homologs associated with mating, meiosis, and sterol biosynthesis in fungi were identified. Genes encoding the major surface glycoprotein family (MSG), heat shock (HSP70), and proteases (PROT/KEX) were the most abundantly expressed of known P. carinii genes. The apparent presence of many metabolic pathways in P. carinii, sexual reproduction within the host, and lack of an invasive infection process in the immunologically intact host suggest members of the genus Pneumocystis may be adapted parasites and have a compatible relationship with their mammalian hosts. This study represents the first characterization of the expressed genes of a non-culturable fungal pathogen of mammals during the infective process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie T Cushion
- University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America.
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11
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Thomas CF, Limper AH. Current insights into the biology and pathogenesis of Pneumocystis pneumonia. Nat Rev Microbiol 2007; 5:298-308. [PMID: 17363968 DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro1621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 175] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The fungal infection Pneumocystis pneumonia is the most prevalent opportunistic infection in patients with AIDS. Although the analysis of this opportunistic fungal pathogen has been hindered by the inability to isolate it in pure culture, the use of molecular techniques and genomic analysis have brought insights into its complex cell biology. Analysis of the intricate relationship between Pneumocystis and the host lung during infection has revealed that the attachment of Pneumocystis to the alveolar epithelium promotes the transition of the organism from the trophic to the cyst form. It also revealed that Pneumocystis infection elicits the production of inflammatory mediators, culminating in lung injury and impaired gas exchange. Here we discuss these and other recent findings relating to the biology and pathogenesis of this intractable fungus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles F Thomas
- Thoracic Diseases Research Unit, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Rochester, Minnesota 55905, USA.
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12
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Nkinin SW, Keely SP, Stringer JR, Kaneshiro ES. The sequence of the erg11 gene in form 1 and form 6 of Pneumocystis carinii are identical. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2006; 53 Suppl 1:S147-8. [PMID: 17169037 DOI: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.2006.00209.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Stephenson W Nkinin
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45221-0006, USA
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13
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Pietila MP, Vohra PK, Sanyal B, Wengenack NL, Raghavakaimal S, Thomas CF. Cloning and characterization of CYP51 from Mycobacterium avium. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2006; 35:236-42. [PMID: 16543605 PMCID: PMC2643258 DOI: 10.1165/rcmb.2005-0398oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) causes chronic lung disease in immunocompetent people and disseminated infection in patients with AIDS. MAC is intrinsically resistant to many conventional antimycobacterial agents, it develops drug resistance rapidly to macrolide antibiotics, and patients with MAC infection experience frequent relapses or the inability to completely eradicate the infection with current treatment. Treatment regimens are prolonged and complicated by drug toxicity or intolerances. We sought to identify biochemical pathways in MAC that can serve as targets for novel antimycobacterial treatment. The cytochrome P450 enzyme, CYP51, catalyzes an essential early step in sterol metabolism, removing a methyl group from lanosterol in animals and fungi, or from obtusifoliol in plants. Azoles inhibit CYP51 function, leading to an accumulation of methylated sterol precursors. This perturbation of normal sterol metabolism compromises cell membrane integrity, resulting in growth inhibition or cell death. We have cloned and characterized a CYP51 from MAC that functions as a lanosterol 14alpha-demethylase. We show the direct interactions of azoles with purified MAC-CYP51 by absorbance and electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy, and determine the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of econazole, ketoconazole, itraconazole, fluconazole, and voriconazole against MAC. Furthermore, we demonstrate that econazole has a MIC of 4 mug/ml and a minimum bacteriocidal concentration of 4 mug/ml, whereas ketoconazole has a MIC of 8 mug/ml and a minimum bacteriocidal concentration of 16 mug/ml. Itraconazole, voriconazole, and fluconazole did not inhibit MAC growth to any significant extent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael P Pietila
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Thoracic Diseases Research Unit, 826 Stabile Building, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
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14
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Abstract
Pneumocystis can transiently colonize healthy individuals without causing adverse symptoms, and most people test positive for exposure to this organism early in life. However, it can cause Pneumocystis pneumonia (PcP) in people with impaired immune systems and is a major cause of death in HIV/AIDS. Although it has close affinities to the Ascomycetes, Pneumocystis has features unlike those of any single group of fungi. For example, Pneumocystis does not synthesize ergosterol, which is consistent with the inefficacy of amphotericin B and some triazoles in clearing PcP. Pneumocystis sterols include distinct delta7 24-alkylsterols. Metabolic radiolabeling experiments demonstrated that P. carinii synthesizes sterols de novo. Cholesterol is the most abundant sterol in Pneumocystis; most, if not all, is scavenged from the mammalian host lung by the pathogen. The P. carinii erg7, erg6, and erg11 genes have been cloned, sequenced, and expressed in heterologous systems. The recombinant P. carinii S-adenosyl-L-methionine:C-24 sterol methyl transferase (SAM:SMT) has a preference for lanosterol over zymosterol as substrate, and the enzyme can catalyze the transfer of either one or two methyl groups to the C-24 position of the sterol side chain. Two different sterol compositions were detected among human-derived P. jirovecii; one was dominated by C28 and C29 sterols, and the other had high proportions of higher molecular mass components, notably the C32 sterol pneumocysterol. The latter phenotype apparently represents organisms blocked at 14alpha-demethylation of the sterol nucleus. These studies suggest that SAM:SMT is an attractive drug target for developing new chemotherapy for PcP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edna S Kaneshiro
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45221, USA.
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15
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Giner JL, Zhao H, Amit Z, Kaneshiro ES. Sterol composition of Pneumocystis jirovecii with blocked 14alpha-demethylase activity. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2005; 51:634-43. [PMID: 15666720 DOI: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.2004.tb00597.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Several drugs that interact with membrane sterols or inhibit their syntheses are effective in clearing a number of fungal infections. The AIDS-associated lung infection caused by Pneumocystis jirovecii is not cleared by many of these therapies. Pneumocystis normally synthesizes distinct C28 and C29 24-alkylsterols, but ergosterol, the major fungal sterol, is not among them. Two distinct sterol compositional phenotypes were previously observed in P. jirovecii. One was characterized by delta7 C28 and C29 24-alkylsterols with only low proportions of higher molecular mass components. In contrast, the other type was dominated by high C31 and C32 24-alkylsterols, especially pneumocysterol. In the present study, 28 molecular species were elucidated by nuclear magnetic resonance analysis of a human lung specimen containing P. jirovecii representing the latter sterol profile phenotype. Fifteen of the 28 had the methyl group at C-14 of the sterol nucleus and these represented 96% of the total sterol mass in the specimen (excluding cholesterol). These results strongly suggest that sterol 14alpha-demethylase was blocked in these organisms. Twenty-four of the 28 were 24-alkylsterols, indicating that methylation of the C-24 position of the sterol side chain by S-adenosyl-L-methionine:sterol C-24 methyl transferase was fully functional.
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Affiliation(s)
- José-Luis Giner
- Department of Chemistry, State University of New York-ESF, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA.
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16
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Revankar SG, Fu J, Rinaldi MG, Kelly SL, Kelly DE, Lamb DC, Keller SM, Wickes BL. Cloning and characterization of the lanosterol 14alpha-demethylase (ERG11) gene in Cryptococcus neoformans. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004; 324:719-28. [PMID: 15474487 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2004.09.112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The ergosterol pathway in fungal pathogens is an attractive antimicrobial target because it is unique from the major sterol (cholesterol) producing pathway in humans. Lanosterol 14alpha-demethylase is the target for a major class of antifungals, the azoles. In this study we have isolated the gene for this enzyme from Cryptococcus neoformans. The gene, ERG11, was recovered using degenerate PCR with primers designed with a novel algorithm called CODEHOP. Sequence analysis of Erg11p identified a highly conserved region typical of the cytochrome P450 class of mono-oxygenases. The gene was present in single copy in the genome and mapped to one end of the largest chromosome. Comparison of the protein sequence to a number of major human fungal pathogen Erg11p homologs revealed that the C. neoformans protein was highly conserved, and most closely related to the Erg11p homologs from other basidiomycetes. Functional studies demonstrated that the gene could complement a Saccharomyces cerevisiae erg11 mutant, which confirmed the identity of the C. neoformans gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- S G Revankar
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 75216, USA
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Kottom TJ, Limper AH. Pneumocystis carinii cell wall biosynthesis kinase gene CBK1 is an environmentally responsive gene that complements cell wall defects of cbk-deficient yeast. Infect Immun 2004; 72:4628-36. [PMID: 15271923 PMCID: PMC470662 DOI: 10.1128/iai.72.8.4628-4636.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Pneumocystis species remain an important cause of life-threatening pneumonia in immunocompromised hosts, including those with AIDS. Responses of the organism to environmental cues both within the lung and elsewhere have been poorly defined. Herein, we report the identification of a cell wall biosynthesis kinase gene (CBK1) homologue in Pneumocystis carinii, isolated by differential display PCR, that is expressed optimally at physiological pH (7 to 8) as opposed to more acidic environments. Expression of Pneumocystis CBK1 was also induced by contact with lung epithelial cells and extracellular matrix. Translation of this gene revealed extensive homology to other fungal CBK1 kinases. Pneumocystis CBK1 expression was equal in the cyst and trophic life forms of the organisms. We further demonstrate that Pneumocystis CBK1 expressed in cbk1 Delta Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells restored defective cell wall separation during proliferation. Consistent with this, Pneumocystis CBK1 expression also stimulated transcription of the CTS1 chitinase in cbk1 Delta mutant yeast cells, an event necessary for cell wall separation. In addition, Pneumocystis CBK1 cDNA supported normal mating projection formation in response to alpha-factor in the cbk1 Delta yeast cells. Site-directed mutations of serine-303 and threonine-494, potential regulatory phosphorylation sites in Pneumocystis CBK1, abolished mating projection formation, indicating a role for these amino acid residues in CBK1 activity. These findings indicate that Pneumocystis CBK1 is an environmentally responsive gene that may function in signaling pathways necessary for cell growth and mating.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theodore J Kottom
- Thoracic Diseases Research Unit, Department of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles F Thomas
- Thoracic Diseases Research Unit, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, Minn, USA
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Vohra PK, Park JG, Sanyal B, Thomas CF. Expression analysis of PCSTE3, a putative pheromone receptor from the lung pathogenic fungus Pneumocystis carinii. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004; 319:193-9. [PMID: 15158461 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2004.04.154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The fungal pathogen Pneumocystis carinii remains the most prevalent opportunistic infection in patients infected with HIV. Fungal pheromone receptors are seven transmembrane domain G-protein-coupled receptors which are expressed on specific mating types, and have ligand-binding extracellular domains for specific pheromones from cells of the opposite mating type. We have cloned and characterized PCSTE3 from P. carinii, which encodes a seven transmembrane domain protein orthologous to the Saccharomyces cerevisiae pheromone receptor Ste3. We detect PCSTE3 by indirect immunofluorescence using antibodies designed to extracellular domains of the receptor in yeast expressing the protein. Using a downstream Fus1-lacZ reporter gene, we determined that PCSTE3 does not recognize a- or alpha-factor pheromones as ligands for the receptor. We isolated P. carinii life cycle stages and examined PCSTE3 expression by immunofluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry, and found PCSTE3 expression exclusively on a population of trophic forms. PCSTE3 receptor expression was not found on cysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pawan K Vohra
- Thoracic Diseases Research Unit, Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care and Internal Medicine, Department of Medicine, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
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