Black-market value of antipsychotics, antidepressants, and hypnotics in Las Vegas, Nevada

Increasing rates of quetiapine overdose, misuse, and mortality in Victoria, Australia

BACKGROUND

Quetiapine is misused due to its anxiolytic and hedonic effects and has been associated with deliberate self-harm. This study analyzed quetiapine-related calls to the Victorian Poisons Information Centre (VPIC), coronial data from Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine (VIFM) and prescribed data from the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS) to determine current trends in overdose, misuse and mortality.

METHODS

This was a retrospective review of multiple databases. Calls to VPIC and coronial data from the VIFM were reviewed from 2006 to 2016. PBS prescription data from 2000 to 2015 was obtained from the Australian Statistics on Medicines website.

RESULTS

VPIC data indicated a 6-fold increase in the number of quetiapine-related calls over the 11-year period of which most were overdose-related (77%). Overdose and misuse calls increased by 6-fold and 6.6-fold, respectively. Coronial data also indicated a rise in quetiapine-related harm; a 7.4-fold increase in quetiapine-related deaths was recorded for the same period. Similarly, Australian PBS data showed that quetiapine prescriptions increased 285-fold since 2000. There was a significant positive correlation between the increase in prescribing and overdose (r = 0.75, p < 0.001), and prescribing and mortality (r = 0.82, p < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

This study revealed an increasing trend of misuse, non-fatal and fatal overdoses in Victoria over the last decade. The increasing rates of prescriptions in Australia and thus increased quetiapine availability are likely to have contributed to increased poisoning and mortality. Further research is warranted to explore the reasons behind increased prescribing, including off-label use.

Average duration of treatment with antipsychotics among concession card holders in Australia

OBJECTIVE

To analyse average treatment duration with antipsychotics reimbursed for concession card holders under the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme; the proportion of initial prescribing by general practitioners, psychiatrists and other physician; and the trend in drug choice in Australia.

METHOD

Based on a representative 10% sample of patients receiving Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme prescriptions since 2005, antipsychotics redeemed by concession card holders in the period from 2010 to 2013 were analysed. A 5-year baseline period was used to exclude prevalent users from incident users. Treatment duration was estimated using the epidemiological equation: prevalence/incidence = average duration.

RESULTS

The overall average treatment duration was 3.0 years, ranging from 1.5 years in patients aged 75 years and older to more than 4 years among patients aged 25-64 years. The most commonly used antipsychotics were olanzapine, risperidone and quetiapine, with average duration of 2.9, 2.1 and 1.7 years, respectively. Amisulpride was used longest with an average duration of 3.7 years. Quetiapine is currently the most prescribed antipsychotic and the main antipsychotic prescribed by psychiatrists to new users. The increased prescribing of quetiapine among general practitioners explains the rapid increase in the overall use of quetiapine. General practitioners initiated therapy in about 70% of cases, while psychiatrists and other physicians in about 15% each. In children younger than 15 years of age, paediatricians initiated such treatment in 47%.

CONCLUSION

General practitioners both initiate and maintain treatment with antipsychotics for most adults, while paediatricians mainly begin such treatment in children. The substantial increase in use of quetiapine among general practitioners, along with the short treatment duration for quetiapine, strengthens a concern about antipsychotics increasingly used for less severe disorders. Increased collaboration between paediatricians and psychiatrists regarding the youngest and between general practitioners and psychiatrists or geriatricians regarding adults and older patients seems required.

Quetiapine Misuse and Abuse: Is it an Atypical Paradigm of Drug Seeking Behavior?

Recent case reports in medical literatures suggest that more and more second-generation atypical antipsychotics (AAs) have been prescribed for off-label use; quetiapine (Brand name: Seroquel^®) showed increase in its trend for off-label use. Little is known about the reasons behind this trend, although historical sedative and hypnotic prescription patterns suggest that despite relatively superior safety profiles of quetiapine (especially for movement disorders), it may be used for treating substance abuse disorder. In addition, recent studies have shown a strong potential for misuse and abuse (MUA) of quetiapine beyond Food and Drug Administration-approved indications. This includes drug-seeking behaviors, such as feigning symptoms, motivated by quetiapine and use of quetiapine in conjunction with alcohol. Quetiapine appears to be the most documented AA with street values bartered illicitly on the street. A recent report from the Drug Abuse Warning Network has shown a high prevalence of quetiapine-related emergency department visits involving MUA. Several other case studies have found that quetiapine causes seeking behaviors observed in substance use disorder. In fact, the majority of quetiapine MUA involved patients diagnosed with substance use disorder. In the absence of a definitive mechanism of action of quetiapine's reinforcing properties, it is imperative to gather robust evidence to support or refute increasing off-label use of AAs.

Evaluation of the Reinforcing Effect of Quetiapine, Alone and in Combination with Cocaine, in Rhesus Monkeys

There are several case reports of nonmedicinal quetiapine abuse, yet there are very limited preclinical studies investigating quetiapine self-administration. The goal of this study was to investigate the reinforcing effects of quetiapine alone and in combination with intravenous cocaine in monkeys. In experiment 1, cocaine-experienced female monkeys (N = 4) responded under a fixed-ratio (FR) 30 schedule of food reinforcement (1.0-g banana-flavored pellets), and when responding was stable, quetiapine (0.003-0.1 mg/kg per injection) or saline was substituted for a minimum of five sessions; there was a return to food-maintained responding between doses. Next, monkeys were treated with quetiapine (25 mg, by mouth, twice a day) for approximately 30 days, and then the quetiapine self-administration dose-response curve was redetermined. In experiment 2, male monkeys (N = 6) self-administered cocaine under a concurrent FR schedule with food reinforcement (three food pellets) as the alternative to cocaine (0.003-0.3 mg/kg per injection) presentation. Once choice responding was stable, the effects of adding quetiapine (0.03 or 0.1 mg/kg per injection) to the cocaine solution were examined. In experiment 1, quetiapine did not function as a reinforcer, and chronic quetiapine treatment did not alter these effects. In experiment 2, cocaine choice increased in a dose-dependent fashion. The addition of quetiapine to cocaine resulted in increases in low-dose cocaine choice and number of cocaine injections in four monkeys, while not affecting high-dose cocaine preference. Thus, although quetiapine alone does not have abuse potential, there was evidence of enhancement of the reinforcing potency of cocaine. These results suggest that the use of quetiapine in cocaine-addicted patients should be monitored.

[Abuse Liability of Quetiapine (Xeroquel®)]

OBJECTIVE

In recent years, there have been several reports in the literature concerning the misuse and abuse of quetiapine. The aim of this study was to review the data reported to the French Network of the Addictovigilance Centers as well as the published data.

METHODS

Epidemiological data from the studies of French network addictovigilance centers (spontaneous notifications, suspicious presciptions suggesting possible abuse [ ordonnances suspectes indicateur d'abus possibles, OSIAP], observatory of illegal psychotropic substances or delivered substances diverted from their medicinal use survey [observation des produits psychotropes illicites ou détournées de leur utilisation médicamenteuse, OPPIDUM], deaths related to medication and substance abuse survey [décès en relation avec l'abus de médicaments et de substances, DRAMES]) were analyzed between 2011 and 2014. All cases of abuse and dependence with quetiapine in PubMed were reviewed using the MeSH terms "quetiapine," "substances abuse," and "dependence", until October 2014.

RESULTS

The analysis of the literature has identified 21 cases of abuse related to quetiapine, mainly in men (85.7%), with a history of substance abuse (76%). The main route of administration was oral but other routes were also reported (intravenous, intranasal). The main reason for abuse was sedation and anxiolytic. Other characteristics of quetiapine abuse include amplification or even simulation of psychotic symptoms to obtain quetiapine, an increased dose and the existence of street names. The French addictovigilance network reported few cases of abuse with quetiapine.

DISCUSSION-CONCLUSION

The pharmacological mechanism of abuse of quetiapine is not fully understood. However, several arguments are in favor of the abuse liability of quetiapine. Despite the recent availability of quetiapine in France, there have been some isolated signals of abuse. Therefore, it seems important to inform prescribers on the risk of misuse of quetiapine and also of some other antipsychotics.

Emergency Department Visits Involving Misuse and Abuse of the Antipsychotic Quetiapine: Results from the Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN)

Case reports in medical literature suggest that the atypical antipsychotic quetiapine, a medication not previously considered to have abuse potential, is now being subject to misuse and abuse (MUA; ie, taken when not prescribed for them or used in a way other than instructed by their health professional). Here we present systematic, nationally representative data from the 2005 to 2011 Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN) for prevalence of emergency department (ED) visits among the U.S. general population involving quetiapine and related to MUA, suicide attempts, and adverse reactions. Nationally, quetiapine-related ED visits increased 90% between 2005 and 2011, from 35,581 ED visits to 67,497. DAWN data indicate that when used without medical supervision for recreational/self-medication purposes, quetiapine poses health risks for its users, especially among polydrug users and women. These findings suggest that the medical and public health communities should increase vigilance concerning this drug and its potential for MUA.

Evaluation of quetiapine abuse and misuse reported to poison centers

OBJECTIVE

There are case reports of abuse of quetiapine, but no studies address quetiapine abuse or misuse. Most literature on the population that abuses quetiapine describes an older age group with previous substance abuse history, many of whom are in jail. The objective of this study was to evaluate national poison center data on misuse/abuse of quetiapine.

METHODS

A retrospective study of American Association of Poison Control Centers National Poison Data System data from 2005 to 2011 on single substance quetiapine exposures coded as intentional misuse or abuse and followed to known outcome was performed. Data were evaluated for age, toxicity, management sites, treatments, and medical outcomes.

RESULTS

There were 3116 cases meeting inclusion criteria; reason was misuse in 1948 cases and abuse in 1168 cases. The median age was 23 years. Misuse was reported most often in adults, whereas abuse occurred most frequently in adolescents. The male-to-female ratio was 1.7 for abuse and 1.0 for misuse. There were no deaths. Moderate or major toxicity occurred in 23.7% and 27.1% of misuse and abuse cases, respectively. Seventy-six percent were treated in the emergency department and/or received medical admission.

CONCLUSIONS

Misuse was more common than abuse, except in adolescents for whom abuse was more frequent. Although outcomes were generally good, significant toxicity occurred in 25% of cases and more than 75% of the patients were treated in the emergency department and/or received medical admission. The consequences of nonmedical use of quetiapine are serious in some patients.

Misuse of atypical antipsychotics in conjunction with alcohol and other drugs of abuse

Non-medical use of atypical antipsychotics by substance abusers has been reported in the literature, although no detailed studies exist. Among 429 addiction treatment inpatients screened, 73 (17.0%) reported misuse of antipsychotics with alcohol, opioids, cocaine, methamphetamine and/or cannabis; 39 (9.1%) within the past year. Of past year misusers, 25 (64.1%) were interviewed. Most were male (76.0%), non-Caucasian (56.0%), and polysubstance abusers (84.0%). Quetiapine, the most abused drug (96.0%), was obtained primarily from doctors (52.0%) and family/friends (48.0%). Reasons for use included to "recover" from other substances (66.7%), "enhance" the effects of other substances (25.0%), and "experiment" (20.8%). The most frequently reported positive effect was "feeling mellow" (75.0%); negative effects were consistent with antipsychotic use (e.g., feeling thirsty, trouble concentrating). Compared to a normative sample of inpatient substance abusers, ASI composite scores were higher. Findings suggest that physicians should assess for use/misuse of atypical antipsychotics among patients with addiction.

Nonaddictive instrumental drug use: Theoretical strengths and weaknesses

The potential to instrumentalize drug use based upon the detection of very many different drug states undoubtedly exists, and such states may play a role in psychiatric and many other drug uses. Nevertheless, nonaddictive drug use is potentially more parsimoniously explained in terms of sensation seeking/impulsivity and drug expectations. Cultural factors also play a major role in nonaddictive drug use.

Practical guidelines for the use of new generation antipsychotic drugs (except clozapine) in adult individuals with intellectual disabilities

New generation antipsychotic (NGA) drugs introduced to the US market after clozapine (aripiprazole, olanzapine, paliperidone, quetiapine, risperidone, and ziprasidone) are frequently used in individuals with intellectual disabilities (ID). However, there is very limited research to fully establish evidence-based or personalized medicine approaches for their use in this population. These guidelines take a pragmatic approach to establishing frameworks for their use by utilizing the prescribing information and reviewing the available literature on other relevant neuropsychiatric disorders. In the absence of expert consensus guidance and well-controlled comparison trials, we present a set of guidelines to inform initiation, dosing and monitoring of use in adults. Further, in these guidelines we provide practical information on drug-drug interactions and adverse drug reactions, and a brief review of discontinuation syndromes, potential for abuse, use during pregnancy and cost considerations. We also provide drug utilization review forms for each NGA to facilitate implementation of these guidelines, these guidelines provide a practical and necessary resource for practitioners treating psychiatric disorders and challenging behaviors in adult individuals with ID.