Role of sialoscopy in the treatment of Stensen's duct strictures

Intraoperative Visualization and Treatment of Salivary Gland Dysfunction in Sjögren's Syndrome Patients Using Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound Sialendoscopy (CEUSS)

In sialendoscopy, ducts are dilated and the salivary glands are irrigated with saline. Contrast-enhanced ultrasound sialendoscopy (CEUSS), using microbubbles, may facilitate the monitoring of irrigation solution penetration in the ductal system and parenchyma. It is imperative to test CEUSS for its safety and feasibility in Sjögren's syndrome (SS) patients. CEUSS was performed on 10 SS patients. The primary outcomes were safety, determined by the occurrence of (serious) adverse events ((S)AEs), and feasibility. The secondary outcomes were unstimulated and stimulated whole saliva (UWS and SWS) flow rates, xerostomia inventory (XI), clinical oral dryness score, pain, EULAR Sjögren's syndrome patient reported index (ESSPRI), and gland topographical alterations. CEUSS was technically feasible in all patients. Neither SAEs nor systemic reactions related to the procedure were observed. The main AEs were postoperative pain (two patients) and swelling (two patients). Eight weeks after CEUSS, the median UWS and SWS flow had increased significantly from 0.10 to 0.22 mL/min (p = 0.028) and 0.41 to 0.61 mL/min (p = 0.047), respectively. Sixteen weeks after CEUSS, the mean XI was reduced from 45.2 to 34.2 (p = 0.02). We conclude that CEUSS is a safe and feasible treatment for SS patients. It has the potential to increase salivary secretion and reduce xerostomia, but this needs further investigation.

Intraductal Fragmentation in Sialolithiasis Using Pneumatic Lithotripsy: Initial Experience and Results

OBJECTIVE

To report initial experience in using a pneumatic lithotripter to treat salivary stones.

STUDY DESIGN

Level IV retrospective study.

SETTING

University hospital and tertiary referral center.

METHODS

A pneumatic lithotripter was used to treat salivary stones after these were diagnosed. Probes with diameters of 0.7 mm were used. Total fragmentation was intended in all stones. Stone fragments were removed using several instruments in serial sialendoscopies to achieve complete stone clearance.

RESULTS

A total of 62 patients with 77 stones were treated. Forty-three submandibular stones were treated in 34 patients, and 34 parotid stones were treated in 28 patients. An operating pressure of 2.5 bar and a single frequency mode were used. Complete fragmentation was achieved in all but one of the treated stones in both glands (98.7%). Among the patients, 90.32% became stone free and 100% symptom free. Multiple stones were treated in 24.19% of the patients, and multimodal therapy was also carried out in 24.19%. All of the glands were preserved.

CONCLUSIONS

The pneumatic lithotripter proved to be effective in the treatment of sialolithiasis. Stone size, location, and the gland involved were important clinical factors. The device was sufficient to achieve success without any increased risk for complications in the patients or damage to the sialendoscopes.

[Updated S2k AWMF guideline on obstructive sialadenitis]

The update of this guideline was an important step to define standards for the use of sialendoscopy and other emerging minimally invasive techniques for the therapy of sialolithiasis and other obstructive salivary gland diseases. The current actualization was necessary to adapt the diagnostic and therapeutic algorithms to the current scientific knowledge. In this article they are presented in a shortened version with a focus on conservative therapeutic measures which are especially relevant for daily practice.

The Need for Studies on Oral Corticosteroids After Sialendoscopy for Obstructive Salivary Gland Disease: Systematic Review

OBJECTIVES

This qualitative systematic review evaluates the evidence in support of the use of oral corticosteroids in patients undergoing sialendoscopy for the treatment of obstructive sialadenitis.

DESIGN

Qualitative systematic review.

METHODS

A literature search was conducted from January 1985 and September 2020. Inclusion criteria embraced peer-reviewed articles in which adult patients undergoing interventional sialendoscopy for obstructive salivary gland disease received oral corticosteroids. The results were initially screened based on title and abstract, and the remaining articles were reviewed for eligibility.

RESULTS

About 218 papers were selected by title and abstract, 96 were selected for full-text review, and 9 met the inclusion criteria. Eight published reports were retrospective observational studies and 1 was a prospective comparative study. Overall, the heterogeneity of clinical data stood out in this systematic review. The pooled success rate in the studies was 873/979 (89%). Only 5 studies described a rationale for oral corticosteroid use as part of the post-operative management. In 4 studies, a prednisone total daily dose of 40 to 50 mg was used. One study clearly showed a lower recurrence rate in patients who received oral steroids for more than 7 days in addition to sialendoscopy for management of ductal stenoses.

CONCLUSION

This systematic review showed that most centers that prescribe oral corticosteroids after sialendoscopy are unaware of the specific results with this treatment. For ductal stenoses, only 1 paper clearly showed the benefits of oral corticosteroids after sialendoscopy but more high-quality evidence is required in the form of a comparative study or randomized controlled trial, with appropriate long-term follow up.

Rare Diseases of the Salivary Glands and of Facial Nerve

Salivary gland diseases are rare. In the European Union (EU) a disease is considered to be rare if not more than 5 of 10,000 people are affected by it. According to estimates in Germany are about 4 million people with a rare disease. In the EU are about 30 million people with rare diseases [1]. In the present work most of the described diseases of salivary glands and of the facial nerve fall in this category. They form a very heterogeneous group whose treatment takes place mainly in specialized centers. Still, it is essential for the otolaryngologist to identify and to diagnose these diseases in order to initiate the right therapeutic steps. The work is a compilation of innate andacquired rare salivary gland disorders and of rare facial nerve disorders. The etiologies of inflammatory diseases, autoimmune disorders and tumors are taken into account. For the individual topics, the current literature, if available, was evaluated and turned into summarized facts. In this context the development of new processes, diagnostics, imaging and therapy are considered. Genetic backgrounds of salivary gland tumors and the trends in the treatment of tumorous lesions of the facial nerve are picked up. Furthermore, also rare diseases of the salivary glands in childhood are described. Some of them can occur in adults as well, but differ in frequency and symptoms. Due to the rarity of these diseases, it is recommended to tread these in centers with special expertise for it. Finally, the difficulties of initiation of studies and the problems of establishing disease registries concerning salivary gland disorders are discussed. This is very relevant because these pathologies are comparatively seldom.

Intraoperative visualisation and treatment of salivary glands in Sjögren's syndrome by contrast-enhanced ultrasound sialendoscopy (CEUSS): protocol for a phase I single-centre, single-arm, exploratory study

INTRODUCTION

We established a promising sialendoscopic treatment for in vivo enhancement of salivation in salivary glands affected by Sjögren's syndrome (SS). In this technique, the ducts of the salivary glands are irrigated with saline and steroids. This allows for dilatation of ductal strictures and removal of debris. Unfortunately, it is not possible to assess the delivery and penetration of saline or medications in the ductal system and parenchyma. To address this problem, we will conduct contrast-enhanced ultrasound sialendoscopy (CEUSS) using sulphur hexafluoride microbubbles. To the best of our knowledge, microbubbles have never been used for the treatment of salivary glands in SS. It is, therefore, imperative to test this application for its safety and feasibility.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

A single-arm phase I study will be performed in 10 SS patients. Under local anaesthesia, ultrasound (US) guided infusion of the parotid and submandibular glands with microbubbles will be performed. Continuous US imaging will be used to visualise the glands, including the location of strictures and occlusions. Main outcomes will be the evaluation of safety and technical feasibility of the experimental treatment. Secondary outcomes will consist of determinations of unstimulated whole mouth saliva flow, stimulated whole mouth saliva flow, stimulated parotid saliva flow, clinical oral dryness, reported pain, xerostomia, disease activity, salivary cytokine profiles and clinical SS symptoms. Finally, salivary gland topographical alterations will be evaluated by US.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the Medical Ethics Committee of the Amsterdam University Medical Centre, Amsterdam, The Netherlands (NL68283.029.19). data will be presented at national and international conferences and published in a peer-reviewed journal. The study will be implemented and reported in line with the Standard Protocol Items: Recommendations for Interventional Trials' statement.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBERS

The Netherlands Trial Register: NL7731, MREC Trial Register: NL68283.029.19; Pre-results.

Sialendoscopy in Chronic Obstructive Sialadenitis Without Sialolithiasis: A Prospective Cohort Study

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate long-term chronic sialadenitis symptoms in patients without sialolithiasis following sialendoscopy-assisted salivary duct surgery (SASDS) compared to a control group managed conservatively.

STUDY DESIGN

Prospective cohort study.

SETTING

Tertiary care center.

METHODS

Thirty-six patients (52 glands) with chronic sialadenitis without sialolithiasis completed the Chronic Obstructive Sialadenitis Symptoms (COSS) questionnaire at presentation and at 3-month time intervals thereafter for 1 year. Lower COSS scores represent lower symptom severity. We compared 27 patients who underwent SASDS to 9 control patients who elected conservative management.

RESULTS

COSS gland-specific scores from 38 SASDS-treated glands (cases) and 14 control glands were similar at baseline. At 6 to 12 months (mean, 8.4 months), the surgically treated group had significantly lower scores and a greater score reduction from baseline compared to controls (mean score change [95% confidence interval] cases: 20.7 points [15.7-25.8]; controls: 11.7 points [4.9-18.4]; P = .04). There was a significant difference in scores between the 2 groups over time (P < .001). A greater proportion (72%) of cases reported partial or complete resolution of overall sialadenitis symptoms at 6 to 12 months compared to the controls (22%, P < .05).

CONCLUSION

Compared to patients electing for conservative management, patients with sialadenitis without sialolithasis treated with SASDS had improved symptom scores and a greater reduction of symptom severity after 6 months. With SASDS, patients had higher rates of significant overall symptom improvement. In evaluating chronic sialadenitis, assessment at multiple time points is necessary to capture the intermittent and cyclical pattern of obstructive symptoms.

Intraductal Lithotripsy in Sialolithiasis Using the Calculase III™ Ho:YAG Laser: First Experiences

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

To report the first experiences with a newly available Ho:YAG laser system for the treatment of salivary stones.

STUDY DESIGN/MATERIALS AND METHODS

A retrospective study in a tertiary referral center was conducted. Patients diagnosed with sialolithiasis were treated in Erlangen using the Calculase III™ Ho:YAG laser (Karl Storz, Tuttlingen, Germany). Preset parameters had a frequency of 4 Hz and energy of 0.8-1.2 J, resulting in 3.2-4.8 W. Following total fragmentation, one to two serial sialendoscopies were performed to achieve complete fragment clearance.

RESULTS

A total of 55 stones in 49 patients were treated; 17 stones in 15 submandibular glands and 38 in 34 parotids. In total, 61 laser lithotripsies (range 1-3 per stone) were performed using various modes (long, short, and burst) and with preset parameters of 4 Hz and energy of 0.8-1.2 J, resulting in effective power of 3.2-4.8 W. Complete fragmentation was achieved in all the accessible stones. Sialendoscopes, fibers, or the mode used had no significant influence on success rates. A multimodal therapy concept was employed to treat stones in 12.24% of the cases; 95.92% of the patients were ultimately stone-free, and all became symptom-free. All glands were preserved.

CONCLUSIONS

The new Calculase III™ Ho:YAG laser was effective in the treatment of sialolithiasis with no increased risk of complications in the patients or damage to the sialendoscopes. Clinical factors such as the type of gland involved, or the location and size of stones had a greater impact on success rates than the technical or preset parameters. Lasers Surg. Med. © 2020 Wiley Periodicals LLC.

Does infection of 2019 novel coronavirus cause acute and/or chronic sialadenitis?

2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) is widespread in China and other countries. The target of 2019-nCoV and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) is angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) positive cells. ACE2 is present in the salivary gland duct epithelium, and thus it could be the target of 2019-nCoV and SARS-CoV. SARS-CoV-related animal model experiments show that it can infect the epithelial cells on the salivary gland duct in Chinese rhesus macaques by targeting ACE2. Clinical studies confirmed that 2019-nCoV and SARS-CoV could be detected in saliva of human patients. We hypothesize that the infection of 2019-nCoV and SARS-CoV will lead to inflammatory pathological lesions in patients' target organs, and possibly inflammatory lesions in salivary glands. 2019-nCoV may cause acute sialoadenitis in the acute phase of infection. After the acute phase, chronic sialoadenitis may be caused by fibrosis repairment. Although there was no direct evidence to prove this, the available indirect evidence indicates a high probability of our hypothesis.

Does diabetes mellitus affect the parotid ductal system? A sialendoscopic evaluation

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to assess the existence of ductal changes in diabetics using sialendoscopy.

STUDY DESIGN

Twenty patients and 10 volunteers received bilateral parotid diagnostic sialendoscopy. Group I included 10 patients with uncontrolled diabetes (UCD); group II, 10 patients with controlled diabetes (CD); and group III, 10 nondiabetic controls (CG). Expected ductal changes were examined in 3 proposed distinct zones. A χ² test was used to compare groups.

RESULTS

Ductal pathologic conditions were significantly higher in diabetic patients in all zones. Abnormalities were classified as stenosis, hyperemia, or others. In UCD, stenosis percentage was 55%, 90%, and 100% in zones 1, 2, and 3, respectively, compared with 30%, 40%, and 55% in CD and 5%, 5%, and 0% in CG (P < .01). Hyperemic changes in UCD were 90%, 90%, and 40% compared with 50%, 50%, and 20% in CD (P < .01) and 0% in CG. Comparing zones in UCD and CD indicated that stenosis increased significantly toward the proximal end, whereas hyperemia prevailed toward the distal end.

CONCLUSIONS

Significant ductal abnormalities were detected in the parotids of UCD and CD patients compared with CG. Ductal changes were higher in UCD compared with CD.

Salivary duct stenosis: diagnosis and treatment

The management of stenoses of the major salivary glands had undergone a significant change during the last 15-20 years. Accurate diagnosis forms the basis of adapted minimal invasive therapy. Conventional sialography and MR-sialography are useful examination tools, and ultrasound seems to be a first-line investigational tool if salivary duct stenosis is suspected as cause of gland obstruction. Sialendoscopy is the best choice to establish final diagnosis and characterise the stenosis in order to plan accurate treatment. In all major salivary glands, inflammatory stenosis can be distinguished from fibrotic stenosis. In the parotid duct system, an additional stenosis associated with various abnormalities of the duct system has been reported. Conservative therapy is not sufficient in the majority of cases. The development of a minimally invasive treatment regime, in which sialendoscopy plays a major role, has made the preservation of the gland and its function possible in over 90% of cases. Ductal incision procedures are the most important measure in submandibular duct stenoses, but sialendoscopy becomes more important in the more centrally located stenoses. Sialendoscopic controlled opening and dilation is the dominating method in parotid duct stenoses. In 10-15% of cases, success can be achieved after a combined treatment regime had been applied. This review article aims to give an overview on the epidemiology, diagnostics and current state of the art of the treatment of salivary duct stenoses.

Clinical outcomes and prognostic factors of sialendoscopy in salivary duct stenosis

OBJECTIVES/HYPOTHESIS

This study aimed to analyze the clinical outcomes of sialendoscopy in patients with salivary duct stenosis and to investigate factors associated therewith.

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective case series.

METHODS

This study included 47 patients with salivary stenosis who underwent sialendoscopy between January 2014 and December 2015. Subjective symptom, salivary flow rate, salivary scintigraphy, and radiologic evaluation using magnetic resonance (MR) sialography were performed preoperatively; direct ductal findings were evaluated during sialendoscopy. Univariate and multivariate analyses of factors influencing the patient-reported outcomes (complete, partial, or no improvement at 3 months after sialendoscopy) were conducted.

RESULTS

Stenosis severity was graded according to sialendoscopic findings. Seventeen patients were classified with grade I stenosis, 18 patients with grade II stenosis, and 12 patients with grade III stenosis. Symptoms completely disappeared in 21 patients (44.7%) after sialendoscopic procedures. In 19 patients (40.4%), symptoms were partially improved. Seven patients (14.9%) showed no improvement or worsening of symptoms. In univariate analysis, symptom score, stimulatory salivary flow rate, T_min (time interval from stimulation to minimal count on salivary scintigraphy), type of stenosis on MR sialography, and sialendoscopic grade were found to be significantly associated with treatment outcomes. In multivariate analysis, T_min , stenosis type of MR sialography, and sialendoscopic grade remained significantly associated with outcomes after sialendoscopy.

CONCLUSIONS

Sialendoscopic procedures were found to be clinically satisfactory for relieving the symptoms of patients with salivary stenosis. Factors related to the severity of ductal stenosis such as T_min , stenosis type of MR sialography, and sialendoscopic grade were significantly associated with the success of sialendoscopic treatment for salivary duct stenosis.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

4. Laryngoscope, 128:878-884, 2018.

Intraductal infusion of steroids in patients with Sjögren syndrome to treat painful salivary swelling: Report of 2 cases

Painful salivary swelling in patients with Sjögren syndrome presents the clinician with a difficult-to-manage condition, and treatment options are limited. We report 2 cases that demonstrate the utility of a clinic-based intraductal corticosteroid infusion for the treatment of painful salivary swelling associated with Sjögren syndrome. Steroid infusion is a cost-effective, simple-to-perform, well-tolerated gland-sparing procedure that may yield good clinical results in selected patients.

Duplication of the right internal jugular vein: A case report

We present a case of duplication of the right internal jugular vein (IJV) in a patient who underwent neck dissection as part of the management of carcinoma of the larynx. The patient was a 63-year-old man who presented to the otolaryngology department with a 7-month history of hoarseness and a 3-week history of noisy breathing. Flexible endoscopy detected a transglottic tumor that had extended beyond the vocal folds. The patient underwent a total laryngectomy and bilateral selective neck dissection at levels II-VI. Intraoperatively, the right IJV was noted to be duplicated. The duplicate segment was approximately 10 cm in length, and it rejoined the normal vein before the normal vein joined the subclavian vein.

Extended and treatment-oriented classification of parotid duct stenosis

OBJECTIVES/HYPOTHESIS

To provide an extended and treatment-oriented classification of parotid duct stenosis that might be useful in the management of this condition.

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective study in a tertiary referral center.

METHODS

A total of 550 symptomatic stenoses of the parotid gland excretory duct in 445 patients were analyzed. Sialendoscopy was performed with semirigid endoscopes. The tissue quality, location, grade of luminal narrowing, and length and number of the stenoses were assessed.

RESULTS

Inflammation-dominant stenosis (type 1) was found in 8.9% of the patients, web-associated fibrous stenosis (type 2) in 19.5%, and fibrous (type 3) in 71.6%. Multiple stenoses (≥3) were found in 2.8% of patients, and bilateral stenoses in 11.9%. Type 1 stenoses differed significantly from type 3 stenoses, with lower grades. Type 3 stenoses showed significantly higher grades of luminal narrowing than the other two types (P = .0001). Type 2 stenoses were significantly shorter in comparison with the other two types (P = .0001). Multiple stenoses were observed significantly more often in type 2 than in type 3 stenoses (P = .0001). Due to these differences, the type of stenosis appears to be the most important criterion in the treatment-oriented classification.

CONCLUSIONS

Significant differences between the different stenoses were observed. Type 1 stenosis may be considered as a precursor of type 3 stenosis, but type 2 stenosis showed significantly different characteristics. The differences prescribed in this classification may be helpful in the management of parotid duct stenoses.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

4. Laryngoscope, 2016 127:366-371, 2017.

Paracrine effects of bone marrow soup restore organ function, regeneration, and repair in salivary glands damaged by irradiation

BACKGROUND

There are reports that bone marrow cell (BM) transplants repaired irradiated salivary glands (SGs) and re-established saliva secretion. However, the mechanisms of action behind these reports have not been elucidated.

METHODS

To test if a paracrine mechanism was the main effect behind this reported improvement in salivary organ function, whole BM cells were lysed and its soluble intracellular contents (termed as "BM Soup") injected into mice with irradiation-injured SGs. The hypothesis was that BM Soup would protect salivary cells, increase tissue neovascularization, function, and regeneration. Two minor aims were also tested a) comparing two routes of delivering BM Soup, intravenous (I.V.) versus intra-glandular injections, and b) comparing the age of the BM Soup's donors. The treatment-comparison group consisted of irradiated mice receiving injections of living whole BM cells. Control mice received irradiation and injections of saline or sham-irradiation. All mice were followed for 8 weeks post-irradiation.

RESULTS

BM Soup restored salivary flow rates to normal levels, protected salivary acinar, ductal, myoepithelial, and progenitor cells, increased cell proliferation and blood vessels, and up-regulated expression of tissue remodeling/repair/regenerative genes (MMP2, CyclinD1, BMP7, EGF, NGF). BM Soup was as an efficient therapeutic agent as injections of live BM cells. Both intra-glandular or I.V. injections of BM Soup, and from both young and older mouse donors were as effective in repairing irradiated SGs. The intra-glandular route reduced injection frequency/dosage by four-fold.

CONCLUSION

BM Soup, which contains only the cell by-products, can be advantageously used to repair irradiation-damaged SGs rather than transplanting whole live BM cells which carry the risk of differentiating into unwanted/tumorigenic cell types in SGs.

[Mini-endoscopy in the head and neck region]

Minimally invasive, in particular endoscopic treatment modalities are an important topic in medicine today. Over the last 15 years mini-endoscopy (ME) has been introduced and established in different fields of the head and neck region. ME includes endoscopy of the Eustachian tube, middle ear, lacrimal duct system and duct system of the major salivary glands. Direct visualization by endoscopy enables rapid, efficient and accurate diagnosis and treatment planning according to the findings. In the majority of cases simultaneous interventional therapy is possible. This has lead to a fundamental change in treatment regimes which now aim to preserve the anatomic structure and function. In specialized centers the frequency of external dacryocystostomy could be reduced to less than 10% by means of endoscopic surgery of the lacrimal system, while the frequency of parotidectomy was reduced to below 5%. This development allows not only for medical advances, but also for the desired cost reduction on the part of the administrative organs responsible for providing medical care.

[Stenosis and other non-sialolithiasis-related obstructions of the major salivary gland ducts. Modern treatment concepts]

The treatment of stenoses and non-stone-related obstructive diseases of the major salivary glands has undergone significant changes due to the development of minimally invasive treatment modalities. Correct diagnosis can often not be established in detail with all diagnostic tools except sialendoscopy, which is necessary for gland-preserving therapy. Over the last 10 years a range of minimally invasive treatment approaches aimed at preserving gland function have been developed. In addition to sialography-controlled therapy, interventional sialendoscopy plays a central role, representing the treatment of first choice in all stenoses and non-stone-related obstructions of the salivary duct system and with a success rate of about 85%-90%. By combining sialendoscopy with other minimally invasive surgical procedures, the function of the gland can be preserved in more than 95%. Thus sialendoscopy plays a crucial role in the treatment of non-stone-related obstructive diseases of the major salivary glands. In stenoses of the salivary gland ducts extirpation of the gland should be considered only as a last step.

Sialendoscopy in children

BACKGROUND

The definitive cause of most cases of recurrent salivary gland inflammation in children remains unknown. Relatively little has been written about the use of sialendoscopy as a diagnostic and therapeutic tool in children.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the safety and efficacy of sialendoscopy as a diagnostic and therapeutic tool for recurrent salivary gland inflammation in children.

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective case series.

METHODS

Medical records of all patients who underwent sialendoscopy for recurrent salivary gland inflammation from a single tertiary-care pediatric otolaryngology practice were reviewed. Comparison of pre-procedure vs. post-procedure frequency and severity of disease was reviewed. Operative reports, images, and video were analyzed for causes of inflammation.

RESULTS

Six patients (aged 3-16 years old) underwent sialendoscopy (3/6 bilateral parotid, 2/6 unilateral parotid, 1/6 unilateral submandibular). There were no complications. No post-operative recurrence was noted in 3/6 patients; decreased frequency of recurrence was noted in 2/6 patients; repeat sialendoscopy was required in 1/6. Operative findings from sialendoscopy from 10 parotid glands showed fibrinous debris (7/10), mucoid debris (1/10), purulent debris (1/10), or duct stenosis (1/10). No stones were noted.

CONCLUSIONS

Sialendoscopy is a safe, minimally invasive procedure that may decrease the frequency of recurrences for salivary gland inflammation in children. In contrast to previously published work, the most common cause of salivary gland obstruction in this series was debris, rather than stones. Increased use of sialendoscopy as a diagnostic and therapeutic tool will allow for improved understanding of the causes of and management for recurrent salivary gland inflammation in children.

Basic sialendoscopy techniques

When basic surgical principles are followed diagnostic salivary endoscopy is a relatively safe operative procedure. Therapeutic sialendoscopy uses such instrumentation as lasers, forceps, baskets, and balloons for endoductal fragmentation, retrieval, and dilatation. Based on experience acquired from more than 300 salivary endoscopy procedures and a review of the current literature, the most relevant operative techniques are presented.

Combined Endoscopic and Transcutaneous Approach for Parotid Gland Sialolithiasis: Indications, Technique, and Results

OBJECTIVE: Despite all the advances of minimally invasive surgery, refractory stones remain in 10 to 20 percent of all cases of parotid gland sialolithiasis, and persistence of the symptoms makes removal of the gland inevitable. In some of these cases, however, it may be possible to conserve the gland using a combination of endoscopic and transcutaneous procedures.

STUDY DESIGN: Case series with chart review.

SETTING: Tertiary referral center.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Nine patients treated with a combined endoscopic transcutaneous operation were evaluated. During this procedure, the stone is removed through a skin incision under endoscopic guidance. Indications were sialolithiasis refractory to treatment (n = 5), sialolithiasis with complications (n = 2), contraindications to primary minimally invasive surgery (n = 1), and primary treatment (n = 1). In seven cases, the stones were extracted. Simultaneous resection of a sialocele was carried out in one case, and simultaneous resection of a saliva-cutaneous fistula was carried out in another. A stent was inserted in 66.7 percent of the cases.

RESULTS: Treatment was successful in 88.9 percent of the patients. All of these patients were free of stones and symptoms, and glandular function was maintained both clinically and on ultrasound assessment. Complete parotidectomy had to be carried out in one case because it was not possible to reconstruct the duct system.

CONCLUSION: The combined operation offers a further option for gland-conserving treatment in cases with obstructive salivary gland disease, especially sialolithiasis. At present, it is indicated for cases that are resistant to treatment after sialendoscopy or extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy. The gland resection rate can thus be further reduced.

[Salivary stones and stenosis. A comprehensive classification]

INTRODUCTION

Sialendoscopy and sialo-MRI enable diagnosis of salivary gland obstructive pathologies, such as lithiasis, stenosis and dilatations. Therefore, a classification of these pathologies is needed, allowing large series comparisons, for better diagnosis and treatment of salivary pathologies.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

With help from people from the European Sialendoscopy Training Center (ESTC), the results of sialographies, sialoMRI and sialendoscopies, a comprehensive classification of obstructive salivary pathologies is described, based on the absence or presence of lithiasis (L), stenosis (S) and dilatation (D) ("LSD" classification).

DISCUSSION

It appears that a classification of salivary gland obstructive pathologies should be described. We hope it will be widely used and of course criticized to be improved and to compare the results of salivary gland diagnostic methods, such as sialography and sialendoscopy and also the results and indications for salivary gland therapeutic methods, such as lithotripsy, sialendoscopy and/or open surgery.