Roles of centrioles in neural attraction of dental pulp stem cells

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE

Human nerve development is vital, affecting trauma recovery and dental issues. Early embryonic clues link nerves to tooth development via factors like Wnt and Hedgehog pathways. Centrosomes play a role, and centriole issues can disrupt oral development, as in oral facial digital syndrome type 1. This study aimed to delve deeper into the role and influence of centrioles on the development of dental nerves.

METHODS

Cell migration assessed by co-culturing mouse neural tissue and human dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs). Centrioles were fluorescently stained, and their positions observed with confocal microscopy. Centrinone was employed to inhibit centriole activity, evaluating its impact on cell mobility under activity inhibition.

RESULTS

As the distance between nerve tissue and DPSCs decreased, more DPSCs had centrioles near nerve tissue. Co-culture with nerve tissue increased DPSCs migration toward it. In contrast, DPSCs cultured alone or with fibroblasts showed weaker migration, indicating neural tissue's attractive influence. The addition of 125 nM centrinone halted cell migration and centriole polymerization. After centrinone removal over two days, centrioles returned to normal, suggesting continued motility inhibition.

CONCLUSION

Centrioles direct cell movement and polarization. There are two scenarios: centrioles at the cell center with the nucleus moving backward (as in NIH3T3 cells) and both cells and centrioles moving forward (as in DPSCs). DPSCs' attraction to neural tissue may shed light on nerve guidance by tooth germs, aiding embryonic cell differentiation into nerves. However, further in vivo and in vitro studies are needed to confirm the specific mechanism.

PIEZO1 Promotes Odontoblast-Mediated Reactionary Dentinogenesis via SEMA3A

Located at the interface of the dentin-pulp complex, the odontoblasts are specialized cells responsible for dentin synthesis and nociceptive signal detection in response to external stimuli. Recent studies have shown that the mechanosensitive ion channel PIEZO1 is involved in bone formation and remodeling through the influx of calcium ions, and it is abundantly expressed in odontoblasts. However, the specific role of PIEZO1 in reactionary dentinogenesis and the underlying mechanisms remain elusive. In this study, we found intense PIEZO1 expression in the plasma membrane and cytoplasm of odontoblasts in healthy human third molars, mouse mandibular molars, and human odontoblast-like cells (hOBLCs). In hOBLCs, PIEZO1 positively regulated DSPP, DMP1, and COL1A1 expression through the Ca2+/PI3K-Akt/SEMA3A signaling pathway. In addition, exogenous SEMA3A supplementation effectively reversed reduced mineralization capacity in PIEZO1-knockdown hOBLCs. In vivo, Piezo1 expression peaked at day 7 and returned to baseline at day 21 in a wild-type mice dentin injury model, with Sema3a presenting a similar expression pattern. To investigate the specific role of PIEZO1 in odontoblast-mediated reactionary dentinogenesis, mice with a conditional knockout of Piezo1 in odontoblasts were generated, and no significant differences in teeth phenotypes were observed between the control and conditional knockout (cKO) mice. Nevertheless, cKO mice exhibited reduced reactionary dentin formation and decreased Sema3a and Dsp positive staining after dentin injury, indicating impaired dental pulp repair by odontoblasts. In summary, these findings suggest that PIEZO1 enhances the mineralization capacity of hOBLCs in vitro via the Ca2+/PI3K-Akt/SEMA3A signaling pathway and contributes to reactionary dentinogenesis in vivo.

Dentin Mechanobiology: Bridging the Gap between Architecture and Function

It is remarkable how teeth maintain their healthy condition under exceptionally high levels of mechanical loading. This suggests the presence of inherent mechanical adaptation mechanisms within their structure to counter constant stress. Dentin, situated between enamel and pulp, plays a crucial role in mechanically supporting tooth function. Its intermediate stiffness and viscoelastic properties, attributed to its mineralized, nanofibrous extracellular matrix, provide flexibility, strength, and rigidity, enabling it to withstand mechanical loading without fracturing. Moreover, dentin's unique architectural features, such as odontoblast processes within dentinal tubules and spatial compartmentalization between odontoblasts in dentin and sensory neurons in pulp, contribute to a distinctive sensory perception of external stimuli while acting as a defensive barrier for the dentin-pulp complex. Since dentin's architecture governs its functions in nociception and repair in response to mechanical stimuli, understanding dentin mechanobiology is crucial for developing treatments for pain management in dentin-associated diseases and dentin-pulp regeneration. This review discusses how dentin's physical features regulate mechano-sensing, focusing on mechano-sensitive ion channels. Additionally, we explore advanced in vitro platforms that mimic dentin's physical features, providing deeper insights into fundamental mechanobiological phenomena and laying the groundwork for effective mechano-therapeutic strategies for dentinal diseases.

Piezo Mediates the Mechanosensation and Injury-Repair of Pulpo-Dentinal Complex

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this research was to investigate the functions of Piezo channels in dentin defect, including mechanical signalling and odontoblast responses.

METHODS

Rat dentin-defect models were constructed, and spatiotemporal expression of Piezo proteins was detected in the pulpo-dentinal complex. Real-time polymerase chain reaction (rtPCR) was used to investigate the functional expression pattern of Piezo channels in odontoblasts. Moreover, RNA interference technology was employed to uncover the underlying mechanisms of the Piezo-driven inflammatory response and repair under fluid shear stress (FSS) conditions in vitro.

RESULTS

Piezo1 and Piezo2 were found to be widely expressed in the odontoblast layer and dental pulp in the rat dentin-defect model during the end stage of reparative dentin formation. The expression levels of the Piezo1 and Piezo2 genes in MDPC-23 cells were high in the initial stage under FSS loading and then decreased over time. Moreover, the expression trends of inflammatory, odontogenic, and mineralisation genes were generally contrary to those of Piezo1 and Piezo2 over time. After silencing of Piezo1/Piezo2, FSS stimulation resulted in significantly higher expression of inflammatory, odontogenesis, and mineralisation genes in MDPC-23 cells. Finally, the expression of genes involved in the integrin β1/ERK1 and Wnt5b/β-catenin signalling pathways was changed in response to RNA silencing of Piezo1 and Piezo2.

CONCLUSIONS

Piezo1 and Piezo2 may be involved in regulating the expression of inflammatory and odontogenic genes in odontoblasts stimulated by FSS.

Primary cilia and hypoxia-associated signaling in developmental odontogenic cysts in relation to autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease - A novel insight

Developmental cysts are pathological epithelial-lined cavities arising in various organs as a result of systemic or hereditary diseases. Molecular mechanisms involved in the formation of developmental odontogenic cysts (OCs) are not fully understood yet; the cystogenesis of renal cysts originating from the autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) has been, however, explored in much greater detail. This narrative review aimed i) to summarize molecular and cellular processes involved in the formation and growth of developmental OCs, especially dentigerous cysts (DCs) and odontogenic keratocysts (OKCs), ii) to find if there are any similarities in their cystogenesis to ADPKD cysts, and, based on that, iii) to suggest potential factors, candidate molecules, and mechanisms that could be involved in the DC formation, thus proposing further research directions. Here we suggest a possible association of developmental OCs with primary cilia disruption and with hypoxia, which have been previously linked with cyst formation in ADPKD patients. This is illustrated on the imagery of tissues from an ADPKD patient (renal cyst) and from developmental OCs, supporting the similarities in cell proliferation, apoptosis, and primary cilia distribution in DC/OKC/ADPKD tissues. Based on all that, we propose a novel hypothesis of OCs formation suggesting a crucial role of mutations associated with the signaling pathways of primary cilia (in particular, Sonic Hedgehog). These can lead to excessive proliferation and formation of cell agglomerates, which is followed by hypoxia-driven apoptosis in the centers of such agglomerates (controlled by molecules such as Hypoxia-inducible factor-1 alpha), leading to cavity formation and, finally, the OCs development. Based on this, we propose future perspectives in the investigation of OC pathogenesis.

Primary Cilia: The New Face of Craniofacial Research

The primary cilium is a solitary, sensory organelle that extends from the surface of nearly every vertebrate cell, including craniofacial cells. This organelle converts chemical and physical external stimuli into intracellular signaling cascades and mediates several well-known signaling pathways simultaneously. Thus, the primary cilium is considered a cellular signaling nexus and amplifier. Primary cilia dysfunction directly results in a collection of diseases and syndromes that typically affect multiple organ systems, including the face and teeth. Despite this direct connection, primary cilia are largely unexplored in craniofacial research. In this review, I briefly summarize craniofacial abnormalities tied to the primary cilium and examine the existing information on primary cilia in craniofacial development and repair. I close with a discussion on preliminary studies that motivate future areas of exploration that are further supported by studies performed in long bone and kidney cells.

Ift88 regulates enamel formation via involving Shh signaling

OBJECTIVES

The ciliopathies are a wide spectrum of human diseases, which are caused by perturbations in the function of primary cilia. Tooth enamel anomalies are often seen in ciliopathy patients; however, the role of primary cilia in enamel formation remains unclear.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We examined mice with epithelial conditional deletion of the ciliary protein, Ift88, (Ift88^fl/fl ;K14Cre).

RESULTS

Ift88^fl/fl ;K14Cre mice showed premature abrasion in molars. A pattern of enamel rods which is determined at secretory stage, was disorganized in Ift88 mutant molars. Many amelogenesis-related molecules expressing at the secretory stage, including amelogenin and ameloblastin, enamelin, showed significant downregulation in Ift88 mutant molar tooth germs. Shh signaling is essential for amelogenesis, which was found to be downregulated in Ift88 mutant molar at the secretory stage. Application of Shh signaling agonist at the secretory stage partially rescued enamel anomalies in Ift88 mutant mice.

CONCLUSION

Findings in the present study indicate that the function of the primary cilia via Ift88 is critical for the secretory stage of amelogenesis through involving Shh signaling.

Primary cilia in hard tissue development and diseases

Bone and teeth are hard tissues. Hard tissue diseases have a serious effect on human survival and quality of life. Primary cilia are protrusions on the surfaces of cells. As antennas, they are distributed on the membrane surfaces of almost all mammalian cell types and participate in the development of organs and the maintenance of homeostasis. Mutations in cilium-related genes result in a variety of developmental and even lethal diseases. Patients with multiple ciliary gene mutations present overt changes in the skeletal system, suggesting that primary cilia are involved in hard tissue development and reconstruction. Furthermore, primary cilia act as sensors of external stimuli and regulate bone homeostasis. Specifically, substances are trafficked through primary cilia by intraflagellar transport, which affects key signaling pathways during hard tissue development. In this review, we summarize the roles of primary cilia in long bone development and remodeling from two perspectives: primary cilia signaling and sensory mechanisms. In addition, the cilium-related diseases of hard tissue and the manifestations of mutant cilia in the skeleton and teeth are described. We believe that all the findings will help with the intervention and treatment of related hard tissue genetic diseases.

Odontoblast differentiation is regulated by an interplay between primary cilia and the canonical Wnt pathway

Primary cilium is a protruding cellular organelle that has various physiological functions, especially in sensory reception. While an avalanche of reports on primary cilia have been published, the function of primary cilia in dental cells remains to be investigated. In this study, we focused on the function of primary cilia in dentin-producing odontoblasts. Odontoblasts, like most other cell types, possess primary cilia, which disappear upon the knockdown of intraflagellar transport protein 88. In cilia-depleted cells, the expression of dentin sialoprotein, an odontoblastic marker, was elevated, while the deposition of minerals was slowed. This was recapitulated by the activation of canonical Wnt pathway, also decreased the ratio of ciliated cells. In dental pulp cells, as they differentiated into odontoblasts, the ratio of ciliated cells was increased, whereas the canonical Wnt signaling activity was repressed. Our results collectively underscore the roles of primary cilia in regulating odontoblastic differentiation through canonical Wnt signaling. This study implies the existence of a feedback loop between primary cilia and the canonical Wnt pathway.

Ultrastructural studies of developing egg tooth in grass snake Natrix natrix (Squamata, Serpentes) embryos, supported by X-ray microtomography analysis

The egg tooth development is similar to the development of all the other vertebrate teeth except earliest developmental stages because the egg tooth develops directly from the oral epithelium instead of the dental lamina similarly to null generation teeth. The developing egg tooth of Natrix natrix changes its curvature differently than the egg tooth of the other investigated unidentates due to the presence of the rostral groove. The developing grass snake egg tooth comprises dental pulp and the enamel organ. The fully differentiated enamel organ consists of outer enamel epithelium, stellate reticulum, and ameloblasts in its inner layer. The enamel organ directly in contact with the oral cavity is covered with periderm instead of outer enamel epithelium. Stellate reticulum cells in the grass snake egg tooth share intercellular spaces with the basal part of ameloblasts and are responsible for their nutrition. Ameloblasts during egg tooth differentiation pass through the following stages: presecretory, secretory, and mature. The ameloblasts from the grass snake egg tooth show the same cellular changes as reported during mammalian amelogenesis but are devoid of Tomes' processes. Odontoblasts of the developing grass snake egg tooth pass through the following classes: pre-odontoblasts, secretory odontoblasts, and ageing odontoblasts. They have highly differentiated secretory apparatus and in the course of their activity accumulate lipofuscin. Grass snake odontoblasts possess processes which are poor in organelles. In developing egg tooth cilia have been identified in odontoblasts, ameloblasts and cells of the stellate reticulum. Dental pulp cells remodel collagen matrix during growth of the grass snake egg tooth. They degenerate in a way previously not described in other teeth.

Miniaturization: How many cells are needed to build a tooth?

BACKGROUND

Organs that develop early in life, and are replaced by a larger version as the animal grows, often represent a miniature version of the adult organ. Teeth constituting the first functional dentition in small-sized teleost fish, such as medaka (Oryzias latipes), are examples of such miniature organs. With a dentin cone as small as the size of one human cell, or even smaller, these teeth raise the question how many dentin-producing cells (odontoblasts) are required to build such a tooth, and whether this number can be as little as one.

RESULTS

Based on detailed observations with transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and TEM-based 3D-reconstructions, we show that only one mesenchymal cell qualifies as a true odontoblast. A second mesenchymal cell potentially participates in dentin formation, but only at a late stage of tooth development. Moreover, the fate of these cells appears to be specified very early during tooth development.

CONCLUSIONS

Our observations indicate that in this system, one single odontoblast fulfills roles normally exerted by a large and communicating cell population. First-generation teeth in medaka thus provide an exciting model to study integration of multiple functions into a single cell.

Dental Anomalies in Rare, Genetic Ciliopathic Disorder-A Case Report and Review of Literature

Background: Primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD) is a rare, ciliopathic disorder. In many ciliopathies, dental anomalies are observed alongside other symptoms of the disease. To date, there are no published reports concerning the dental developmental problems that are associated with ciliary defects in PCD patients. Methods: Patients suffering from PCD underwent dental clinical examination, which included the assessment of developmental disorders regarding the number and morphological structure of the teeth (size and shape) as well as developmental disorders of mineralised dental tissues. Then, three-dimensional radiographic examination was performed utilising Cone Beam Computed Tomography (CBCT). Results: Four PCD patients, aged 31-54, agreed to enter the study. Dental examinations showed the presence of dental developmental disorders in three of them. Additionally, CBCT showed abnormalities in those patients. Conclusions: 1. The dental phenotype in PCD patients seems to be heterogeneous. Tooth developmental disorders resulting from abnormal odontogenesis may be a symptom of PCD that is concomitant with other developmental abnormalities resulting from malfunctioning primary cilia. 2. Patients with ciliopathies are likely to develop dental developmental defects. Therefore, beginning in early childhood, they should be included in a targeted specialised dental programme to enable early diagnosis and to ensure dedicated preventive and therapeutic measures.

Comparative genomics provides new insights into the remarkable adaptations of the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus)

Within the Canidae, the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) is the most specialized with regards to cursorial adaptations (specialized for running), having only four digits on their forefeet. In addition, this species is one of the few canids considered to be an obligate meat-eater, possessing a robust dentition for taking down large prey, and displays one of the most variable coat colorations amongst mammals. Here, we used comparative genomic analysis to investigate the evolutionary history and genetic basis for adaptations associated with cursoriality, hypercanivory, and coat color variation in African wild dogs. Genome-wide scans revealed unique amino acid deletions that suggest a mode of evolutionary digit loss through expanded apoptosis in the developing first digit. African wild dog-specific signals of positive selection also uncovered a putative mechanism of molar cusp modification through changes in genes associated with the sonic hedgehog (SHH) signaling pathway, required for spatial patterning of teeth, and three genes associated with pigmentation. Divergence time analyses suggest the suite of genomic changes we identified evolved ~1.7 Mya, coinciding with the diversification of large-bodied ungulates. Our results show that comparative genomics is a powerful tool for identifying the genetic basis of evolutionary changes in Canidae.

Ion Channels Involved in Tooth Pain

The tooth has an unusual sensory system that converts external stimuli predominantly into pain, yet its sensory afferents in teeth demonstrate cytochemical properties of non-nociceptive neurons. This review summarizes the recent knowledge underlying this paradoxical nociception, with a focus on the ion channels involved in tooth pain. The expression of temperature-sensitive ion channels has been extensively investigated because thermal stimulation often evokes tooth pain. However, temperature-sensitive ion channels cannot explain the sudden intense tooth pain evoked by innocuous temperatures or light air puffs, leading to the hydrodynamic theory emphasizing the microfluidic movement within the dentinal tubules for detection by mechanosensitive ion channels. Several mechanosensitive ion channels expressed in dental sensory systems have been suggested as key players in the hydrodynamic theory, and TRPM7, which is abundant in the odontoblasts, and recently discovered PIEZO receptors are promising candidates. Several ligand-gated ion channels and voltage-gated ion channels expressed in dental primary afferent neurons have been discussed in relation to their potential contribution to tooth pain. In addition, in recent years, there has been growing interest in the potential sensory role of odontoblasts; thus, the expression of ion channels in odontoblasts and their potential relation to tooth pain is also reviewed.

IFT80 is required for stem cell proliferation, differentiation, and odontoblast polarization during tooth development

Primary cilia and intraflagellar transport (IFT) proteins control a wide variety of processes during tissue development and homeostasis. However, their role in regulation of stem cell properties during tooth development remains elusive. Here, we revealed that dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs) express IFT80, which is required for maintaining DPSC properties. Mice with deletion of IFT80 in odontoblast lineage show impaired molar root development and delayed incisor eruption through reduced DPSC proliferation and differentiation, and disrupted odontoblast polarization. Impaired odontoblast differentiation resulted from disrupted hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathways. Decreased DPSC proliferation is associated with impaired fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) signaling caused by loss of IFT80, leading to the disruption of FGF2-FGFR1-PI3K-AKT signaling in IFT80-deficient DPSCs. The results provide the first evidence that IFT80 controls tooth development through influencing cell proliferation, differentiation, and polarization, and Hh and FGF/AKT signaling pathways, demonstrating that IFT proteins are likely to be the new therapeutic targets for tooth and other tissue repair and regeneration.

Cell polarization: From epithelial cells to odontoblasts

Cell polarity identifies the asymmetry of a cell. Various types of cells, including odontoblasts and epithelial cells, polarize to fulfil their destined functions. Odontoblast polarization is a prerequisite and fundamental step for tooth development and tubular dentin formation. Current knowledge of odontoblast polarization, however, is very limited, which greatly impedes the development of novel approaches for regenerative endodontics. Compared to odontoblasts, epithelial cell polarization has been extensively studied over the last several decades. The knowledge obtained from epithelia polarization has been found applicable to other cell types, which is particularly useful considering the remarkable similarities of the morphological and compositional features between polarized odontoblasts and epithelia. In this review, we first discuss the characteristics, the key regulatory factors, and the process of epithelial polarity. Next, we compare the known facts of odontoblast polarization with epithelial cells. Lastly, we clarify knowledge gaps in odontoblast polarization and propose the directions for future research to fill the gaps, leading to the advancement of regenerative endodontics.

Essential Role of IFT140 in Promoting Dentinogenesis

Primary cilia, with highly regulated cellular sensory functions, play key roles in tissue development and function maintenance. Intraflagellar transport 140 (IFT140) is a subunit of IFT complex A, which is specialized for retrograde transportation in cilia. Mutations of Ift140 are usually associated with syndromic ciliopathy and may cause isolated diseases such as retinal dystrophy, short ribs, and polycystic kidney. However, the role of IFT140 in tooth development has not been well investigated. In this study, a close relationship between IFT140 and dentin formation is disclosed. During tooth development, IFT140 was highly expressed in odontoblasts. To further understand the role of IFT140 in dentinogenesis, Ift140^flox/flox/Osx-Cre mouse was generated. The dentin thickness of Ift140^flox/flox/Osx-Cre mouse is thinner and the dentin formation is slower than that in control. In vitro, deletion of IFT140 in odontoblasts led to poor odontogenic differentiation, abnormal primary cilia, and decreased Sonic hedgehog signaling molecules. More important, due to loss of primary cilia in odontoblasts by IFT140 deletion, reparative dentin formation was impaired in a tooth-drilling model. These results suggest that cilia gene IFT140 is essential in promoting dentin formation and reparation.

Molecular basis of dental sensitivity: The odontoblasts are multisensory cells and express multifunctional ion channels

Odontoblasts are the dental pulp cells responsible for the formation of dentin. In addition, accumulating data strongly suggest that they can also function as sensory cells that mediate the early steps of mechanical, thermic, and chemical dental sensitivity. This assumption is based on the expression of different families of ion channels involved in various modalities of sensitivity and the release of putative neurotransmitters in response to odontoblast stimulation which are able to act on pulp sensory nerve fibers. This review updates the current knowledge on the expression of transient-potential receptor ion channels and acid-sensing ion channels in odontoblasts, nerve fibers innervating them and trigeminal sensory neurons, as well as in pulp cells. Moreover, the innervation of the odontoblasts and the interrelationship been odontoblasts and nerve fibers mediated by neurotransmitters was also revisited. These data might provide the basis for novel therapeutic approaches for the treatment of dentin sensibility and/or dental pain.

Copine-7 binds to the cell surface receptor, nucleolin, and regulates ciliogenesis and Dspp expression during odontoblast differentiation

Tooth development is a progressive process regulated by interactions between epithelial and mesenchymal tissues. Our previous studies showed that copine-7 (Cpne7), a dental epithelium-derived protein, is a signalling molecule that is secreted by preameloblasts and regulates the differentiation of preodontoblasts into odontoblasts. However, the mechanisms involved in the translocation of Cpne7 from preameloblasts to preodontoblasts and the functions of Cpne7 during odontogenesis are poorly understood. Here, we showed that the internalization of Cpne7 was mediated primarily by caveolae. This process was initiated by Cpne7 binding to the cell surface protein, nucleolin. Treatment with recombinant Cpne7 protein (rCpne7) in human dental pulp cells (hDPCs) caused an increase in the number of ciliated cells. The expression level of cilium components, Ift88 and Kif3a, and Dspp were increased by rCpne7. Treatment with Ift88 siRNA in hDPCs and MDPC-23 cells significantly down-regulated the expression of Dspp, an odontoblastic differentiation marker gene. Furthermore, the treatment with nucleolin siRNA in MDPC-23 cells decreased the expression of Dmp1, Dspp, and cilium components. Our findings suggested that the binding of Cpne7 with its receptor, nucleolin, has an important function involving Cpne7 internalization into preodontoblasts and regulation of Dspp expression through ciliogenesis during odontoblast differentiation.

Oral and Craniofacial Anomalies of Bardet-Biedl Syndrome: Dental Management in the Context of a Rare Disease

Standardized guidelines for the oral health management of patients with rare diseases exhibiting morphologic anomalies are currently lacking. This review considers Bardet-Biedl syndrome (BBS), a monogenic autosomal recessive nonmotile ciliopathy, as an archetypal condition. Dental anomalies are present in a majority of individuals affected by BBS due to abnormal embryonic orofacial and tooth development. Genetically encoded intrinsic oral structural anomalies and heterogeneous BBS clinical phenotypes and consequent oral comorbidities confound oral health management. Since the comorbid spectrum of BBS phenotypes spans diabetes, renal disease, obesity, sleep apnea, cardiovascular disease, and cognitive disorders, a broad spectrum of collateral oral disease may be encountered. The genetic impact of BBS on the anatomic development of oral components and oral pathology encountered in the context of various BBS phenotypes and their associated comorbidities are reviewed herein. Challenges encountered in managing patients with BBS are highlighted, emphasizing the spectrum of oral pathology associated with heterogeneous clinical phenotypic expression. Guidelines for provision of care across the spectrum of BBS clinical phenotypes are considered. Establishment of integrated medical-dental delivery models of oral care in the context of rare diseases is emphasized, including involvement of caregivers in the context of managing these patients with special needs.

Role of Primary Cilia in Odontogenesis

Primary cilium is a solitary organelle that emanates from the surface of most postmitotic mammalian cells and serves as a sensory organelle, transmitting the mechanical and chemical cues to the cell. Primary cilia are key coordinators of various signaling pathways during development and maintenance of tissue homeostasis. The emerging evidence implicates primary cilia function in tooth development. Primary cilia are located in the dental epithelium and mesenchyme at early stages of tooth development and later during cell differentiation and production of hard tissues. The cilia are present when interactions between both the epithelium and mesenchyme are required for normal morphogenesis. As the primary cilium coordinates several signaling pathways essential for odontogenesis, ciliary defects can interrupt the latter process. Genetic or experimental alterations of cilia function lead to various developmental defects, including supernumerary or missing teeth, enamel and dentin hypoplasia, or teeth crowding. Moreover, dental phenotypes are observed in ciliopathies, including Bardet-Biedl syndrome, Ellis-van Creveld syndrome, Weyers acrofacial dysostosis, cranioectodermal dysplasia, and oral-facial-digital syndrome, altogether demonstrating that primary cilia play a critical role in regulation of both the early odontogenesis and later differentiation of hard tissue-producing cells. Here, we summarize the current evidence for the localization of primary cilia in dental tissues and the impact of disrupted cilia signaling on tooth development in ciliopathies.

Variable expressivity of TCTEX1D2 mutations and a possible pathogenic link of molar-incisor malformation to ciliary dysfunction

OBJECTIVE

Clarification of the molecular basis of a ciliopathy associated with molar-incisor malformation in a consanguineous Turkish family.

DESIGN

Full dental and clinical examinations, histologic analysis, comprehensive genetic analyses including exome sequencing, ciliary function tests and transmission electron microscopy of ciliary biopsies in the surviving patient.

RESULTS

Two siblings had situs inversus and complex heart defects suggestive of ciliary dysfunction. The affected girl who died in utero showed severe chest abnormalities compatible with Jeune syndrome which were not present in the affected boy. Dental investigations in the boy showed typical signs of molar-incisor-malformation. Exome sequencing identified a homozygous intragenic deletion in TCTEX1D2 which is predicted to completely remove protein function. Ciliary function tests and electron microscopy showed mild irregularities of motile cilia such as compound cilia and loss of membranes.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings support the suggestion that TCTEX1D2 mutations have variable expressivity and may be associated with disturbances of embryonic development caused by both, ciliary signaling and motile dysfunction. The presence of molar-incisor-malformation in the living patient raises the possibility of a pathogenetic link of this rare dental anomaly to ciliary dysfunction during tooth development at least in some individuals.

Primary Cilia and Intraflagellar Transport Proteins in Bone and Cartilage

Primary cilia, present on most mammalian cells, function as a sensor to sense the environment change and transduce signaling. Loss of primary cilia causes a group of human pleiotropic syndromes called Ciliopathies. Some of the ciliopathies display skeletal dysplasias, implying the important role of primary cilia in skeletal development and homeostasis. Emerging evidence has shown that loss or malfunction of primary cilia or ciliary proteins in bone and cartilage is associated with developmental and function defects. Intraflagellar transport (IFT) proteins are essential for cilia formation and/or function. In this review, we discuss the role of primary cilia and IFT proteins in the development of bone and cartilage, as well as the differentiation and mechanotransduction of mesenchymal stem cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, and chondrocytes. We also include the role of primary cilia in tooth development and highlight the current advance of primary cilia and IFT proteins in the pathogenesis of cartilage diseases, including osteoarthritis, osteosarcoma, and chondrosarcoma.

Disruption of kif3a results in defective osteoblastic differentiation in dental mesenchymal stem/precursor cells via the Wnt signaling pathway

The anterograde intraflagellar transport motor protein, kif3a, regulates the integrity of primary cilia and various cellular functions, however, the role of kif3a in dental mesenchymal stem/precursor cell differentiation remains to be fully elucidated. In the present study, the expression of kif3a was knocked down in human dental follicle cells (hDFCs) and human dental pulp cells (hDPCs) using short hairpin RNA. The results of subsequent immunofluorescence revealed that knocking down kif3a resulted in the loss of primary cilia, which led to impairment of substantial mineralization and expression of the differentiation-associated markers, including alkaline phosphatase, Runt-related transcription factor 2, dentin matrix protein 1 and dentin sialophosphoprotein in the hDFCs and hDPCs. The results of reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction and western blot analyses showed that the expression levels of Wnt3a-mediated active β-catenin and lymphoid enhancer-binding factor 1 were attenuated, whereas the expression of phosphorylated glycogen synthase kinase 3β was enhanced, in the kif3a-knockdown cells. In addition, exogenous Wnt3a partially rescued osteoblastic differentiation in the hDFCs and hDPCs. These results demonstrated that inhibition of kif3a in the hDFCs and hDPCs disrupted primary cilia formation and/or function, and indicated that kif3a is important in the differentiation of hDFCs and hDPCs through the Wnt pathway. These findings not only enhance current understanding of tooth development and diseases of tooth mineralization, but also indicate possible strategies to regulate mineralization during tooth repair and regeneration.

TNF-α-induced p38MAPK activation regulates TRPA1 and TRPV4 activity in odontoblast-like cells

The transient receptor potential (TRP) channels are unique cellular sensors that are widely expressed in many neuronal and nonneuronal cells. Among the TRP family members, TRPA1 and TRPV4 are emerging as candidate mechanosensitive channels that play a pivotal role in inflammatory pain and mechanical hyperalgesia. Odontoblasts are nonneuronal cells that possess many of the features of mechanosensitive cells and mediate important defense and sensory functions. However, the effect of inflammation on the activity of the odontoblast's mechanosensitive channels remains unknown. By using immunohistochemistry and calcium microfluorimetry, we showed that odontoblast-like cells express TRPA1 and TRPV4 and that these channels were activated by hypotonicity-induced membrane stretch. Short treatment of odontoblast-like cells with tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α enhanced TRPA1 and TRPV4 responses to their chemical agonists and membrane stretch. This enhanced channel activity was accompanied by phospho-p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) expression. Treatment of cells with the p38 inhibitor SB202190 reduced TNF-α effects, suggesting modulation of channel activity via p38 MAPK. In addition, TNF-α treatment also resulted in an up-regulation of TRPA1 expression but down-regulation of TRPV4. Unlike TRPV4, enhanced TRPA1 expression was also evident in dental pulp of carious compared with noncarious teeth. SB202190 treatment significantly reduced TNF-α-induced TRPA1 expression, suggesting a role for p38 MAPK signaling in modulating both the transcriptional and non-transcriptional regulation of TRP channels in odontoblasts.

OFD1 and flotillins are integral components of a ciliary signaling protein complex organized by polycystins in renal epithelia and odontoblasts

Mutation of the X-linked oral-facial-digital syndrome type 1 (OFD1) gene is embryonic lethal in males and results in craniofacial malformations and adult onset polycystic kidney disease in females. While the OFD1 protein localizes to centriolar satellites, centrosomes and basal bodies, its cellular function and how it relates to cystic kidney disease is largely unknown. Here, we demonstrate that OFD1 is assembled into a protein complex that is localized to the primary cilium and contains the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and domain organizing flotillin proteins. This protein complex, which has similarity to a basolateral adhesion domain formed during cell polarization, also contains the polycystin proteins that when mutant cause autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD). Importantly, in human ADPKD cells where mutant polycystin-1 fails to localize to cilia, there is a concomitant loss of localization of polycystin-2, OFD1, EGFR and flotillin-1 to cilia. Together, these data suggest that polycystins are necessary for assembly of a novel flotillin-containing ciliary signaling complex and provide a molecular rationale for the common renal pathologies caused by OFD1 and PKD mutations.

Single-cell RT-PCR and immunocytochemical detection of mechanosensitive transient receptor potential channels in acutely isolated rat odontoblasts

OBJECTIVE

Hydrostatic force applied to tooth pulp has long been suspected to be the direct cause of dental pain. However, the molecular and cellular identity of the transducer of the mechanical force in teeth is not clear. Growing number of literatures suggested that odontoblasts, secondary to its primary role as formation of tooth structure, might function as a cellular mechanical transducer in teeth.

DESIGN

In order to determine whether odontoblasts could play a crucial role in transduction of hydrostatic force applied to dental pulp into electrical impulses, current study investigated the expression of stretch-activated transient receptor potential (TRP) channels in acutely isolated odontoblasts from adult rats by single cell reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction and immunocytochemical analysis.

RESULTS

As the result, expression of TRPM7 (melastatin 7) was observed in majority (87%) of odontoblasts while mRNAs for TRPC1 (canonical 1), TRPC6 (canonical 6) and TRPV4 (vanilloid 4) were detected in small subpopulations of odontoblasts. TRPM3 (melastatin 3) was not detected in our experimental set-up. Immunocytochemical analysis further revealed TRPM7 expression at protein level.

CONCLUSION

Expression of the mechanosensitive TRP channels provides additional evidence that supports the sensory roles of odontoblasts. Given that TRPM7 is a mechanosensitive ion channel with a kinase activity that plays a role in Mg(2+) homeostasis, it is possible that TRPM7 expressed in odontoblasts might play a central role in mineralization during dentin formation.

Cellular and molecular mechanisms of dental nociception

Due, in part, to the unique structure of the tooth, dental pain is initiated via distinct mechanisms. Here we review recent advances in our understanding of inflammatory tooth pain and discuss 3 hypotheses proposed to explain dentinal hypersensitivity: The first hypothesis, supported by functional expression of temperature-sensitive transient receptor potential channels, emphasizes the direct transduction of noxious temperatures by dental primary afferent neurons. The second hypothesis, known as hydrodynamic theory, attributes dental pain to fluid movement within dentinal tubules, and we discuss several candidate cellular mechanical transducers for the detection of fluid movement. The third hypothesis focuses on the potential sensory function of odontoblasts in the detection of thermal or mechanical stimuli, and we discuss the accumulating evidence that supports their excitability. We also briefly update on a novel strategy for local nociceptive anesthesia via nociceptive transducer molecules in dental primary afferents with the potential to specifically silence pain fibers during dental treatment. Further understanding of the molecular mechanisms of dental pain would greatly enhance the development of therapeutics that target dental pain.

The Amazing Odontoblast

Odontoblasts are dentin-secreting cells that survive for the whole life of a healthy tooth. Once teeth are completely erupted, odontoblasts transform into a mature stage that allows for their functional conservation for decades, while maintaining the capacity for secondary and reactionary dentin secretion. Odontoblasts are also critically involved in the transmission of sensory stimuli from the dentin-pulp complex and in the cellular defense against pathogens. Their longevity is sustained by an elaborate autophagic-lysosomal system that ensures organelle and protein renewal. However, progressive dysfunction of this system, in part caused by lipofuscin accumulation, reduces the fitness of odontoblasts and eventually impairs their dentin maintenance capacity. Here we review the functional activities assumed by mature odontoblasts throughout life. Understanding the biological basis of age-related changes in human odontoblasts is crucial to improving tooth preservation in the elderly.

[Odontoblast: a key cell involved in the perception of dentinal pain]

Dentinal sensitivity is a clinical condition daily encountered by practitioners and constitutes the symptoms of dentinal hypersensitivity, a common dental pain affecting on average 30% of the population. However, the management of this pathology is not always effective due to the lack of knowledge particularly concerning the means by which dental nociceptive signals are transduced. The mechanisms underlying dentin sensitivity still remain unclear probably due to the structural and functional complexity of the players including odontoblasts, nerve endings and dentinal fluid running in the dentinal tubules. The unique spatial situation of odontoblasts, ciliated cells in close relationship with nerve terminals, suggests that they could play a pivotal role in the transduction of sensory events occurring within the dentin tissue. Our studies have identified mechano-thermosensitive transient receptor potential ion channels (TRPV1-4, TRPA8, TRPM3, KCa, TREK-1, PC1, PC2) localised on the odontoblastic membrane and at the base of the cilium. They could sense temperature variations or movements of dentinal fluid within tubules. Moreover, several voltage-gated sodium channels confer excitable properties to odontoblasts in response to injection of depolarizing currents. In vivo, these channels co-localize with nerve endings at the apical pole of odontoblasts, and their expression pattern seems to be correlated with the spatial distribution of stretch-activated KCa channels. All these data strengthen the hypothesis that odontoblasts could act as sensor cells able to transmit nociceptive signals. However, how cells sense signals and how the latter are transmitted to axons represent the main issue to be solved.

Multiple postnatal craniofacial anomalies are characterized by conditional loss of polycystic kidney disease 2 (Pkd2)

Polycystin 2 (Pkd2), which belongs to the transient receptor potential family, plays a critical role in development. Pkd2 is mainly localized in the primary cilia, which also function as mechanoreceptors in many cells that influence multiple biological processes including Ca(2+) influx, chemical activity and signalling pathways. Mutations in many cilia proteins result in craniofacial abnormalities. Orofacial tissues constantly receive mechanical forces and are known to develop and grow through intricate signalling pathways. Here we investigate the role of Pkd2, whose role remains unclear in craniofacial development and growth. In order to determine the role of Pkd2 in craniofacial development, we located expression in craniofacial tissues and analysed mice with conditional deletion of Pkd2 in neural crest-derived cells, using Wnt1Cre mice. Pkd2 mutants showed many signs of mechanical trauma such as fractured molar roots, distorted incisors, alveolar bone loss and compressed temporomandibular joints, in addition to abnormal skull shapes. Significantly, mutants showed no indication of any of these phenotypes at embryonic stages when heads perceive no significant mechanical stress in utero. The results suggest that Pkd2 is likely to play a critical role in craniofacial growth as a mechanoreceptor. Pkd2 is also identified as one of the genes responsible for autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD). Since facial anomalies have never been identified in ADPKD patients, we carried out three-dimensional photography of patient faces and analysed these using dense surface modelling. This analysis revealed specific characteristics of ADPKD patient faces, some of which correlated with those of the mutant mice.

Non-motile primary cilia as fluid shear stress mechanosensors

Primary cilia are sensory organelles that transmit extracellular signals into intracellular biochemical responses. Structural and functional defects in primary cilia are associated with a group of human diseases, known as ciliopathies, with phenotypes ranging from cystic kidney and obesity to blindness and mental retardation. Primary cilia mediate mechano- and chemosensation in many cell types. The mechanosensory function of the primary cilia requires the atypical G-protein-coupled receptor polycystin-1 and the calcium-permeable nonselective cation channel polycystin-2. Mechanical stimulations such as fluid-shear stress of the primary cilia initiate intracellular calcium rise, nitric oxide release, and protein modifications. In this review, we describe a set of protocols for cell culture to promote ciliation, mechanical stimulations of the primary cilia, and measurements of calcium rise and nitric oxide release induced by fluid shear stress.

Ciliopathies with skeletal anomalies and renal insufficiency due to mutations in the IFT-A gene WDR19

A subset of ciliopathies, including Sensenbrenner, Jeune, and short-rib polydactyly syndromes are characterized by skeletal anomalies accompanied by multiorgan defects such as chronic renal failure and retinitis pigmentosa. Through exome sequencing we identified compound heterozygous mutations in WDR19 in a Norwegian family with Sensenbrenner syndrome. In a Dutch family with the clinically overlapping Jeune syndrome, a homozygous missense mutation in the same gene was found. Both families displayed a nephronophthisis-like nephropathy. Independently, we also identified compound heterozygous WDR19 mutations by exome sequencing in a Moroccan family with isolated nephronophthisis. WDR19 encodes IFT144, a member of the intraflagellar transport (IFT) complex A that drives retrograde ciliary transport. We show that IFT144 is absent from the cilia of fibroblasts from one of the Sensenbrenner patients and that ciliary abundance and morphology is perturbed, demonstrating the ciliary pathogenesis. Our results suggest that isolated nephronophthisis, Jeune, and Sensenbrenner syndromes are clinically overlapping disorders that can result from a similar molecular cause.

Axonemal positioning and orientation in three-dimensional space for primary cilia: what is known, what is assumed, and what needs clarification

Two positional characteristics of the ciliary axoneme--its location on the plasma membrane as it emerges from the cell, and its orientation in three-dimensional (3D) space--are known to be critical for optimal function of actively motile cilia (including nodal cilia), as well as for modified cilia associated with special senses. However, these positional characteristics have not been analyzed to any significant extent for primary cilia. This review briefly summarizes the history of knowledge of these two positional characteristics across a wide spectrum of cilia, emphasizing their importance for proper function. Then the review focuses what is known about these same positional characteristics for primary cilia in all major tissue types where they have been reported. The review emphasizes major areas that would be productive for future research for understanding how positioning and 3D orientation of primary cilia may be related to their hypothesized signaling roles within different cellular populations.

The primary cilium in different tissues-lessons from patients and animal models

Primary cilia are specialized organelles consisting of an axoneme anchored to the plasma membrane through the basal body consisting of two centrioles. They protrude from the cell surface of almost all mammalian cells. Mutations in genes encoding for ciliary proteins cause ciliopathies, which are characterized by a wide spectrum of phenotypes, including polycystic kidney, hepatic disease, malformations in the central nervous system, skeletal defects, retinal degeneration, and obesity. Both clinical studies and animal models have revealed that during embryogenesis, primary cilium play an essential role in defining the correct patterning of the body. In this study, we focused our attention on the tissues mainly affected in ciliopathies, such as the kidney, liver, and central nervous system. Emerging studies reveal that the primary cilium may play similar roles, leading to distinct functions according to the different cell type and developmental stages. The state of the art in primary cilia studies reveals a very complex role. The aim of this review is to evaluate the recent advances in the function of primary cilia in different tissues, underlining similarities and differences.

Cell differentiation and matrix organization in engineered teeth

Embryonic dental cells were used to check a series of criteria to be achieved for tooth engineering. Implantation of cultured cell-cell re-associations led to crown morphogenesis, epithelial histogenesis, organ vascularization, and root and periodontium development. The present work aimed to investigate the organization of predentin/dentin, enamel, and cementum which formed and mineralized after implantation. These implants were processed for histology, transmission electron microscopy, x-ray microanalysis, and electron diffraction. After two weeks of implantation, the re-associations showed gradients of differentiating odontoblasts. There were ciliated, polarized, and extended cell processes in predentin/dentin. Ameloblasts became functional. Enamel crystals showed a typical oriented arrangement in the inner and outer enamel. In the developing root, odontoblasts differentiated, cementogenesis occurred, and periodontal ligament fibroblasts interacted with the root surface and newly formed bone. The implantation of cultured dental cell re-associations allows for reproduction of complete functional differentiation at the cell, matrix, and mineral levels.

Identification of cells at early and late stages of polarization during odontoblast differentiation using pOBCol3.6GFP and pOBCol2.3GFP transgenic mice

Transgenic mouse lines in which GFP expression is under the control of tissue- and stage specific promoters have provided powerful experimental tools for identification and isolation of cells at specific stage of differentiation along a lineage. In the present study, we used primary cell cultures derived from the dental pulp from pOBCol3.6GFP and pOBCol2.3GFP transgenic mice as a model to develop markers for early stages of odontoblast differentiation from progenitor cells. We analyzed the temporal and spatial expression of 2.3-GFP and 3.6-GFP during in vitro mineralization. Using FACS to separate cells based on GFP expression, we obtained relatively homogenous subpopulations of cells and analyzed their dentinogenic potentials and their progression into odontoblasts. Our observations showed that these transgenes were activated before the onset of matrix deposition and in cells at different stages of polarization. The 3.6-GFP transgene was activated in cells in early stages of polarization, whereas the 2.3-GFP transgene was activated at a later stage of polarization just before or at the time of formation of secretory odontoblast.

Mutant DLX 3 disrupts odontoblast polarization and dentin formation

Tricho-dento-osseous (TDO) syndrome is an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by abnormalities in the thickness and density of bones and teeth. A 4-bp deletion mutation in the Distal-Less 3 (DLX3) gene is etiologic for most cases of TDO. To investigate the in vivo role of mutant DLX3 (MT-DLX3) on dentin development, we generated transgenic (TG) mice expressing MT-DLX3 driven by a mouse 2.3 Col1A1 promoter. Dentin defects were radiographically evident in all teeth and the size of the nonmineralized pulp was enlarged in TG mice, consistent with clinical characteristics in patients with TDO. High-resolution radiography, microcomputed tomography, and SEM revealed a reduced zone of mineralized dentin with anomalies in the number and organization of dentinal tubules in MT-DLX3 TG mice. Histological and immunohistochemical studies demonstrated that the decreased dentin was accompanied by altered odontoblast cytology that included disruption of odontoblast polarization and reduced numbers of odontoblasts. TUNEL assays indicated enhanced odontoblast apoptosis. Expression levels of the apoptotic marker caspase-3 were increased in odontoblasts in TG mice as well as in odontoblastic-like MDPC-23 cells transfected with MT-DLX3 cDNA. Expression of Runx2, Wnt 10A, and TBC1D19 colocalized with DLX3 expression in odontoblasts, and MT-DLX3 significantly reduced expression of all three genes. TBC1D19 functions in cell polarity and decreased TBC1D19 expression may contribute to the observed disruption of odontoblast polarity and apoptosis. These data indicate that MT-DLX3 acts to disrupt odontoblast cytodifferentiation leading to odontoblast apoptosis, and aberrations of dentin tubule formation and dentin matrix production, resulting in decreased dentin and taurodontism. In summary, this TG model demonstrates that MT-DLX3 has differential effects on matrix production and mineralization in dentin and bone and provides a novel tool for the investigation of odontoblast biology.