Arachidonic acid stimulates intracellular calcium mobilization and regulates protein synthesis, ATP levels, and mucin secretion in submandibular gland cells

Arachidonic Acid Evokes an Increase in Intracellular Ca2+ Concentration and Nitric Oxide Production in Endothelial Cells from Human Brain Microcirculation

It has long been known that the conditionally essential polyunsaturated arachidonic acid (AA) regulates cerebral blood flow (CBF) through its metabolites prostaglandin E2 and epoxyeicosatrienoic acid, which act on vascular smooth muscle cells and pericytes to vasorelax cerebral microvessels. However, AA may also elicit endothelial nitric oxide (NO) release through an increase in intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i). Herein, we adopted Ca²⁺ and NO imaging, combined with immunoblotting, to assess whether AA induces intracellular Ca²⁺ signals and NO release in the human brain microvascular endothelial cell line hCMEC/D3. AA caused a dose-dependent increase in [Ca²⁺]_i that was mimicked by the not-metabolizable analogue, eicosatetraynoic acid. The Ca²⁺ response to AA was patterned by endoplasmic reticulum Ca²⁺ release through type 3 inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors, lysosomal Ca²⁺ mobilization through two-pore channels 1 and 2 (TPC1-2), and extracellular Ca²⁺ influx through transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4). In addition, AA-evoked Ca²⁺ signals resulted in robust NO release, but this signal was considerably delayed as compared to the accompanying Ca²⁺ wave and was essentially mediated by TPC1-2 and TRPV4. Overall, these data provide the first evidence that AA elicits Ca²⁺-dependent NO release from a human cerebrovascular endothelial cell line, but they seemingly rule out the possibility that this NO signal could acutely modulate neurovascular coupling.

Increased leukotriene concentration in submandibular glands from rats with experimental periodontitis

OBJECTIVE AND DESIGN

In the present study, we investigated the relation between the inflammatory mediators such as nitric oxide, prostaglandins, and cysteinyl-leukotrienes with mucin release and the sympathetic system in submandibular glands from rats with experimental periodontitis.

MATERIALS OR SUBJECTS

Submandibular glands from rats with experimental periodontitis.

TREATMENT

For the first experiment, rats were treated with hydrocortisone sc, 1 mg/kg for 3 days. All other experiments were carried out in isolated submandibular glands from untreated rats. Submandibular glands were treated with cysteinyl-leukotrienes, isoproterenol, NDGA, FPL 55712, L-NMMA, Nio, Nz, AMG, indomethacin, DuP 697 and atenolol.

METHODS

Nitric oxide synthase activity, prostaglandin and cysteinyl-leukotriene productions and mucin secretion were determined. The Newman-Keuls statistical test was applied after analysis of variance.

RESULTS

In rats with periodontitis hydrocortisone-induced a 36.6% (P < 0.05) decrease in mucin release. Only cysteinyl-leukotriene production was increased in rats with ligature (79.2%, P < 0.001). Either the inhibition of cysteinyl-leukotriene production or the block of leukotriene receptor abolished the increase in mucin secretion by 25.6% (P < 0.05) and 37% (P < 0.01), respectively, in glands from rats with ligature. On the other hand, the presence of cysteinyl-leukotrienes in the incubation medium induced mucin release from submandibular glands. Atenolol diminished by 24% (P < 0.05), the increase in cysteinyl-leukotrienes observed in rats with periodontitis. Besides, isoproterenol induced cysteinyl-leukotriene production in both groups.

CONCLUSION

In submandibular glands from rats with periodontitis, the increment in mucin release and cysteinyl-leukotrienes production are related events and both are associated with the sympathetic system.

Expression of Pla2g2a prevents carcinogenesis in Muc2-deficient mice

Goblet cell depletion and down-regulation of MUC2 expression are observed in a significant percentage of human non-mucinous colorectal adenocarcinomas. Direct evidence for the role of MUC2 in gastrointestinal tumor formation was demonstrated by a knockout of Muc2 in mice that resulted in the development of adenocarcinomas in the small and large intestine. The secretory phospholipase Pla2g2a is a protein that confers resistance to Apc(Min/+)-induced intestinal tumorigenesis. Like Muc2, in the large intestine Pla2g2a is exclusively expressed by the goblet cells and Pla2g2a's tumor resistance is also strongest in the large intestine. Possible genetic interactions between Muc2 and Pla2g2a were examined by creating C57BL/6-Muc2(-/-)Pla2g2a transgenic mice. Expression of a Pla2g2a transgene reduced tumorigenesis in the large intestine by 90% in male Muc2(-/-) mice and by nearly 100% in female Muc2(-/-) mice. Expression of Pla2g2a also inhibited tumor progression. Microarray gene expression studies revealed Pla2g2a target genes that modulate intestinal energy metabolism, differentiation, inflammation, immune responses and proliferation. Overall, results of the present study demonstrate an Apc-independent role for Pla2g2a in tumor resistance and indicate that Pla2g2a plays an important role, along with Muc2, in protection of the intestinal mucosa.

Akt kinase reducing endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ release protects cells from Ca2+-dependent apoptotic stimuli

The proto-oncogene Akt is a potent inhibitor of apoptosis, and it is activated in many human cancers. A number of recent studies have highlighted the importance of the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) receptor(IP3R) in mediating calcium (Ca2+) transfer from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to the mitochondriain several models of apoptosis. Akt is a serine-threonine kinase and recent data indicate the IP3R as a target of its phosphorylation activity. Here we show that HeLa cells, overexpressing the constitutively active myristoylated/palmitylatedAKT1 (m/p-AKT1), were found to have a reduced Ca2+ release from ER after stimulation with agonist coupled to the generation of IP3. In turn, this affected cytosolic and mitochondria Ca2+ response after Ca2+release from the ER induced either by agonist stimulation or by apoptotic stimuli releasing Ca2+ from intracellular stores. Most importantly, this alteration of ER Ca2+ content and release, reduces significantly cellular sensitivity to Ca2+ mediated proapoptotic stimulation. These results reveal a primary role of Akt in shaping intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis, that may underlie its protective role against some proapoptotic stimuli.

Enhancement of Ca2+-regulated exocytosis by indomethacin in guinea-pig antral mucous cells: arachidonic acid accumulation

Ca2+-regulated exocytosis is enhanced by an autocrine mechanism via the PGE2-cAMP pathway in antral mucous cells of guinea-pigs. The inhibition of the PGE2-cAMP pathway by H-89 (an inhibitor of protein kinase A, PKA) or aspirin (ASA, an inhibitor of cyclo-oxygenase, COX) decreased the frequency of ACh-stimulated exocytotic events by 60%. Indomethacin (IDM, an inhibitor of COX), however, decreased the frequency of ACh-stimulated exocytotic events only by 30%. Moreover, IDM increased the frequency of ACh-stimulated exocytotic events by 50% in H-89-treated or ASA-treated cells. IDM inhibits the synthesis of Prostaglandin (PGG/H) and (15R)-15-hydroxy-5,8,11 cis-13-trans-eicosatetraenoic acid (15R-HPETE), while ASA inhibits only the synthesis of PGG/H. Thus, IDM may accumulate arachidonic acid (AA). AACOCF3 or N-(p-amylcinnamoyl) anthranilic acid (ACA; both inhibitors of phospholipase A2, PLA2), which inhibits AA synthesis, decreased the frequency of ACh-stimulated exocytotic events by 60%. IDM, however, did not increase the frequency in AACOCF3-treated cells. AA increased the frequency of ACh-stimulated exocytotic events in AACOCF3- or ASA-treated cells, similar to IDM in ASA- and H-89-treated cells. Moreover, in the presence of AA, IDM did not increase the frequency of ACh-stimulated exocytotic events in ASA-treated cells. The PGE2 release from antral mucosa indicates that inhibition of PLA2 by ACA inhibits the AA accumulation in unstimulated and ACh-stimulated antral mucosa. The dose-response study of AA and IDM demonstrated that the concentration of intracellular AA accumulated by IDM is less than 100 nm. In conclusion, IDM modulates the ACh-stimulated exocytosis via AA accumulation in antral mucous cells.

Arachidonic acid regulates two Ca2+ entry pathways via nitric oxide

Several regulated Ca2+ entry pathways have been identified, with capacitative Ca2+ entry (CCE) being the most characterized. In the present study, we examined Ca2+ entry pathways regulated by arachidonic acid (AA) in mouse parotid acini. AA induced Ca2+ release from intracellular stores, and increased Ca2+ entry. AA inhibited thapsigargin (Tg)-induced CCE, whereas AA activated Ca2+ entry when CCE was blocked by gadolinium (Gd3+). AA-induced Ca2+ entry was associated with depletion of calcium from ryanodine-sensitive stores; both AA-induced Ca2+ release and Ca2+ entry were inhibited by tetracaine and the nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitor, 7-nitroindazole (7-NI). The nitric oxide (NO) donor, 1,2,3,4-ox-triazolium,5-amino-3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-chloride (GEA 3162), but not 8-bromo-cGMP, mimicked the effects of AA in inhibiting CCE. Results suggest that AA acts via nitric acid to inhibit the CCE pathway that is selective for Ca2+, and to activate a second Ca2+ entry pathway that is dependent on depletion of Ca2+ from ryanodine-sensitive stores.

Molecular pathways of protein synthesis inhibition during brain reperfusion: implications for neuronal survival or death

Protein synthesis inhibition occurs in neurons immediately on reperfusion after ischemia and involves at least alterations in eukaryotic initiation factors 2 (eIF2) and 4 (eIF4). Phosphorylation of the alpha subunit of eIF2 [eIF2(alphaP)] by the endoplasmic reticulum transmembrane eIF2alpha kinase PERK occurs immediately on reperfusion and inhibits translation initiation. PERK activation, along with depletion of endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ and inhibition of the endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ -ATPase, SERCA2b, indicate that an endoplasmic reticulum unfolded protein response occurs as a consequence of brain ischemia and reperfusion. In mammals, the upstream unfolded protein response components PERK, IRE1, and ATF6 activate prosurvivial mechanisms (e.g., transcription of GRP78, PDI, SERCA2b ) and proapoptotic mechanisms (i.e., activation of Jun N-terminal kinases, caspase-12, and CHOP transcription). Sustained eIF2(alphaP) is proapoptotic by inducing the synthesis of ATF4, the CHOP transcription factor, through "bypass scanning" of 5' upstream open-reading frames in ATF4 messenger RNA; these upstream open-reading frames normally inhibit access to the ATF4 coding sequence. Brain ischemia and reperfusion also induce mu-calpain-mediated or caspase-3-mediated proteolysis of eIF4G, which shifts message selection to m 7 G-cap-independent translation initiation of messenger RNAs containing internal ribosome entry sites. This internal ribosome entry site-mediated translation initiation (i.e., for apoptosis-activating factor-1 and death-associated protein-5) can also promote apoptosis. Thus, alterations in eIF2 and eIF4 have major implications for which messenger RNAs are translated by residual protein synthesis in neurons during brain reperfusion, in turn constraining protein expression of changes in gene transcription induced by ischemia and reperfusion. Therefore, our current understanding shifts the focus from protein synthesis inhibition to the molecular pathways that underlie this inhibition, and the role that these pathways play in prosurvival and proapoptotic processes that may be differentially expressed in vulnerable and resistant regions of the reperfused brain.

Aluminum fluoride inhibits phospholipase D activation by a GTP-binding protein-independent mechanism

Aluminum fluoride (AlF4-) inhibited guanine nucleotide-activated phospholipase D (PLD) in rat submandibular gland cell-free lysates in a concentration-dependent response. This effect was consistent in permeabilized cells with endogenous phospholipid PLD substrates. Inhibition was not caused by either fluoride or aluminum alone and was reversed by aluminum chelation. Inhibition of PLD by aluminum fluoride was not mediated by cAMP, phosphatases 1, 2A or 2B, or phosphatidate phosphohydrolase. AlF4- had a similar inhibitory effect on rArf-stimulated PLD, but did not block the translocation of Arf from cytosol to membranes, indicating a post-GTP-binding-protein site of action. Oleate-sensitive PLD, which is not guanine nucleotide-dependent, was also inhibited by AlF4-, supporting a G protein-independent mechanism of action. A submandibular Golgi-enriched membrane preparation had high PLD activity which was also potently inhibited by AlF4-, leading to speculation that the known fluoride inhibition of Golgi vesicle transport may be PLD-mediated. It is proposed that aluminum fluoride inhibits different forms of PLD by a mechanism that is independent of GTP-binding proteins and that acts via a membrane-associated target which may be the enzyme itself.

Cell death, calcium mobilization, and immunostaining for phosphorylated eukaryotic initiation factor 2-alpha (eIF2alpha) in neuronally differentiated NB-104 cells: arachidonate and radical-mediated injury mechanisms

These experiments examine the effects of arachidonate with respect to cell death, radical-mediated injury, Ca2+ mobilization, and formation of ser-51-phosphorylated eukaryotic initiation factor 2alpha [eIF2alpha(P)]. It is known that during brain ischemia the concentration of free arachidonate can reach 180 microM, and during reperfusion oxidative metabolism of arachidonate leads to generation of superoxide that can reduce stored ferric iron and promote lipid peroxidation. During early brain reperfusion, we have shown an approximately 20-fold increase in eIF2alpha(P) which maps to vulnerable neurons that display inhibition of protein synthesis. Here in neuronally differentiated NB-104 cells, equivalent cell death (assessed by LDH release) was induced by 40 microM arachidonate and 20 microM cumene hydroperoxide (CumOOH, a known alkoxyl radical generator). In these injury models (1) radical inhibitors (BHA, BHT, and the lipophilic iron chelator EMHP) block CumOOH-induced cell death but do not block arachidonate-induced death; (2) 40 microM arachidonate (but not up to 40 microM CumOOH) rapidly induces Ca2+ release from intracellular stores; (3) both 40 microM arachidonate and 20 microM CumOOH induce intense immunostaining for eIF2alpha(P); and (4) the elF2alpha(P) immunostaining induced by CumOOH but not that induced by arachidonate is completely blocked by anti-radical intervention with EMHP. Arachidonate-induced formation of eIF2alpha(P) and cell death do not require iron-mediated radical mechanisms and are associated with Ca2+ release from intracellular stores; however, radical-mediated injury also induces both eIF2alpha(P) and cell death without release of intracellular Ca2+. Our data link eIF2alpha(P) formation during brain reperfusion to two established injury mechanisms that may operate concurrently.

Arachidonic acid induces mobilization of calcium stores and c-jun gene expression: evidence that intracellular calcium release is associated with c-jun activation

Arachidonic acid (AA) plays a signaling role in the induction of several genes. We previously demonstrated that AA induces c-jun gene expression in the stromal cell line +/+.1 LDA 11 by a signaling pathway involving activation of the c-jun amino-terminal kinase (JNK). This study investigated the role of calcium in AA signaling of c-jun activation in +/+.1 LDA 11 cells. AA (10-50 microM) caused a rapid dose-dependent rise in cytosolic calcium. AA-induced calcium mobilization involved both influx of extracellular calcium and the release of intracellular calcium. The importance of calcium was investigated by variation of the extracellular calcium concentration, chelation of intracellular calcium and by calcium ionophore-induced influx of extracellular calcium. AA-induced c-jun gene expression and increased luciferase activity of a construct containing the high affinity AP-1 binding site was decreased in cells preincubated with the intracellular calcium chelator 1,2-bis(o-aminophenoxy)-eThane-N,N,N',N',-tetraacetic acid tetra(aceToxymethyl-esTer) (BAPTA-AM, 10 microM) prior to stimulation with AA. Similarly, chelation of intracellular calcium decreased AA-induced JNK activation. On the contrary, changes in the extracellular calcium concentration had no effect. Also, ionophore A23187 failed to induce c-jun and JNK activation either alone than in combination with AA. These results suggested that calcium was required for AA-dependent activation of c-jun, but that calcium alone was insufficient to induce activation of c-jun. Thus, release of calcium from intracellular stores is implicated in the signaling pathway of AA-induced c-jun activation in stromal cells.

Extracellular and intracellular arachidonic acid-induced contractions in rat aorta

Arachidonic acid induced contractions of de-endothelized rat aortic rings. A more potent effect was obtained after intracellular administration of arachidonic acid using liposomes. Contractions induced by extracellular arachidonic acid were inhibited similarly to phenylephrine-induced contractions by the L-type Ca2+ channel blocker, methoxyverapamil (D600), and the calmodulin inhibitor, calmidazolium. In contrast, contractions induced by arachidonic acid-filled liposomes were not affected by these compounds. Indomethacin did not affect the contractions induced by either extra- or intracellular arachidonic acid, whereas nordihydroguaiaretic acid relaxed contractions induced by extracellular arachidonic acid but not those induced by arachidonic acid-filled liposomes. Apart from a relaxing effect on contractions induced by extracellular arachidonic acid or by phenylephrine, protein kinase C inhibition with 1-(5-isoquinolinesulphonyl-2-methylpiperazine (H7)) had an even more prominent relaxing effect on contractions induced by arachidonic acid-filled liposomes. Therefore, arachidonic acid exerts a contractile effect on rat aorta, and this effect is regulated differently depending on the site of application.

Effect of brain ischemia and reperfusion on the localization of phosphorylated eukaryotic initiation factor 2 alpha

Postischemic brain reperfusion is associated with a substantial and long-lasting reduction of protein synthesis in selectively vulnerable neurons. Because the overall translation initiation rate is typically regulated by altering the phosphorylation of serine 51 on the alpha-subunit of eukaryotic initiation factor 2 (eIF-2 alpha), we used an antibody specific to phosphorylated eIF-2 alpha [eIF-2(alpha P)] to study the regional and cellular distribution of eIF-2(alpha P) in normal, ischemic, and reperfused rat brains. Western blots of brain postmitochondrial supernatants revealed that approximately 1% of all eIF-2 alpha is phosphorylated in controls, eIF-2(alpha P) is not reduced by up to 30 minutes of ischemia, and eIF-2(alpha P) is increased approximately 20-fold after 10 and 90 minutes of reperfusion. Immunohistochemistry shows localization of eIF-2(alpha P) to astrocytes in normal brains, a massive increase in eIF-2(alpha P) in the cytoplasm of neurons within the first 10 minutes of reperfusion, accumulation of eIF-2(alpha P) in the nuclei of selectively vulnerable neurons after 1 hour of reperfusion, and morphology suggesting pyknosis or apoptosis in neuronal nuclei that continue to display eIF-2(alpha P) after 4 hours of reperfusion. These observations, together with the fact that eIF-2(alpha P) inhibits translation initiation, make a compelling case that eIF-2(alpha P) is responsible for reperfusion-induced inhibition of protein synthesis in vulnerable neurons.

Muscarinic regulation of phospholipase D and its role in arachidonic acid release in rat submandibular acinar cells

The characteristics of muscarinic cholinergic-induced phospholipase D (PLD) activation, and the involvement of the enzyme in the release of arachidonic acid were examined in rat submandibular acinar cells. Carbachol produced a dose-related activation of PLD to around fivefold control values at 100 microM agonist concentration. This was associated with the appearance of free choline, phosphatidic acid and arachidonic acid, indicating that the PLD substrate was phosphatidylcholine. The response to carbachol was inhibited by 60% by U73122, a blocker of a phospholipase C (PLC) specific to phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate [PtdIns(4,5)P2], suggesting that the cleavage of phosphatidylcholine by PLD was, at least in part, secondary to agonist-coupled hydrolysis of PtdIns(4,5)P2 by PLC. Consistent with this, PLD was also activated to levels comparable to those induced by carbachol, by the phorbol ester, 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA), and the Ca2+ mobilizer, thapsigargin, two agents that respectively mimic the activation of protein kinase C (PKC) by diacylglycerol and the elevation of cytosolic Ca2+ by inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate [Ins(1,4,5)P3] in the phosphoinositide effect. The cell-permeant Ca2+ chelator 1,2-bis-(O-aminophenoxy)-ethane-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid, tetraacetoxymethyl ester (BAPTA/AM) abolished the thapsigargin-induced activation of PLD and inhibited the responses of PLD to carbachol and TPA by 60%. The PKC inhibitor, Ro-31-8220, also inhibited the activation of PLD by carbacol and TPA to a level of approximately double control values, but had no effect on the thapsigargin-induced elevation of PLD. A role for both the PKC-associated and Ca(2+)-mobilizing arms of the PtdIns(4,5)P2-PLC pathway in PLD regulation is thus suggested. Pretreatment of cells with the phosphatidate phosphohydrolase blocker, propranolol, significantly enhanced the carbachol-induced elevation of phosphatidic acid, but decreased agonist-stimulated production of diacylglycerol and arachidonic acid, indicating that phosphatidlycholine was the likely source of arachidonic acid. We therefore propose that, in submandibular mucous acinar cells, muscarinic activation of the PtdIns(4,5)P2-PLC pathway regulates phosphatidylcholine-specific PLD through both the PKC- and Ca(2+)-mobilizing arms of the phosphoinositide response, and that diacylglycerol, derived from phosphatidylcholine via phosphatidic acid, is a source of free arachidonic acid.