Indexing response to intervention: a longitudinal study of reading risk from kindergarten through third grade

Measuring Instructional Interactions During Reading Instruction for Students Receiving Intervention in Middle School

More than two-thirds of middle school students do not read proficiently. Research has shown that targeted interventions using explicit instruction methods can improve reading outcomes for struggling readers. A central feature of explicit instruction is the systematic implementation of instructional interactions, but it is not clear what specific instructional interaction practices lead to stronger outcomes for middle school readers. This study used a regression discontinuity design to compare the frequency and impact of instructional interactions experienced by eighth-grade students who received a targeted reading intervention (n = 1,461) with those who did not (n = 4,292). Results indicated that students who received intervention experienced far more instructional interactions with their teachers than did students who did not. However, the association between rates of interaction and student need in the intervention group was minimal, and the relationship between the rate of instructional interactions and reading growth was mixed. Implications for intervening with struggling students in the middle grades are discussed.

Reading Comprehension of Chinese-Speaking Children With Hearing Loss: The Roles of Metalinguistic Awareness and Vocabulary Knowledge

PURPOSE

This study aims to explore the contributions of phonological awareness (PA) and morphological awareness (MA) to the reading comprehension skills of Chinese-speaking children with hearing loss (HL) and examine the possible mediation effect of vocabulary knowledge on the relationships of PA and MA with their reading comprehension.

METHOD

The participants were 28 Chinese-speaking children with HL, who were followed from Grade 1 through Grade 2. They were administered a series of tests that measured their PA and MA at the beginning of Grade 1, vocabulary knowledge at the end of Grade 1, and reading comprehension at the end of Grade 2.

RESULTS

MA significantly accounted for additional variance in reading comprehension beyond the effect of PA but not vice versa. Both PA and MA contributed uniquely to vocabulary knowledge, which completely mediated the relationships of PA and MA with reading comprehension.

CONCLUSIONS

PA and MA are both essential to the development of vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension in Chinese-speaking children with HL; however, MA seems to be more important than PA in their reading comprehension. PA and MA significantly affect children's reading comprehension through their influence on vocabulary knowledge. This study has replicated previous evidence on the importance of PA, MA, and vocabulary knowledge in the reading comprehension of children with typical hearing, and has extended its significance to children with HL. In addition, the findings have the potential to inform educational practitioners regarding the importance of teaching essential reading skills to Chinese-speaking children with HL.

Computer-Based Development of Reading Skills to Reduce Dropout in Uncertain Times

An adequate level of reading comprehension is a prerequisite for successful learning. Numerous studies have shown that without a solid foundation, there can be severe difficulties in later learning and that failure in the first years of schooling can determine attitudes to learning. In the present study, we present the effect size of an online game-based training program implemented on eDia. The primary goals of the development program are to develop fluency in reading and reading comprehension in Grades 3−4. The content of the program has been developed in accordance with the national core curriculum and the textbooks based on it. Therefore, it can be integrated into both classroom-based lessons and extracurricular activities outside of class. The quasiexperimental research involved 276 students. Propensity score matching was used in examining the effect size of the development program to increase the validity of the results. Through the training program, the development of students in the intervention group accelerated greatly (d = .51), which proved to be even higher in the lowest and average skill groups (d1 = 1.81; d2 = .92) as well as in the disadvantaged student group (d = .72). Latent-change analyses confirmed the sensitivity, relevance, and importance of developing comprehension at 9−10 years of age and the generalizability of the results (χ2 = 421.5; df = 272; p < .05; CFI = .950; TLI = .945; RMSEA = .045 (CI: .036, .153). The study provided evidence that a well-designed online training program is suitable for developing comprehension and overcoming disadvantages, even without the presence of the teacher outside the classroom.

Predicting Risk for Comorbid Reading and Mathematics Disability Using Fluency-Based Screening Assessments

The first purpose of this study was to examine the prevalence of risk for comorbid reading and mathematics disabilities (RMD) at start of first grade, when measured in a representative sample of 3,062 students with first-grade fluency measures (word reading; computation). The second purpose was to examine the utility of these measures for predicting RMD status within a sample of 577 students when RMD status was assessed at the end of second grade in terms of reading and math accuracy. When set at or below the 16^th percentile, first-grade risk for RMD was two times more common than chance; at or below the 7^th percentile, it was five times more common. Logistic regression showed that the two first-grade fluency measures accurately distinguished students with and without RMD in second grade; however, when cut scores were set to capture 85% of students with RMD, false positives were high. Overall, the results provide support for the use of fluency measures as an initial gating procedure in first grade, but additional gating steps appear necessary in the screening process to reduce false positives.

A cluster randomized controlled trial of brief follow-up practice sessions on intervention maintenance

Despite considerable knowledge of the factors that influence initial intervention response, little is known about how to sustain successful intervention response over time. The current study examined spring literacy outcomes for kindergarten (n = 177), second (n = 149), and third grade students (n = 204) who successfully exited an evidence-based tutoring program during the fall semester. Successful responders in kindergarten, second, and third grade were randomly assigned by school to receive either no follow-up support or access to a once-weekly oral practice session. Results were mixed across grades and outcomes, but in kindergarten and third grade, treatment corresponded to an approximately 15% increased likelihood of meeting year-end benchmarks on targeted literacy skills. Findings are discussed in the context of suggestions for higher-quality longitudinal research designs of educational interventions.

Multitiered Systems of Support, Adaptive Interventions, and SMART Designs

This article introduces the special section on adaptive interventions and sequential multiple-assignment randomized trial (SMART) research designs. In addition to describing the two accompanying articles, we discuss features of adaptive interventions (AIs) and describe the use of SMART design to optimize AIs in the context of multitiered systems of support (MTSS) and integrated MTSS. AI is a treatment delivery model that explicitly specifies how information about individuals should be used to decide which treatment to provide in practice. Principles that apply to the design of AIs may help to more clearly operationalize MTSS-based programs, improve their implementation in school settings, and increase their efficacy when used according to evidence-based decision rules. A SMART is a research design for developing and optimizing MTSS-based programs. We provide a running example of a SMART design to optimize an MTSS-aligned AI that integrates academic and behavioral interventions.

Brain-behavior dynamics between the left fusiform and reading

The visual word form area (VWFA) plays a significant role in the development of reading skills. However, the developmental course and anatomical properties of the VWFA have only limitedly been investigated. The aim of the current longitudinal MRI study was to investigate dynamic, bidirectional relations between reading, and the structure of the left fusiform gyrus at the early-to-advanced reading stage. More specifically, by means of bivariate correlations and a cross-lagged panel model (CLPM), the interrelations between the size of the left fusiform gyrus and reading skills (an average score of a word and pseudo-word reading task) were studied in a longitudinal cohort of 43 Flemish children (29M, 14F) with variable reading skills in grade 2 (the early stage of reading) and grade 5 (the advanced stage of reading) of primary school. Results revealed that better reading skills at grade 2 lead to a larger size of the left fusiform gyrus at grade 5, whereas there are no directional effects between the size of the left fusiform gyrus at grade 2 and reading skills at grade 5. Hence, according to our results, there is behavior-driven brain plasticity and no brain-driven reading change between the early and advanced stage of reading. Together with pre-reading brain studies showing predictive relations to later reading scores, our results suggest that the direction of brain-behavioral influences changes throughout the course of reading development.

A Survey of Assessment and Additional Teaching Support in Irish Immersion Education

This study investigates the assessment methods used in Irish immersion schools to identify students for additional teaching support. An overview is provided of the percentage of students receiving additional teaching support in this context and whether there is a higher rate of students accessing additional teaching support in Irish immersion schools than English-medium schools. The challenges of assessment through Irish as a second language are evaluated. In addition, this study investigates the language used by educational professionals when assessing and/or providing interventions for these students. A quantitative research approach was adopted for this investigation, with a random stratified sample of 20% (N = 29) of Irish immersion schools in the Republic of Ireland completing an online questionnaire. SPSS was used to analyse the data. The findings of the present research contribute to the limited body of knowledge available on the types of assessment used in immersion education to identify students for additional teaching support. These findings are significant as there has been limited research undertaken on this aspect in immersion education and the findings of this study may have implications for immersion education contexts in other countries.

Assessing Foundational Reading Skills in Kindergarten: A Curriculum-Based Measurement in Spanish

Early identification of learning difficulties is a critical component of the Response to Intervention (RtI) model. In kindergarten, the screening of foundational reading skills can provide a data-based guideline for identifying students requiring a more intensive response-based intervention before starting elementary school. This study examines the classification accuracy and best predictors of a set of Spanish curriculum-based measures administered during kindergarten. The study's sample included 189 students tested in the fall, winter, and spring. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis was conducted. The composite score of the curriculum-based measurement (CBM) revealed area under the ROC curve (AUC) values of 0.83, 0.97, and 0.94 in the fall, winter, and spring, respectively. Phonemic awareness and letter-sound knowledge were the only isolated measures that demonstrated excellent AUC values throughout kindergarten. Logistic regression models showed that, when entered simultaneously, all measures were significant predictors of reading risk at some moment of the school year.

Longitudinal outcomes of an individualized and intensive reading intervention for third grade students

Early intervention is known to reduce reading disabilities; however, treatment response is variable, and some students have persistent deficits that require intensive supports. This study examined the immediate and 1-year outcomes of an individualized and intensive reading program for third grade students, which was delivered throughout the school day for an average of 189 hr of instruction over 3 months. These students' performances were compared with two comparison groups, including poor readers who received small group supports and good readers who did not have additional reading instruction. The intensive group showed an improvement in word recognition and decoding fluency immediately after the program and 1 year later, and there was a decrease in significant reading impairments from 62% before intervention to 35% at follow-up. Furthermore, baseline reading, spelling, phonological awareness, and rapid naming skills were predictive of persistent reading deficits at a later time point. Although improvements in reading skills were shown, a significant gap between poor and good readers persisted in the third and fourth grades. This study illustrates the importance of a tertiary intensive reading program, but also the need for continuing supports.

Building Word Knowledge, Learning Strategies, and Metacognition with the Word-Knowledge E-Book

Many children fail to comprehend what they read because they do not monitor their understanding, which requires making accurate judgements of what they know and then employing repair strategies when comprehension fails. Relying on research from learning science and cognitive and developmental psychology, we developed the Word Knowledge e-Book (WKe-Book) to improve children's calibration of their word knowledge, strategy use, and word knowledge overall; skills which are associated with reading comprehension. The WKe-Book, which is read on a tablet computer, is a choose-your-own adventure book where choices require choosing between two rare words (e.g., cogitate vs. procrastinate). Depending on the word chosen, the story follows a different plot. There are also embedded comprehension questions where students receive immediate feedback with consequences for incorrect answers, such as being sent back to reread a few pages. In a randomized controlled trial, we tested whether students (N = 603 in 25 third through fifth grade classrooms in Arizona in the US) reading the WKe-Book would demonstrate improved word knowledge, strategy use, and word knowledge calibration. Classrooms were randomly assigned to read the WKe-Book immediately (treatment) or later (delayed-treatment control), and within classrooms, students were randomly assigned to either participate in a 15-minute weekly book club (book club treatment) or to read the WKe-Book independently with no book club (no book club control). Results revealed a significant treatment effect of the WKe-Book on students' word knowledge, word knowledge calibration, and strategy use, which predicted student performance on standardized reading comprehension and vocabulary measures. The effects were greater for students who participated in weekly book clubs compared to students in the no book club control. These findings suggest that the affordances offered by technology, which are unavailable in paper-based books, can support students' development of metacognition, including word knowledge calibration, strategy use, and word learning skills.

An examination of student reading outcomes following tier II exit decisions

The current study examined reading skills at two distal time-points for 6828 students who received support from a tier II reading intervention program in the 2015 and 2016 school years. The first follow-up assessment occurred at the end of the year in which intervention was provided and the second assessment occurred at the beginning of the next year. Multilevel models were fit to the data to predict the log odds that a student would meet spring and fall reading benchmarks depending on a variety of student- and school-level predictors. Of most interest was the probability of future success as a function of whether students met intervention exit criteria, defined as consistent grade-level performance on a progress monitoring measure. Meeting intervention exit criteria was a statistically and practically significant predictor of scoring above the spring and fall benchmark the following school year. Yet despite improved outcomes relative to students not exited from the intervention, many students who met exit criteria due to grade-level performance failed to meet spring and fall benchmarks. The proportion of students meeting state-defined proficiency criteria, duration of intervention, and proportion of students receiving free or reduced lunch at the school-level did not influence the association between meeting exit criteria and scoring above benchmark at either screening period. Results suggest that future research is needed to evaluate and guide "downward movement" in an RtI model (i.e., ensuring gains made during tier II intervention are maintained after that support is removed).

Current Evidence on the Effects of Intensive Early Reading Interventions

Many students at risk for or identified with reading disabilities need intensive reading interventions. This meta-analysis provides an update to the Wanzek and Vaughn synthesis on intensive early reading interventions. Effects from 25 reading intervention studies are analyzed to examine the overall effect of intensive early reading interventions as well as relationships between intervention and student characteristics related to outcomes. The weighted mean effect size (ES) estimate (ES = 0.39), with a mean effect size adjusted for publication bias (ES = 0.28), both significantly different from zero, suggested intensive early reading interventions resulted in positive outcomes for early struggling readers in kindergarten through third grades. There was no statistically significant or meaningful heterogeneity in the study-wise effect sizes. Exploratory examination of time in intervention, instructional group size, initial reading achievement, and date of publication are provided.

Meta-analysis of targeted small-group reading interventions

Small-group reading interventions are commonly used in schools but the components that make them effective are still debated or unknown. The current study meta-analyzed 26 small-group reading intervention studies that resulted in 27 effect sizes. Findings suggested a moderate overall effect for small-group reading interventions (weighted g=0.54). Interventions were more effective if they were targeted to a specific skill (g=0.65), then as part of a comprehensive intervention program that addressed multiple skills (g=0.35). There was a small correlation between intervention effects and group size (r=0.21) and duration (r=0.11). Small-group interventions led to a larger median effect size (g=0.64) for elementary-aged students than for those in middle or high school (g=0.20), but the two confidence intervals overlapped. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Word decoding development in incremental phonics instruction in a transparent orthography

The present longitudinal study aimed to investigate the development of word decoding skills during incremental phonics instruction in Dutch as a transparent orthography. A representative sample of 973 Dutch children in the first grade (M_age  = 6;1, SD = 0;5) was exposed to incremental subsets of Dutch grapheme-phoneme correspondences during 6 consecutive blocks of 3 weeks of phonics instruction. Children's accuracy and efficiency of curriculum embedded word decoding were assessed after each incremental block, followed by a standardized word decoding measurement. Precursor measures of rapid naming, short-term memory, vocabulary, phonological awareness, and letter knowledge were assessed by the end of kindergarten and subsequently related to the word decoding efficiency in the first grade. The results showed that from the very beginning, children attained ceiling levels of decoding accuracy, whereas their efficiency scores increased despite the incremental character of the consecutive decoding assessments embedded in the curriculum. Structural equation modelling demonstrated high stability of the individual differences assessed by word decoding efficiency during phonics instruction during the first 5 months of the first grade. Curriculum embedded word decoding was highly related to standardized word decoding after phonics instruction was completed. Finally, early literacy and lexical retrieval, and to a lesser extent verbal and visual short term memory, predicted the first fundamental processes of mastering word decoding skills.

Advancing Stage 2 Research on Measures for Monitoring Kindergarten Reading Progress

Although several measures exist for frequently monitoring early reading progress, little research has specifically investigated their technical properties when administered on a frequent basis with kindergarten students. In this study, kindergarten students ( N = 137) of whom the majority was receiving supplemental intervention for reading skills were monitored using Letter Sound Fluency, Phoneme Segmentation Fluency, Word Reading Fluency, Nonsense Word Fluency, Highly Decodable Passages, and Spelling on a biweekly basis between February and May. Acceptable reliability was observed for all measures. Analyses of slope validity using latent growth models, latent change score models, and slope differences according to level of year-end achievement indicated that the relation of slope to overall reading skills varied across the measures. A suggested approach to kindergarten students' reading progress is offered that includes Letter Sound Fluency and a measure of word-reading skills to provide a comprehensive picture of student growth toward important year-end reading outcomes.

Does a Dynamic Test of Phonological Awareness Predict Early Reading Difficulties?

A few studies have indicated that dynamic measures of phonological awareness may contribute uniquely to the prediction of early reading development. However, standard control measures have been few and limited by floor effects, thus limiting their predictive value. The purpose of the present study was to examine the predictive value of a dynamic test of phonological awareness while controlling for both letter knowledge and standard phonological awareness using measures with no floor effect. We administered a dynamic test of phonological awareness along with traditional tests of phonological awareness and letter knowledge to 160 children in the fall of kindergarten. Reading outcomes were studied at three test points: at the end of kindergarten, in the first half of Grade 1, and at the end of Grade 1. The results indicated that the dynamic test of phonological awareness contributed significantly to the prediction of children's reading development in kindergarten and the first half of Grade 1 after control for static phonological awareness and letter knowledge. However, the unique prediction value of the dynamic test of phonological awareness did not extend to the end of Grade 1.

Consequences of Misspecifying Levels of Variance in Cross-Classified Longitudinal Data Structures

The purpose of this study was to determine if modeling school and classroom effects was necessary in estimating passage reading growth across elementary grades. Longitudinal data from 8367 students in 2989 classrooms in 202 Reading First schools were used in this study and were obtained from the Progress Monitoring and Reporting Network maintained by the Florida Center for Reading Research. Oral reading fluency (ORF) was assessed four times per school year. Five growth models with varying levels of data (student, classroom, and school) were estimated in order to determine which structures were necessary to correctly partition variance and accurately estimate standard errors for growth parameters. Because the results illustrate that not modeling higher-level clustering inflated lower-level variance estimates and in some cases led to biased standard errors, the authors recommend the practice of including classroom cross-classification and school nesting when predicting longitudinal student outcomes.

Early response-to-intervention measures and criteria as predictors of reading disability in the beginning of third grade

We explored the usefulness of first and second grade reading measures and responsiveness criteria collected within a response-to-intervention (RtI) framework for predicting reading disability (RD) in third grade. We used existing data from 387 linguistically diverse students who had participated in a longitudinal RtI study. Model-based predictors of RD were analyzed using logistic regression; isolated measure/criteria combinations for predicting RD were analyzed using classification analysis. Models yielded superior classification rates compared to single measure approaches and did not systematically misclassify English learners. However, particular first and second grade measure/criteria combinations also showed promise as isolated predictors of RD in word reading/text fluency. Model-based approaches were required for acceptable classification of students with RD in comprehension. Although the former finding is promising for early identification of students in need of more intensive instruction in lexical or fluency-based skills, the latter finding reaffirms literature attesting to the complexity of RD in comprehension and difficulty of predicting deficits using early measures of reading, which primarily assess word reading skill. Results replicated well with an independent sample, thus enhancing confidence in study conclusions. Implications regarding the use of RtI for predicting RD are discussed.

Reading component skills in dyslexia: word recognition, comprehension and processing speed

The cognitive model of reading comprehension (RC) posits that RC is a result of the interaction between decoding and linguistic comprehension. Recently, the notion of decoding skill was expanded to include word recognition. In addition, some studies suggest that other skills could be integrated into this model, like processing speed, and have consistently indicated that this skill influences and is an important predictor of the main components of the model, such as vocabulary for comprehension and phonological awareness of word recognition. The following study evaluated the components of the RC model and predictive skills in children and adolescents with dyslexia. 40 children and adolescents (8-13 years) were divided in a Dyslexic Group (DG; 18 children, MA = 10.78, SD = 1.66) and control group (CG 22 children, MA = 10.59, SD = 1.86). All were students from the 2nd to 8th grade of elementary school and groups were equivalent in school grade, age, gender, and IQ. Oral and RC, word recognition, processing speed, picture naming, receptive vocabulary, and phonological awareness were assessed. There were no group differences regarding the accuracy in oral and RC, phonological awareness, naming, and vocabulary scores. DG performed worse than the CG in word recognition (general score and orthographic confusion items) and were slower in naming. Results corroborated the literature regarding word recognition and processing speed deficits in dyslexia. However, dyslexics can achieve normal scores on RC test. Data supports the importance of delimitation of different reading strategies embedded in the word recognition component. The role of processing speed in reading problems remain unclear.

School-readiness profiles of children with language impairment: linkages to home and classroom experiences

BACKGROUND

This study represents an effort to advance our understanding of the nature of school readiness among children with language impairment (LI), a population of children acknowledged to be at risk of poor academic achievement. The academic, social-emotional, and behavioural competencies with which children arrive at kindergarten affect the nature of their future educational experiences, and their overall academic achievement.

AIMS

To examine whether there are reliable profiles that characterize children with LI just prior to kindergarten entrance, and the extent to which profile membership is associated with characteristics of children's homes and preschool experiences. Questions addressed were twofold: (1) To what extent are there reliable profiles of children with LI with respect to their school readiness? (2) To what extent is children's profile membership associated with characteristics of their homes and preschool classrooms?

METHODS & PROCEDURES

Participants were 136 children with LI from early childhood special education classrooms. We utilized latent class analysis (LCA) to classify individuals into profiles based on individual responses on school readiness measures. We then used multilevel hierarchical generalized linear models to examine the relations between profile membership and children's home/classroom experiences.

OUTCOMES & RESULTS

LCA analyses revealed that a four-profile solution was the most appropriate fit for the data and that classroom experiences were predictive of these profiles, such that children in classrooms with more instructional/emotional support were more likely to be placed in profiles characterized by higher school readiness skills.

CONCLUSIONS & IMPLICATIONS

These results suggest that the school readiness profiles of young children with LI are associated with the quality of children's classroom experiences, and that high-quality classroom experiences can be influential for ensuring that young children with LI arrive in kindergarten ready to learn.

Access to a responsiveness to intervention model: does beginning intervention in kindergarten matter?

In this study, we tested the outcomes of access to a response to intervention (RtI) model in kindergarten or in first grade on end-of-Grade-2 reading achievement and placement in special education. Across five schools, 214 students who began having access to Tier 2 intervention in kindergarten or first grade were compared in Grades 1 and 2 with 208 cohort peers who were average readers and 102 historical control condition second grade poor readers who did not receive Tier 2 intervention. Results demonstrated significant effects on reading achievement for access to RtI in kindergarten at the end of first grade (effects averaged 0.48), but not in second grade, except for students who were English language learners (ELLs), who showed an advantage through the end of second grade. Students with access to RtI overall had significantly higher outcomes at the end of Grade 2 than students in the historical control, with no differences resulting from ELL status. No significant difference in the proportion of students placed in special education was noted; however, a greater proportion of the students found eligible as with learning disabilities had poor reading scores if they were placed after participating in RtI.

Monitoring early first-grade reading progress: a comparison of two measures

This study compared the validity of progress monitoring slope of nonsense word fluency (NWF) and word identification fluency (WIF) with early first-grade readers. Students (N = 80) considered to be at risk for reading difficulty were monitored with NWF and WIF on a 1-2 week basis across 11 weeks. Reading skills at the end of first grade were assessed using measures of passage reading fluency, real and pseudoword reading efficiency, and basic comprehension. Latent growth models indicated that although slope on both measures significantly predicted year-end reading skills, models including WIF accounted for more variance in spring reading skills than NWF, and WIF slope was more strongly associated with reading outcomes than NWF slope. Analyses of student growth plots suggested that WIF slope was more positively associated with later reading skills and discriminated more clearly between students according to successful or unsuccessful year-end reading outcomes. Although both measures may be used to monitor reading growth of at-risk students in early first grade, WIF may provide a clearer index of reading growth. Implications for data-based decision-making are discussed.

Using Arabic word identification fluency to monitor first-grade reading progress

This study examined the applicability, reliability and validity of the Arabic version of the curriculum-based measurement word identification fluency (CBM WIF) measure in Jordanian students. A sample of 75 first-grade students, 50 average readers and 25 with reading difficulties, were recruited from two public primary schools. Results indicated that the CBM WIF is a reliable, valid and cost-effective measure. A 15-week trial demonstrated the effectiveness of using CBM WIF with the first-grade students. In addition, CBM WIF was a good predictor of grade point average in the native language. Moreover, students who were struggling with reading scored significantly lower on CBM WIF probes than did average readers. Results suggest that the CBM WIF measures may be useful for evaluating and predicting reading performance in Arabic.

Intensive Reading Remediation in Grade 2 or 3: Are There Effects a Decade Later?

Despite data supporting the benefits of early reading interventions, there has been little evaluation of the long-term educational impact of these interventions, with most follow-up studies lasting less than two years (Suggate, 2010). This study evaluated reading outcomes more than a decade after the completion of an 8-month reading intervention using a randomized design with second and third graders selected on the basis of poor word-level skills (Blachman et al., 2004). Fifty-eight (84%) of the original 69 participants took part in the study. The treatment group demonstrated a moderate to small effect size advantage on reading and spelling measures over the comparison group. There were statistically significant differences with moderate effect sizes between treatment and comparison groups on standardized measures of word recognition (i.e., Woodcock Basic Skills Cluster, d = 0.53; Woodcock Word Identification, d = 0.62), the primary, but not exclusive, focus of the intervention. Statistical tests on other reading and spelling measures did not reach thresholds for statistical significance. Patterns in the data related to other educational outcomes, such as high school completion, favored the treatment participants, although differences were not significant.

Effects of Tier 3 Intervention for Students With Persistent Reading Difficulties and Characteristics of Inadequate Responders

This article describes a randomized controlled trial conducted to evaluate the effects of an intensive, individualized, Tier 3 reading intervention for second grade students who had previously experienced inadequate response to quality first grade classroom reading instruction (Tier 1) and supplemental small-group intervention (Tier 2). Also evaluated were cognitive characteristics of students with inadequate response to intensive Tier 3 intervention. Students were randomized to receive the research intervention (N = 47) or the instruction and intervention typically provided in their schools (N = 25). Results indicated that students who received the research intervention made significantly better growth than those who received typical school instruction on measures of word identification, phonemic decoding, and word reading fluency and on a measure of sentence- and paragraph-level reading comprehension. Treatment effects were smaller and not statistically significant on phonemic decoding efficiency, text reading fluency, and reading comprehension in extended text. Effect sizes for all outcomes except oral reading fluency met criteria for substantive importance; however, many of the students in the intervention continued to struggle. An evaluation of cognitive profiles of adequate and inadequate responders was consistent with a continuum of severity (as opposed to qualitative differences), showing greater language and reading impairment prior to the intervention in students who were inadequate responders.

Caracterização da leitura e escrita

OBJETIVO: caracterizar o desempenho escolar da leitura e escrita em escolares matriculados no terceiro ano do Ensino Fundamental MÉTODO: participaram deste estudo 160 crianças com idades entre 8 e 9 anos (média 8 anos e 7 meses). Para coleta dos dados foi utilizado o instrumento de medida: Manual de Desempenho Escolar - Análise da Leitura e Escrita em Séries Iniciais do Ensino Fundamental - MDE (ROSA NETO, SANTOS, TORO, 2010). Para análise e interpretação dos dados foram utilizados os programas Excel e SPSS for Windows 17.0. RESULTADOS: verificou-se que os escolares obtiveram uma média de 75,88% de acertos no desempenho geral do MDE, e entre as médias da pontuação nas categorias do manual, a escrita apresentou a porcentagem mais baixa, 72,10% de acertos. CONCLUSÃO: constatou-se que 40% (n= 64) da amostra estão plenamente alfabetizadas, ou seja, capazes de ler com fluência e compreender globalmente o sentido do texto, localizar informações, fazer inferências e formular hipóteses sobre o conteúdo do texto. Na escrita, são capazes de escrever de forma legível e compreensível um pequeno texto. No entanto, 50% (n=80) dos alunos avaliados se encontram ainda no processo de aprendizado da leitura e escrita e 10% (n=16) das crianças mostrou desempenho abaixo do esperado para o nível de escolaridade em que se encontravam, ou seja, no estágio inicial da alfabetização.

Early Screening for Risk of Reading Disabilities: Recommendations for a Four-Step Screening System

Response-to-intervention (RTI) models incorporate a screening process to identify students who appear to be at risk for learning disabilities (LDs). The purpose of this position article is to incorporate what is known about screening into a flexible, yet comprehensive screening system to help school psychologists and other school administrators in establishing school-specific screening procedures. The authors begin by discussing past. research on screening for reading disabilities (RDs) within the RTI framework. Then, they propose a four-step screening system advocating a short screener (Step I), progress monitoring (Step 2), follow-up testing (Step 3), and ongoing revision of procedures and cut scores (Step 4). Their goal is to improve screening within RTI systems with practical procedures to permit schools to implement state-of-the-art screening batteries that accurately and efficiently distinguish students who are at high risk for RD.

Response to intervention for reading difficulties in the primary grades: some answers and lingering questions

The purpose of this article is to describe the current research base and identify research needs related to response to intervention (RTI) frameworks in primary-grade reading. Research is reviewed on early reading instruction and intervention, the implementation of multitiered reading interventions, and the determination of intervention responsiveness. Areas identified as in need of research include (a) the conditions under which early reading interventions are most effective in RTI contexts, (b) multitiered interventions for students with limited English proficiency, (c) reading instruction for students who make limited progress in Tier 3 intensive interventions, (d) criteria for determining intervention responsiveness, and (e) the effects of fully implemented RTI frameworks. Although RTI research may be expensive and difficult to implement, it may contribute to improved reading outcomes for many students who are otherwise at risk of serious negative life consequences.

Prevalence and Nature of Late-Emerging Poor Readers

Some children demonstrate adequate or better reading achievement in early school grades, but fall significantly behind their peers in later grades. These children are often referred to as late-emerging poor readers. In this study, we investigated the prevalence and heterogeneity of these poor readers. We also examined the early language and nonverbal cognitive abilities of late-emerging poor readers. Participants were 493 children who were a subsample from an epidemiological study of language impairments in school-age children. In kindergarten, children were administered a battery of language, early literacy, and nonverbal cognitive measures. Word reading and reading comprehension achievement was assessed in second, fourth, eighth, and tenth grades. Latent transition analysis was used to model changes in reading classification (good vs. poor reader) across grades. Population estimates revealed that 13.4% percent of children could be classified as late-emerging poor readers. These children could be divided into those with problems in comprehension alone (52%), word reading alone (36%), or both (12%). Further results indicated that late-emerging poor readers often had a history of language and/or nonverbal cognitive impairments in kindergarten. Subtypes of poor readers also differed significantly in their profiles of language, early literacy, and nonverbal cognitive abilities in kindergarten. Results are discussed in terms of causal factors and implications for early identification.

The use of a dynamic screening of phonological awareness to predict risk for reading disabilities in kindergarten children

This study examined the usefulness and predictive validity of a dynamic screening of phonological awareness in two samples of kindergarten children. In one sample (n = 90), the predictive validity of the dynamic assessment was compared to a static version of the same screening measure. In the second sample (n = 96), the dynamic screening measure was compared to a commonly used screening tool, Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills Initial Sound Fluency. Results showed that the dynamic screening measure uniquely predicted end-of-year reading achievement and outcomes in both samples. These results provide preliminary support for the usefulness of a dynamic screening measure of phonological awareness for kindergarten students.

Eficácia do treinamento de habilidades fonológicas em crianças de risco para dislexia

OBJETIVOS: identificar os sinais da dislexia em escolares de 1ª série e verificar a eficácia do programa de treinamento fonológico em crianças de risco para a dislexia que freqüentam a 1ª série escolar e investigar dentre as crianças de risco que não apresentaram melhora após o treinamento se há presença do quadro de dislexia por meio de diagnóstico interdisciplinar. MÉTODO: participaram deste estudo 30 crianças de 1ª série de ensino público, de ambos os gêneros, na faixa etária de 6 a 7 anos de idade. Neste estudo foi realizada a adaptação brasileira da pesquisa sobre treinamento de habilidades fonológicas composta de pré-testagem, intervenção e pós-testagem. Em situação de pré e pós-testagem, todas as crianças foram submetidas à aplicação do teste para a identificação precoce dos problemas de leitura e aquelas que apresentaram desempenho inferior a 51% das provas do teste foram divididas em Grupo I (GI): composto por 13 crianças submetidas ao programa de treinamento; e em Grupo II (GII): composto por 17 crianças não submetidas ao programa de treinamento. RESULTADOS: os resultados deste estudo revelaram diferenças estatisticamente significantes, evidenciando que das 13 crianças submetidas ao programa, 11 apresentaram melhor desempenho em situação de pós-testagem em relação à pré-testagem. Apenas 2 crianças não responderam à intervenção proposta, sendo submetidas à avaliação interdisciplinar. CONCLUSÃO: a realização do programa de treinamento das habilidades fonológicas foi eficaz para as crianças de risco para dislexia, comprovados pela melhora das habilidades fonológicas e de leitura em situação de pós-testagem em relação à pré-testagem.

Intervenção precoce em escolares de risco para a dislexia: revisão da literatura

TEMA: intervenção precoce em escolares de risco para a dislexia. OBJETIVO: este estudo tem por objetivo geral mapear os artigos publicados sobre intervenção com escolares de risco para dislexia e, como objetivos específicos, analisar descritivamente aspectos específicos dos textos. CONCLUSÃO: as publicações na área em relação ao tema não são constantes, porém, os artigos científicos analisados evidenciam a preocupação dos pesquisadores em elaborar, desenvolver e validar instrumentos de avaliações e intervenções que contribuam para a identificação precoce da dislexia.

Treinamento de habilidades fonológicas e correspondência grafema-fonema em crianças de risco para dislexia

OBJETIVO: verificar a eficácia do programa de treinamento fonológico e correspondência grafema-fonema em crianças de risco para dislexia da 1ª série. MÉTODOS: participaram deste estudo 30 crianças de 1ª série de ensino público, de ambos os gêneros, na faixa etária de 6 a 7 anos de idade. Neste estudo foi realizada a adaptação brasileira da pesquisa sobre treinamento de habilidades fonológicas e correspondência grafema-fonema composta de pré-testagem, intervenção e pós-testagem. Em situação de pré e pós-testagem, todas as crianças foram submetidas à aplicação do teste para identificação precoce dos problemas de leitura e aquelas que apresentaram desempenho inferior a 51% das provas do teste foram divididas em Grupo I (GI): composto por 15 crianças submetidas ao programa de treinamento; e em Grupo II (GII): composto por 15 crianças não submetidas ao programa de treinamento. RESULTADOS: os resultados desse estudo revelaram diferenças estatisticamente significantes, evidenciando que das 15 crianças submetidas ao programa, apenas uma não respondeu à intervenção proposta, sendo submetida, portanto, à avaliação interdisciplinar e confirmado o diagnóstico de dislexia. CONCLUSÃO: a realização do programa de treinamento das habilidades fonológicas e correspondência grafema-fonema foi eficaz para a identificação das crianças com sinais de dislexia, comprovado pela melhora das habilidades fonológicas e leitura em situação de pós-testagem em relação à pré-testagem, evidenciando que quando é fornecida a instrução formal do princípio alfabético associado ao principio de conversão letra-som da Língua Portuguesa, as crianças que não apresentam dislexia deixam de apresentar suas manifestações com resposta à instrução formal do princípio alfabético.

The role of working memory and fluency practice on the reading comprehension of students who are dysfluent readers

The authors investigated whether practice in reading fluency had a causal influence on the relationship between working memory (WM) and text comprehension for 155 students in Grades 2 and 4 who were poor or average readers. Dysfluent readers were randomly assigned to repeated reading or continuous reading practice conditions and compared with untreated dysfluent and fluent readers on posttest measures of fluency, word identification, vocabulary, and reading comprehension. Three main findings emerged: (a) The influence of WM on text comprehension was not related to fluency training, (b) dysfluent readers in the continuous-reading condition had higher posttest scores than dysfluent readers in the other conditions on measures of text comprehension but not on vocabulary, and (c) individual differences in WM better predicted posttest comprehension performance than word-attack skills. In general, the results suggested that although continuous reading increased comprehension, fluency practice did not compensate for WM demands. The results were interpreted within a model that viewed reading comprehension processes as competing for a limited supply of WM resources that operate independent of fluency.

The Effect of Tier 2 Intervention for Phonemic Awareness in a Response-to-Intervention Model in Low-Income Preschool Classrooms

Purpose

This study assessed the effectiveness of a Tier 2 intervention that was designed to increase the phonemic awareness skills of low-income preschoolers who were enrolled in Early Reading First classrooms.

Method

Thirty-four preschoolers participated in a multiple baseline across participants treatment design. Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided twice weekly in small groups over 6 weeks by trained teachers and speech-language pathologists (SLPs).

Results

The intervention was successful for 71% of the children, as indicated by medium to large effect sizes. Comparisons between children who did and did not qualify for intervention suggest that Tier 2 intervention helped narrow the gap in beginning sound awareness that had begun to emerge before treatment. Although children receiving special education and those learning English as a second language were enrolled in the classrooms, they were not overrepresented in the group qualifying for Tier 2 intervention, and most who did qualify demonstrated a positive response to intervention.

Conclusion

In a relatively short period of time, preschoolers' phonemic awareness skills were increased through small-group Tier 2 intervention provided by teachers and SLPs. Findings indicate the potential of Tier 2 interventions to positively impact the future reading skills of children who are at risk for later reading difficulties.

Floor effects associated with universal screening and their impact on the early identification of reading disabilities

Response to intervention (RTI) holds great promise for the early identification and prevention of reading disabilities. The success of RTI rests in part on the accuracy of universal screening tools used within this framework. Despite advancements, screening instruments designed to identify children at risk for reading disabilities continue to have limited predictive validity. In this study, the authors examined a common screening instrument for the presence of floor effects and investigated the impact that these effects have on the predictive validity of the instrument. Longitudinal data (kindergarten to third grade) from a large cohort of children were used. These data included children's performance on five measures from the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) and two reading achievement outcome measures. The results showed that DIBELS measures were characterized by floor effects in their initial administrations and that these effects reduced the predictive validity of the measures. The implications of these findings for early identification are discussed.

Learning disabilities: definitions, epidemiology, diagnosis, and intervention strategies

Learning problems occur in about 5% of school-aged children. Learning disabilities are specific and life-long but present with different school problems at different ages, depending on such factors as age, medical history, family history, and intelligence quotient. Proper individualized diagnosis and treatment plans are necessary to remediate these problems and to offer adequate coping strategies. Many children who have learning problems can be classified into one of two major categories: the dyslexia group or the nonverbal learning disability group. The role of the medical professional is important to guide parents in the diagnostic and therapeutic process.