Correlates and Consequences of Exposure to Video Game Violence: Hostile Personality, Empathy, and Aggressive Behavior

Video games and Facebook addiction among Tunisian adolescents: prevalence and associated factors

OBJECTIVES

As social media and online gaming technology have developed very rapidly over the last two decades, their paired issues are of growing concern worldwide. The aim of our study was to assess the prevalence of video game and Facebook addiction and its predictive factors among Tunisian in school adolescents.

METHODS

We conducted a cross-sectional study among in school adolescents in Sousse, Tunisia, over the first academic term of the 2019-2020 school year using a self-administered questionnaire to a randomly selected representative sample of 1,353 students. The valid Arabic version of the Bergen Facebook Addiction Scale (BFAS), the Video Game Addiction Scale (GAS-7), the Beck Depression Inventory Short Form (13 items) and the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Disorders (SCARED-C) were used to assess facebook addiction disorder (FAD), internet gaming disorder (IGD), depression and anxiety respectively.

RESULTS

More than one in four pupils (26.1 %; CI 95 %: 23.8-28.4 %) were identified as problematic video game users and almost a third of participants (32.5 %; CI 95 %: 30-35 %) reported FAD. IGD was significantly associated with FAD (p<0.001). Likewise, pupils exhibiting depressive symptoms as well as those with anxiety symptoms were significantly more likely to be problematic video games and Facebook users (p<0.001 for each). Being addicted to Facebook (AOR=1.83, 95 % CI: 1.18-2.81), experiencing anxiety disorders (AOR=2.43, 95 % CI: 1.52-3.88), being male (AOR=2.51, 95 % CI: 1.95-3.23) and spending more than 4 h per day surfing the net (AOR=2.55, 95 % CI: 1.65-3.96) were the determinants of IGD in the multivariate analysis. Similarly, being addicted to video games (AOR=1.82, 95 % CI: 1.21-2.73), experiencing anxiety disorders (AOR=1.85, 95 % CI: 1.20-2.86), having experienced academic failure (AOR=1.73, 95 % CI: 1.16-2.56), and spending more than 4 h per day on social media (AOR=3.75, 95 % CI: 2.38-5.90) were the predictors of FAD.

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of problematic use of video games and Facebook is alarmingly high. Identifying risk factors can help screen high-risk adolescents. We need additional prevention measures addressing not just adolescents, but all risk factors.

Neuroimaging and behavioral evidence that violent video games exert no negative effect on human empathy for pain and emotional reactivity to violence

Influential accounts claim that violent video games (VVGs) decrease players' emotional empathy by desensitizing them to both virtual and real-life violence. However, scientific evidence for this claim is inconclusive and controversially debated. To assess the causal effect of VVGs on the behavioral and neural correlates of empathy and emotional reactivity to violence, we conducted a prospective experimental study using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). We recruited 89 male participants without prior VVG experience. Over the course of two weeks, participants played either a highly violent video game or a non-violent version of the same game. Before and after this period, participants completed an fMRI experiment with paradigms measuring their empathy for pain and emotional reactivity to violent images. Applying a Bayesian analysis approach throughout enabled us to find substantial evidence for the absence of an effect of VVGs on the behavioral and neural correlates of empathy. Moreover, participants in the VVG group were not desensitized to images of real-world violence. These results imply that short and controlled exposure to VVGs does not numb empathy nor the responses to real-world violence. We discuss the implications of our findings regarding the potential and limitations of experimental research on the causal effects of VVGs. While VVGs might not have a discernible effect on the investigated subpopulation within our carefully controlled experimental setting, our results cannot preclude that effects could be found in settings with higher ecological validity, in vulnerable subpopulations, or after more extensive VVG play.

Systematic Review of Gaming and Neuropsychological Assessment of Social Cognition

Playing video games is associated with cognitive changes and possibly psychosocial difficulties. Problematic gaming occurs upon the loss of control over videogame playing; gaming disorder is considered a behavioral addiction in the 11th version of the International Classification of Diseases. Models used to understand behavioral addictions include cognition as an essential factor in the development, maintenance, and relapse of addiction. Nevertheless, some aspects of cognition, such as social cognition, remain underexplored, despite evidence of alterations in cognitive and social function among patients with problematic gaming. This review aimed to describe the current understanding of social cognition in individuals exposed to videogames. We included all studies assessing social cognition in participants of any age with a wide range of exposure to video games (from simple use of video games (such as at least two exposures) to problematic gaming, defined according to the included study). This wide range of exposure allowed us to explore the whole process from repeated exposure to addiction. We included only studies that used neuropsychological tasks to assess social cognition. Patient-reported outcomes that could be biased by subjective self-report data were not included. The search was conducted from inception to January 2022 in three databases (PubMed, PsycINFO, and Web of Science). The systematic search identified 39 studies that assessed facial emotion processing, empathy, theory of mind, social decision-making, aggressive behavior, and moral competence. In general, results have been mixed, and a number of questions remain unanswered. Nevertheless, several studies showed cerebral changes when processing facial emotion that were linked with problematic gaming, while no link was obtained between nonproblematic gaming and empathy alterations. The influences of cooperation patterns, theory of mind, moral competence, and gaming frequency were highlighted. Finally, there was substantial heterogeneity in the population assessed and the methods used.

Short-Term Effects of Competitive Video Games on Aggression: An Event-Related Potential Study

Previous research on factors affecting video game player aggression has mainly reflected on the violent content of video games; in recent years, some researchers have focused on competitive factors in video games. However, little research has examined the sole impacts of competitive factors in video games without violent content on aggression, and the neurological processes of these effects are still unknown. The present study was the first to examine the electrophysiological characteristics of short-term competitive video game exposure and aggression. Thirty-five participants played a video game in either competitive or solo mode for 15 min, followed by an ERP experiment based on the oddball paradigm and the hot sauce paradigm to measure aggressive behavior. Results showed that playing competitive game mode was associated with faster judgment of aggressive words, larger P300 amplitudes, and selection of more chili powder than in solo mode. Mediation analysis further revealed that the P300 amplitude evoked by the aggressive words partially mediated the relationship between competitive game exposure and aggressive behavior. These findings support the general aggression model. However, this study has limitations, such as a single form of competitive game examined and single blindness, which need further improvement in future studies.

Using citation network analysis to enhance scholarship in psychological science: A case study of the human aggression literature

Researchers cannot keep up with the volume of articles being published each year. In order to develop adequate expertise in a given field of study, students and early career scientists must be strategic in what they decide to read. Here we propose using citation network analysis to characterize the literature topology of a given area. We used the human aggression literature as our example. Our citation network analysis identified 15 research communities on aggression. The five largest communities were: “media and video games”, “stress, traits and aggression”, “rumination and displaced aggression”, “role of testosterone”, and “social aggression”. We examined the growth of these research communities over time, and we used graph theoretic approaches to identify the most influential papers within each community and the “bridging” articles that linked distinct communities to one another. Finally, we also examined whether our citation network analysis would help mitigate gender bias relative to focusing on total citation counts. The percentage of articles with women first authors doubled when identifying influential articles by community structure versus citation count. Our approach of characterizing literature topologies using citation network analysis may provide a valuable resource for psychological scientists by outlining research communities and their growth over time, identifying influential papers within each community (including bridging papers), and providing opportunities to increase gender equity in the field.

Personal Risk and Protective Factors Involved in Aggressive Behavior

The study of aggression plays a prominent role in psychology and public health, because of the important adverse consequences of such behavior for victims, aggressors, and society in general. The General Aggression Model (GAM) provides a general conceptual framework for understanding the aggressive as a result of three stages: (a) inputs: personal and situational factors; (b) present internal states: affect, cognition, and arousal; and (c) outcomes: decision processes with a (non)aggressive result. The main objective of this research was to study the personal protective and risk factors most strongly associated with aggressive behavior acting at the first stage of the GAM model. A total of 282 young adult participants took part in this study. Participants were assessed for aggression levels and a set of the most relevant variables that have been associated with aggressive behavior in the previous literature. Stepwise multiple regression analysis revealed that levels of aggression were mainly associated (73.2% of the explained variance) with the following protective factors: the ability to manage emotions as a component of emotional intelligence (EI), and perspective-taking and personal distress as components of empathy, and with the following risk factors: negative and positive urgency as a component of impulsivity, fantasy as a component of empathy, negative affect, and expressive suppression of emotions. These findings provide a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying aggressive behavior and provide greater empirical value to the current theoretical models. In addition, this research can help to inform the design of more successful programs for the prevention, control, and treatment of aggressive behavior. Limitations and future lines of research are discussed.

Associations between game use and mental health in early adulthood: A nationwide study in Korea

BACKGROUND

The number of digital game users is increasing, and so is attention to digital gaming's effects on mental health. We aimed to reveal if risky (game addiction) and usual game use (non-risky) are associated with mental health in early adulthood.

METHODS

Using data from the nationwide cross-sectional Korean Epidemic Catchment Area study for psychiatric disorders, 415 participants aged 18-30 years were divided into "non-game," "usual game," and "risky game" user groups based on the previous month's game use and cut-off value of game overuse screening questionnaire. Multiple linear and logistic regressions revealed the association between game use groups, perceived mental health, and lifetime prevalence of clinical mental disorders including suicidal ideation.

RESULTS

Among the 415 participants, 167 were non-game users, 175, usual game users, and 73, risky game users. Risky game users self-reported decreased satisfaction and happiness, and a significantly higher lifetime prevalence of major depressive disorder, alcohol dependence, and suicidal ideation. Usual game users were significantly associated with higher lifetime prevalence of alcohol dependence and suicidal ideation. Self-reported happiness partially mediated between game use and lifetime suicidal ideation in risky, but not usual game users.

LIMITATIONS

This study is a cross-sectional observational study which was not possible to define the temporal relationship.

CONCLUSIONS

Both risky and usual game use are associated with mental health problems in early adulthood, indicating the need for careful mental health screening on not only risky game users but also usual game users.

The association between violent video game exposure and sub-types of school bullying in Chinese adolescents

BACKGROUND

School bullying among adolescents has been a worldwide public health issue. It has been observed that adolescents who are exposed to violent video games (VVGs) are often more aggressive. However, research on the association between violent video game exposure (VVGE) and different types of school bullying is limited in the Chinese context.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to explore whether VVGE is linked to school bullying behaviors among Chinese adolescents and to examine the relationship between different levels of violent game exposure and four sub-types (physical, verbal, relational, and cyber) of school bullying involvement.

METHODS

This was a cross-sectional study of 1,992 Chinese students (55.02% boys and 44.98% girls) with the average age of 15.84 ± 1.62 years. Sub-types of school bullying victimization and perpetration, Internet addiction, and VVGE were measured by using a self-administrated questionnaire. The association was examined by multiple logistic regression analysis, adjusting for covariates.

RESULTS

Physical, verbal, relational, and cyber school bullying victimization were reported by 18.12, 60.34, 11.75, and 12.05% of the adolescents, and physical, verbal, relational, and cyber school bullying perpetration were reported by 16.62, 54.62, 21.49, and 8.23% of them. Of the students, 1,398 (70.18%) were normal Internet users, 514 (25.80%) showed moderate Internet addictive behaviors, and 31 (1.56%) of the students showed severe Internet addictive behaviors. The prevalence of no VVGE, low-level VVGE, medium-level VVGE, and high-level of VVGE were 27.70, 24.10, 24.20, and 24.00%, respectively. The risk of physical victimization and physical perpetration significantly increased with the increasing degree of violent video game exposure (P for trend < 0.001), with the highest adjusted odds ratios (ORs) of 2.251 (95% CI 1.501-3.375) and 2.554 (95% CI 1.685-3.870), when comparing high-level VVGE with no VVGE.

CONCLUSION

These findings highlight the specific association between different sub-types of school bullying involvement and violent video game exposure. Physical school bullying prevention and intervention programs should be conducted after adolescents are exposed to violent video games.

Desensitization and Violent Video Games: Mechanisms and Evidence

Desensitization, the reduction of cognitive, emotional, and/or behavioral responses to a stimulus, is an automatic and unconscious phenomenon often experienced in everyday life. Exposure to violent media, especially violent video games, may cause desensitization to real-life violence. Desensitization to violence blocks empathy which is needed to trigger the moral reasoning process that triggers prosocial responding. Representative research was reviewed to examine links between exposure to violent video games and desensitization to violence in children and adolescents. It was concluded that exposure to violent video games increases the risk of desensitization to violence, which in turn may increase aggression and decrease prosocial behavior. Parents should be counseled to discuss the differences between real and screen violence, to encourage nonviolent problem-solving, and to provide empathy-building experiences for their children.

Empathy, Social Self-Efficacy, Problematic Internet Use, and Problematic Online Gaming Between Early and Late Adolescence

This study aims to investigate the relationship between empathy, social self-efficacy, problematic Internet use (PIU), and problematic online gaming (POG) and to evaluate how such relationship varies according to the age of the participants. A sample of 1,585 Italian students, both genders, aged 12-20 years, were divided into three groups according to the age filled in these self-report questionnaires: PIU; Game Addiction Scale for Adolescents; Interpersonal Reactivity Index; Scale of Social Self-Efficacy; Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. The results allow to confirm that in the Italian context the relationships between the examined constructs change across the three age groups considered in the study. PIU and POG, as well as prosocial behaviors and personal distress, tend to significantly decrease in late adolescence (age 18-20 years); 15-17 years adolescents reported more empathic concern compared with the other groups. PIU and POG are affected by empathy and social-self efficacy in different ways depending on age, suggesting that the two conditions have an at least partially different nature. The different components of empathy seem to play a different role in the development of either PIU or POG confirming the need to separate the components of empathy.

Violent media use and aggression: Two longitudinal network studies

Exposure to violent media has been widely linked to increased aggression. In the present research, we examined whether violent media exposure would be associated with increased aggression, which would then spread within social networks like a contagious disease. Two groups of first year psychology students completed a questionnaire three times over the course of a year, measuring their media exposure, aggression, personality, and social relations within the group. Cross-sectional analysis provided mixed results in regards to the link between violent media and aggression. Siena analysis found no evidence of homophily (i.e., participants were not more likely to be friends with others similar to themselves) nor of social influence (i.e., participant's behavior did not predict a change in their friends' behavior). However, given the relatively small sample sizes and the weak ties between participants, more work is needed to assess the spread of violent media effects.

Parsing Associations Between Dimensions of Empathy and Reactive and Proactive Aggression

The broad dimension of empathy has been shown to underlie various forms of psychopathology, most extensively studied for the externalizing spectrum of psychopathology. However, associations between subdimensions of empathy and functions of aggression remain unclear. The current study (N = 409) aimed to investigate common and specific associations between a higher-order model of aggression, comprising reactive aggression (RA) and proactive aggression (PA) factors with an overarching general aggression factor, and item-level factor analytically derived dimensions of empathy: affective/self-oriented empathy and cognitive/other-oriented empathy. Results demonstrated specific and opposing associations between dimensions of empathy and the general aggression factor, such that affective/self-oriented empathy was positively associated, and cognitive/other-oriented empathy was negatively associated with general aggression. Affective/self-oriented empathy was positively associated with RA, whereas cognitive/other-oriented empathy was negatively associated with RA and PA. Results confirm the importance of considering the multidimensionality of empathy and aggression and suggest both common and distinct pathways from empathy to aggression.

Sitting in Judgment: How Body Posture Influences Deception Detection and Gazing Behavior

Body postures can affect how we process and attend to information. Here, a novel effect of adopting an open or closed posture on the ability to detect deception was investigated. It was hypothesized that the posture adopted by judges would affect their social acuity, resulting in differences in the detection of nonverbal behavior (i.e., microexpression recognition) and the discrimination of deceptive and truthful statements. In Study 1, adopting an open posture produced higher accuracy for detecting naturalistic lies, but no difference was observed in the recognition of brief facial expressions as compared to adopting a closed posture; trait empathy was found to have an additive effect on posture, with more empathic judges having higher deception detection scores. In Study 2, with the use of an eye-tracker, posture effects on gazing behavior when judging both low-stakes and high-stakes lies were measured. Sitting in an open posture reduced judges’ average dwell times looking at senders, and in particular, the amount and length of time they focused on their hands. The findings suggest that simply shifting posture can impact judges’ attention to visual information and veracity judgments (M_g = 0.40, 95% CI (0.03, 0.78)).

Insensitive Players? A Relationship Between Violent Video Game Exposure and Recognition of Negative Emotions

An ability to accurately recognize negative emotions in others can initiate pro-social behavior and prevent anti-social actions. Thus, it remains of an interest of scholars studying effects of violent video games. While exposure to such games was linked to slower emotion recognition, the evidence regarding accuracy of emotion recognition among players of violent games is weak and inconsistent. The present research investigated the relationship between violent video game exposure (VVGE) and accuracy of negative emotion recognition. We assessed the level of self-reported VVGE in hours per day and the accuracy of the recognition using the Facial Expressions Matching Test. The results, with adolescents (Study 1; N = 67) and with adults (Study 2; N = 151), showed that VVGE was negatively related to accurate recognition of negative emotion expressions, even if controlled for age, gender, and trait empathy, but no causal direction could be assessed. In line with the violent media desensitization model, our findings suggest that higher self-reported VVGE relates to lower recognition of negative emotional expressions of other people. On the one hand, such lower recognition of negative emotions may underlie inaccurate reactions in real-life social situations. On the other hand, lower sensitivity to social cues may help players to better focus on their performance in a violent game.

Sex and Violence in the Movies: Empathy as a Moderator of the Exposure-Behavior Relationship in Adolescents

Sexual and violent media content is prevalent, and adolescents exposed to this content may be more likely to enact risky sexual and aggressive behaviors. According to the Differential Susceptibility Model, dispositional traits, such as empathy, can predict risky media exposure and moderate the relationship between exposure and behavior. A total of 2,424 US adolescents (ages 14-17) participated in an online study that measured exposure to sex, violence, and their co-occurrence from the same character in a list of movies content analyzed for sex and violence. The survey outcomes of interest included adolescent sexual behavior, aggressive behavior, and both behaviors together, as well as empathy, which was included as a moderator. The exposure to movie character behavior was matched to adolescents' survey responses. Results showed that empathy was a predictor of media exposure to sex and violence in movies, and was a moderator of the exposure-behavior relationship. The exposure-behavior relationship was moderated by empathy, such that empathy had an ameliorating effect on the exposure-behavior relationship, but did not negate it completely. This study furthers our understanding of how exposure to sexual and violent content in media, combined with individual differences, may play a role in adolescent enactment of risky behaviors.

Violent Video Games and Aggression: Stimulation or Catharsis or Both?

Effects of violent video games on aggression remain contentious despite decades of empirical investigations. Using eight-wave panel data collected from 662 South Korean adolescents (grades 4, 7, and 10) for a 4-year period (number of observations = 5,296), the current research critically tested competing hypotheses concerning the relations between violent video games and aggression. In so doing, we directly compared the results from dynamic fixed-effects (FE) regression with those from conventional contemporaneous FE regression to observe if different statistical models yield different outcomes. Consistent with the catharsis hypothesis, the dynamic FE model showed that violent (vs. nonviolent) game playing significantly lowered both verbal and physical aggression among heavy players, with no corresponding effect of the game type for light players. By contrast, results from the contemporaneous FE model lent support to the stimulation hypothesis, with violent game playing leading to increased physical aggression as well as verbal aggression among heavy players. Violent game playing did not significantly affect anger and hostility, but overall game time did, although in opposite directions depending on the statistical model. Specifically, the dynamic FE model indicated a significant reduction of the negative emotions as a result of increased game playing, whereas the contemporaneous FE model showed a significant increase in both emotions. Methodological implications and directions for future research are discussed.

Intrinsic functional network contributions to the relationship between trait empathy and subjective happiness

Subjective happiness (well-being) is a multi-dimensional construct indexing one's evaluations of everyday emotional experiences and life satisfaction, and has been associated with different aspects of trait empathy. Despite previous research identifying the neural substrates of subjective happiness and empathy, the mechanisms mediating the relationship between the two constructs remain largely unclear. Here, we performed a data-driven, multi-voxel pattern analysis of whole-brain intrinsic functional connectivity to reveal the neural mechanisms of subjective happiness and trait empathy in a sample of young females. Behaviorally, we found that subjective happiness was negatively associated with personal distress (i.e., self-referential experience of others' feelings). Consistent with this inverse relationship, subjective happiness was associated with the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex exhibiting decreased functional connectivity with regions important for the representation of unimodal sensorimotor information (e.g., primary sensory cortices) or multi-modal summaries of brain states (e.g., default mode network) and increased functional connectivity with regions important for the attentional modulation of these representations (e.g., frontoparietal, attention networks). Personal distress was associated with the medial prefrontal cortex exhibiting functional connectivity differences with similar networks--but in the opposite direction. Finally, intrinsic functional connectivity within and between these networks fully mediated the relationship between the two behavioral measures. These results identify an important contribution of the macroscale functional organization of the brain to human well-being, by demonstrating that lower levels of personal distress lead to higher subjective happiness through variation in intrinsic functional connectivity along a neural representation vs. modulation gradient.

Effects of violent video games on players' and observers' aggressive cognitions and aggressive behaviors

Although previous research has shown that exposure to violent video games is related to aggression, little is known about the relationship between the player's perspective (player vs. observer) and aggression. In this experimental study, we tested the short-term effects of actively playing versus passively observing the same type of video games on aggressive cognitions and aggressive behaviors. A total of 192 12-year-old children (50% girls) were randomly assigned to one of four conditions: (a) violent game player (active violent players), (b) violent game observer (passive violent observers), (c) neutral game player (active neutral players), or (d) neutral game observer (passive neutral observers). After either playing or observing the designated games, each participant completed a lexical decision task and a competitive reaction time task to measure their aggressive cognitions and behaviors. Results showed that players displayed more aggressive cognitions and behaviors than observers. Boys displayed more aggressive cognitions and behaviors than girls, but this trend was observed only in the violent game play condition. Mediational analysis suggested that aggressive cognitions partially mediated the effect of violent video games on aggressive behaviors.

Effect of Pokémon Go on Self-Harm Using Population-Based Interrupted Time-Series Analysis: Quasi-Experimental Study

Background

Pokémon Go is a very popular location-based augmented reality game with widespread influences over the world. An emerging body of research demonstrates that playing Pokémon Go can lead to improvements in physical activity and psychosocial well-being; however, whether Pokémon Go reduces self-harm incidence at the population-level is still questionable.

Objective

This study aimed to quantify how the launch of Pokémon Go in Hong Kong affected the incidence of self-harm using a quasi-experimental design.

Methods

An interrupted time-series design with Poisson segmented regression adjusted for time and seasonality trends was used on data from 2012 to 2018 to detect any changes in the number of accident and emergency attendances due to self-harm, after Pokémon Go was launched. The findings were validated using a baseline control period and using other intentional injuries and minor noninjuries as control outcomes. We also assessed intervention effects by age group.

Results

From January 1, 2012 to July 31, 2018, there were 13,463 accident and emergency attendances due to self-harm in Hong Kong. During the period after launching Pokémon Go, self-harm attendances dropped by 34% (adjusted incidence rate ratio: 0.66, 95% CI 0.61-0.73). When analyzed by age group, a reduction in self-harm incidence was only apparent in adults (18 to 24 years of age: adjusted incidence rate ratio: 0.78, P=.02; 25 to 39 years of age: adjusted incidence rate ratio: 0.75, P<.001; 40 years of age and older: adjusted incidence rate ratio: 0.57, P<.001).

Conclusions

Self-harm incidence in the population, particularly in adults, showed a significant decline in the period after Pokémon Go was launched. Augmented reality games such as Pokémon Go show great promise as a tool to enhance psychosocial well-being and improve mental health.

Measurement, Profiles, Prevalence, and Psychological Risk Factors of Problematic Gaming Among the Turkish Community: A Large-scale National Study

The present study investigated the prevalence, the potential different profiles, and the associated psychological factors of disordered gaming using data from a large-scale epidemiological study (TURBAHAR [Turkey’s Addiction and Mental Health Risk Profile Map Project]) carried out in Turkey in 2018 with 24,494 participants aged 18–81 years. Participants completed a comprehensive survey comprising a demographic questionnaire, Gaming Addiction Risk Questionnaire, Brief Symptom Inventory, Personal Well-Being Index Adult Form, Positive and Negative Affect Schedule, Toronto Alexithymia Scale, and Experiences in Close Relationships-Revised Scale. Latent class analysis showed the existence of eight different game profiles, which differed in relation to the intensity and specific features of the behavior. Results showed that 1.6% of the participants were problematic gamers. Being male, being younger, lower education level, being single, using alcohol and cigarettes, psychiatric distress, positive and negative affect, and anxious adult attachment were positively associated with problematic gaming.

Violent video games exposure and aggression: The role of moral disengagement, anger, hostility, and disinhibition

Based on the General Aggression Model (GAM), the current study investigated the interactive effect of personal factors (e.g., sensation-seeking) and situational factors (e.g., violent video games exposure [VVGE]) on the trait aggressive behavior, and the mediating role of individual difference trait (e.g., moral disengagement, anger, and hostility). We recruited 547 undergraduates (48.45% male) from five Chinese universities. The results showed that VVGE was positively associated with moral disengagement, disinhibition, and the four aggressive traits (physical aggression, verbal aggression, anger, and hostility), which were positively associated with each other. Moral disengagement was positively associated with both the disinhibition and the four aggressive traits. Disinhibition was positively associated with the four aggressive traits as well. When controlled for gender, moral disengagement, anger, and hostility wholly mediated the relationship between VVGE and aggression, but the moderation effect of disinhibition was not significant. These findings support the framework of GAM and indicate that moral disengagement, anger, and hostility may be the factors that increase the risk of a higher level of aggression following repeated exposure to violent video games.

Examining Psychological Science Through Systematic Meta-Method Analysis: A Call for Research

Research synthesis is based on the assumption that when the same association between constructs is observed repeatedly in a field, the relationship is probably real, even if its exact magnitude can be debated. Yet the probability that the relationship is real is a function not only of recurring results, but also of the quality and consistency of the empirical procedures that produced those results and that any meta-analysis necessarily inherits. Standardized protocols in data collection, analysis, and interpretation are foundations of empiricism and a healthy sign of a discipline’s maturity. I propose that meta-analysis as typically applied in psychology will benefit from complementing aggregation of observed effect sizes with systematic examination of the standardization of the methodology that deterministically produced them. I describe potential units of analysis and offer two examples illustrating the benefits of such efforts. Ideally, this synergetic approach will advance theory by improving the quality of meta-analytic inferences.

Cognitive-Emotional and Inhibitory Deficits as a Window to Moral Decision-Making Difficulties Related to Exposure to Violence

In the present review, we illustrate how exposure to violence results in an increased probability of developing functional impairments of decision mechanisms necessary for moral behavior. We focus in particular on the detrimental effects of exposure to violence on emotional (e.g., Empathy), cognitive (e.g., Theory of Mind), and inhibitory control abilities. Relying on studies that document impaired moral behavior in individuals with deficits in these abilities, we propose a "model" of how exposure to violence can affect moral behavior. We then discuss how impaired moral decision making can also be a factor increasing the likelihood of reiterating violence: agents who lack abilities such as understanding and resonating with others' emotions or inhibitory control, can lead to an increase of violent displays. Thus, if not properly addressed, the noxious effects of exposure to violence on morality can lead to a violence generating cycle. We conclude proposing that interventions targeted at improving moral behavior can maximize their efficacy focusing on mitigating the impact of violence on the basic cognitive, emotional, and inhibitory abilities discussed.

Individual Differences and the “Selfish” Connection Between Empathy and Disgust

In 2 studies, we investigated the proposition that empathy and disgust are related at a “self”-involved level. In Study 1, 42 undergraduates completed 5 personality questionnaires. Their responses were examined to assess the relationship between dispositional empathy and disgust sensitivity, in contrast to dispositional happiness. Results showed that disgust sensitivity was positively related to a “self-focused” measure of empathy and that in particular, the core disgust and animal reminder subscales of the Disgust Scale—Revised (DS-R) were positively associated with this empathy measure. When the data were examined by sex, all findings became stronger among women and statistically unreliable among men. Study 2 focused on further investigating these findings with 64 female undergraduates. Individual differences in self-focused dimensions of emotional empathy replicated and extended the relationships with the core and animal reminder subscales of the DS-R that were found in Study 1. In both studies some associations between cognitive empathy and happiness were also observed. Our results support the novel proposition that “selfishness” reflects an underlying mechanism through which empathy and disgust are connected and that certain aspects of disgust may involve empathizing with the self.

Metaanalysis of the relationship between violent video game play and physical aggression over time

To clarify and quantify the influence of video game violence (VGV) on aggressive behavior, we conducted a metaanalysis of all prospective studies to date that assessed the relation between exposure to VGV and subsequent overt physical aggression. The search strategy identified 24 studies with over 17,000 participants and time lags ranging from 3 months to 4 years. The samples comprised various nationalities and ethnicities with mean ages from 9 to 19 years. For each study we obtained the standardized regression coefficient for the prospective effect of VGV on subsequent aggression, controlling for baseline aggression. VGV was related to aggression using both fixed [β = 0.113, 95% CI = (0.098, 0.128)] and random effects models [β = 0.106 (0.078, 0.134)]. When all available covariates were included, the size of the effect remained significant for both models [β = 0.080 (0.065, 0.094) and β = 0.078 (0.053, 0.102), respectively]. No evidence of publication bias was found. Ethnicity was a statistically significant moderator for the fixed-effects models (P ≤ 0.011) but not for the random-effects models. Stratified analyses indicated the effect was largest among Whites, intermediate among Asians, and nonsignificant among Hispanics. Discussion focuses on the implications of such findings for current debates regarding the effects of violent video games on physical aggression.

Internet gaming disorder in children and adolescents: a systematic review

AIM

Internet gaming disorder (IGD) is a serious disorder leading to and maintaining pertinent personal and social impairment. IGD has to be considered in view of heterogeneous and incomplete concepts. We therefore reviewed the scientific literature on IGD to provide an overview focusing on definitions, symptoms, prevalence, and aetiology.

METHOD

We systematically reviewed the databases ERIC, PsyARTICLES, PsycINFO, PSYNDEX, and PubMed for the period January 1991 to August 2016, and additionally identified secondary references.

RESULTS

The proposed definition in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition provides a good starting point for diagnosing IGD but entails some disadvantages. Developing IGD requires several interacting internal factors such as deficient self, mood and reward regulation, problems of decision-making, and external factors such as deficient family background and social skills. In addition, specific game-related factors may promote IGD. Summarizing aetiological knowledge, we suggest an integrated model of IGD elucidating the interplay of internal and external factors.

INTERPRETATION

So far, the concept of IGD and the pathways leading to it are not entirely clear. In particular, long-term follow-up studies are missing. IGD should be understood as an endangering disorder with a complex psychosocial background.

WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS

In representative samples of children and adolescents, on average, 2% are affected by Internet gaming disorder (IGD). The mean prevalences (overall, clinical samples included) reach 5.5%. Definitions are heterogeneous and the relationship with substance-related addictions is inconsistent. Many aetiological factors are related to the development and maintenance of IGD. This review presents an integrated model of IGD, delineating the interplay of these factors.

[Development of a Japanese version of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index]

Empathy is a multi-dimensional concept with emotional and cognitive components. The Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) is a multi-dimensional scale of empathic traits. Although some researchers have attempted to translate the IRI into Japanese, these translated scales had limitations with content and construct validity, and measurement invariance. We therefore attempt to overcome these limitations by developing a new Japanese version of the IRI (IRI-J). We used three approaches to assess the validity and measurement invariance of the IRI-J. In Study 1, content validity was tested using back-translation, and construct validity was confirmed through a comprehensive investigation of a web-based survey using six other scales. Results indicate that the factor structure of the IRI-J was equivalent to that of the original version, and that the IRI-J had adequate reliability and construct validity. In Study 2, measurement invariance by gender was confirmed using data from four web-based surveys. These results suggest that the factor model of IRI-J for each gender is equivalent. The present study thus provides an improved measure of empathic traits for the Japanese population.

Does Online Technology Make Us More or Less Sociable? A Preliminary Review and Call for Research

How does online technology affect sociability? Emerging evidence-much of it inconclusive-suggests a nuanced relationship between use of online technology (the Internet, social media, and virtual reality) and sociability (emotion recognition, empathy, perspective taking, and emotional intelligence). Although online technology can facilitate purely positive behavior (e.g., charitable giving) or purely negative behavior (e.g., cyberbullying), it appears to affect sociability in three ways, depending on whether it allows a deeper understanding of people's thoughts and feelings: (a) It benefits sociability when it complements already-deep offline engagement with others, (b) it impairs sociability when it supplants deeper offline engagement for superficial online engagement, and (c) it enhances sociability when deep offline engagement is otherwise difficult to attain. We suggest potential implications and moderators of technology's effects on sociability and call for additional causal research.

The Role of Sensation Seeking and R-rated Movie Watching in Early Substance Use Initiation

Adolescence is a time of heightened impulsivity as well as substantial exposure to the effects of popular media. Specifically, R-rated movie content and sensation seeking have been shown to be individually and multiplicatively associated with early alcohol initiation, as well as to mutually influence one another over time. The present study attempts to replicate and extend these findings to cigarette and marijuana use, considering several peer, parental, and individual correlates, as well as substance-specific movie exposure, among 1023 youth (mean age 12.4 years, 52% female), using a combination of cross-lagged path models, latent growth models, and discrete-time survival models. Changes over time were associated between R-rated movie watching and sensation seeking, and both individually, not multiplicatively, predicted earlier alcohol initiation. R-rated movie watching (but not sensation seeking) also predicted earlier smoking and marijuana initiation. Parental R-rated movie restriction may thus potentially delay smoking and marijuana initiation as well as adolescent drinking.

Exposure to video games: effects on sleep and on post-sleep cognitive abilities. A sistematic review of experimental evidences

The public opinion is ever more interested and worried about possible effects of exposure to VGs (video games) on human life and well-being. Scientific literature shows several evidences highlighting negative outcomes on behavioural, emotive, cognitive and physical health spheres. All these aspects are intrinsically linked to sleep quality and quantity and to date very few studies directly investigated the effects of videogame (VG) exposure on sleep and post-sleep cognitive status. The aim of the present systematic review is to examine the impact that the exposure to VGs can produce on sleep pattern and the consequent post-sleep cognitive abilities. To this extent, only studies directly investigating the effects of VGs on sleep features and post-sleep cognitive abilities have been selected and discussed. Data currently present in literature show the alteration of sleep pattern after exposure to VGs. The analysis indicated a reduction of Total Sleep Time (TST) and an increase of Sleep Onset Latency (SOL), modifications of the REM sleep and Slow Wave Sleep (SWS), and increased sleepiness and self-perceived fatigue. Moreover, post-sleep sustained attention and verbal memory also appear to be impaired. It can be concluded that playing VGs for long periods, particularly in the evening, is a significant, common and probable cause of sleep problems: evening exposure to VGs, in fact, can bring to insufficient and low quality sleep, with possible effects on cognition in the subsequent waking days. Potential methodological flaws and limitations of these studies have also been described and discussed. Because of the very limited number of available study on this topic further research is strongly needed.

Long-Time Exposure to Violent Video Games Does Not Show Desensitization on Empathy for Pain: An fMRI Study

As a typical form of empathy, empathy for pain refers to the perception and appraisal of others’ pain, as well as the corresponding affective responses. Numerous studies investigated the factors affecting the empathy for pain, in which the exposure to violent video games (VVGs) could change players’ empathic responses to painful situations. However, it remains unclear whether exposure to VVG influences the empathy for pain. In the present study, in terms of the exposure experience to VVG, two groups of participants (18 in VVG group, VG; 17 in non-VVG group, NG) were screened from nearly 200 video game experience questionnaires. And then, the functional magnetic resonance imaging data were recorded when they were viewing painful and non-painful stimuli. The results showed that the perception of others’ pain were not significantly different in brain regions between groups, from which we could infer that the desensitization effect of VVGs was overrated.

Finding the Middle Ground in Violent Video Game Research: Lessons From Ferguson (2015)

Ferguson's comprehensive meta-analysis provides convincing data that violent video games have almost no effect on children's aggression. Although this finding is unlikely to bring unity to a divided field, Ferguson's article (2015, this issue) provides important rules that should aid all researchers. First, we need to be more accepting of results that are inconsistent with our own theories. Second, extraneous variables are often responsible for the relations previous studies have found between violent media and aggression. Third, we should avoid using unstandardized assessments of important variables whenever possible. Finally, caution is warranted when generalizing laboratory research findings to severe acts of violent in the "real world." It is hoped that, by accepting these basic rules, researchers and others will adopt less extreme positions concerning the effects of violent video games.

Violence-related content in video game may lead to functional connectivity changes in brain networks as revealed by fMRI-ICA in young men

In violent video games, players engage in virtual aggressive behaviors. Exposure to virtual aggressive behavior induces short-term changes in players' behavior. In a previous study, a violence-related version of the racing game "Carmageddon TDR2000" increased aggressive affects, cognitions, and behaviors compared to its non-violence-related version. This study investigates the differences in neural network activity during the playing of both versions of the video game. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) recorded ongoing brain activity of 18 young men playing the violence-related and the non-violence-related version of the video game Carmageddon. Image time series were decomposed into functional connectivity (FC) patterns using independent component analysis (ICA) and template-matching yielded a mapping to established functional brain networks. The FC patterns revealed a decrease in connectivity within 6 brain networks during the violence-related compared to the non-violence-related condition: three sensory-motor networks, the reward network, the default mode network (DMN), and the right-lateralized frontoparietal network. Playing violent racing games may change functional brain connectivity, in particular and even after controlling for event frequency, in the reward network and the DMN. These changes may underlie the short-term increase of aggressive affects, cognitions, and behaviors as observed after playing violent video games.

A longitudinal study of risk-glorifying video games and behavioral deviance

Character-based video games do more than allow one to practice various kinds of behaviors in a virtual environment; they allow one to practice being a different kind of person. As such, we propose that games can alter self-perceptions of personal characteristics, attitudes, and values with broad consequences for behavior. In a multiwave, longitudinal study of adolescents, we examined the extent to which play of mature-rated, risk-glorifying (MRRG) games was associated with increases in alcohol use, cigarette smoking, aggression, delinquency, and risky sex as a consequence of its effects on personality, attitudes, and affiliations indicative of increased tolerance of deviance. Participants were selected with random-digit-dial procedures and followed for 4 years. Data were analyzed with linear mixed modeling to assess change over time and structural equation modeling with latent variables to test hypothesized mediational processes. Among those who play video games, playing MRRG games was associated with increases in all measures of behavioral deviance. Mediational models support the hypothesis that these effects are in part a consequence of the effects of such gameplay on sensation seeking and rebelliousness, attitudes toward deviant behavior in oneself and others, and affiliation with deviant peers. Effects were similar for males and females and were strongest for those who reported heavy play of mature-rated games and games that involved protagonists who represent nonnormative and antisocial values. In sum, the current research supports the perspective that MRRG gameplay can have consequences for deviant behavior broadly defined by affecting the personality, attitudes, and values of the player.

Playing violent video games and desensitization to violence

This article examines current research linking exposure to violent video games and desensitization to violence. Data from questionnaire, behavioral, and psychophysiologic research are reviewed to determine if exposure to violent video games is a risk factor for desensitization to violence. Real-world implications of desensitization are discussed.

Alexithymia components in excessive internet users: a multi-factorial analysis

The increasing use of computers and the internet - especially among young people - apart from its positive effects, sometimes leads to excessive and pathological use. The present study examined the relationship among the excessive use of the internet by university students, the alexithymia components and sociodemographic factors associated with internet users and their online activities. 515 university students from the University of Thessaly participated in the study. Participants anonymously completed: a) the Internet Addiction Test (IAT), b) the Toronto Alexithymia Test (TAS 20) and c) a questionnaire covering various aspects of internet use and demographic characteristics of internet users. Excessive use of the internet among Greek university students was studied within a multi-factorial context and was associated with the alexithymia and demographic factors in nonlinear correlations, forming thus a personalized emotional and demographic profile of the excessive internet users.

Impact of violent video games on the social behaviors of adolescents: The mediating role of emotional competence

Recently, research studies and media have reported on the detrimental effects violent video games have on the social behaviors of adolescents. For example, previous studies have found that playing video games is positively associated with aggressive behaviors and negatively associated with prosocial behaviors. However, very few studies have examined the mediating effects of personal characteristics between students playing video games and their social behaviors. Thus, using a sample of 1,242 seventh, eighth, and ninth grade Korean students, the authors aimed to determine how playing video games is related to aggressive and prosocial behaviors and whether the emotional competencies of adolescents, such as empathy, emotional regulation, and behavioral self-control, mediate this relationship. The results indicated that violent video games have a significant direct effect on aggressive behaviors, and a significant indirect effect on prosocial behaviors. Specifically, empathy and behavioral self-control were found to mediate the relation between playing violent video games and prosocial behaviors. These results suggest different prevention and intervention approaches to reduce aggressive behaviors and increase prosocial behaviors in students exposed to violent video games. The limitations and implications of these findings are discussed.