Are enteral devices risk factors for central line-associated bloodstream infections in children with intestinal failure?

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Central line-associated bloodstream infections (CLABSI) represent one of the most common and serious complications in children with intestinal failure (IF). This study aimed to assess if there is an association between the use of enteral devices (feeding tubes and stomas) with rate of CLABSI after adjusting for clinically relevant factors. Second, association between enteral devices with time to first CLABSI event was evaluated.

METHODS

Retrospective cohort of 202 children with IF and home parenteral nutrition treated at The Hospital for Sick Children between January 2006, and December 2017, with a minimum of 12 months of follow-up. Negative binomial multivariable regression model was used to assess factors associated with rate of CLABSI. Cox proportional hazard regression model was used to assess factors associated with time to first CLABSI event.

RESULTS

The use of feeding tubes [RR 1.10 (95%CI 0.88-1.37); p = 0.407] or stomas [RR 1.00 (95%CI 0.82-1.22); p = 0.974] was not associated with rate of CLABSI after adjusting for confounding factors. There was a significant association between history of prematurity [RR 1.36 (95%CI 1.09-1.70); p = 0.007], male sex [RR 1.28 (95%CI 1.05-1.56); p = 0.016], age at diagnosis of intestinal failure <1 year [RR 2.41 (95%CI 1.75-3.33); p < 0.001], having <50 % of small bowel length expected for age [RR 2.39 (95%CI 1.87-3.05); P < 0.001], and small bowel bacterial overgrowth (SBBO) [RR 1.38 (95%CI 1.10-1.74); p = 0.006], with rate of CLABSI events after multivariable analysis. The use of feeding tubes [HR 0.79 (95%CI 0.49-1.26); p = 0.315] or stomas [HR 1.25 (95%CI 0.81-1.94); p = 0.308] was not associated with time to first CLASBSI episode after multivariable regression analysis. Only length of small bowel <50 % was associated with time to first CLABSI event on multivariable analysis [HR 1.83 (95%CI 1.14-2.93); p = 0.012].

CONCLUSION

Feeding tubes and stomas were not associated with increased rate of CLABSI or time to first CLABSI episode. However, prematurity, male sex, age at diagnosis of intestinal failure <1 year, having <50 % of small bowel length expected for age, and SBBO were associated with rate of CLABSI events; and having <50 % of small bowel length was associated with time to first CLABSI event. Prospective, multicenter studies accounting for care delivery and prevention bundles are needed to identify patients that would benefit from additional interventions to prevent CLABSI.

Administration of 4% tetrasodium EDTA lock solution and central venous catheter complications in high-risk pediatric patients with intestinal failure: A retrospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Selection of central venous catheter (CVC) lock solution impacts catheter mechanical complications and central line-associated bloodstream infections (CLABSIs) in pediatric patients with intestinal failure. Disadvantages of the current clinical standards, heparin and ethanol lock therapy (ELT), led to the discovery of new lock solutions. High-risk pediatric patients with intestinal failure who lost access to ELT during a recent shortage were offered enrollment in a compassionate use trial with 4% tetrasodium EDTA (T-EDTA), a lock solution with antimicrobial, antibiofilm, and antithrombotic properties.

METHODS

We performed a descriptive cohort study including 14 high-risk pediatric patients with intestinal failure receiving 4% T-EDTA as a daily catheter lock solution. CVC complications were documented (repairs, occlusions, replacements, and CLABSIs). Complication rates on 4% T-EDTA were compared with baseline rates, during which patients were receiving either heparin or ELT (designated as heparin/ELT).

RESULTS

Patients initiated 4% T-EDTA at the time they were enrolled in the compassionate use protocol. Use of 4% T-EDTA resulted in a 50% reduction in CVC complications, compared with baseline rates on heparin/ELT (incidence rate ratio: 0.50; 95% CI, 0.25-1.004; P = 0.051).

CONCLUSION

In a compassionate use protocol for high-risk pediatric patients with intestinal failure, the use of 4% T-EDTA reduced composite catheter complications, including those leading to emergency department visits, hospital admissions, additional procedures, and mortality. This outcome suggests 4% T-EDTA has benefits over currently available lock solutions.

Cost-utility analysis of 4% tetrasodium ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, taurolidine, and heparin lock to prevent central line-associated bloodstream infections in children with intestinal failure

BACKGROUND

Central line-associated bloodstream infections (CLABSI) are a serious complication in children with intestinal failure. This study assessed the incremental costs of 4% tetrasodium ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) compared with taurolidine lock and heparin lock per quality-adjusted life-year (QALY) gained in children with intestinal failure from the healthcare payer and societal perspective.

METHODS

A Markov cohort model of a 1-year-old child with intestinal failure was simulated until the age of 17 years (time horizon), with a cycle length of 1 month. The health outcome measure was QALYs, with results expressed in terms of incremental costs and QALYs. Model parameters were obtained from published literature and institutional data. Deterministic, probabilistic, and scenario sensitivity analyses were performed.

RESULTS

4% Tetrasodium EDTA was dominant (more effective and less expensive) compared with taurolidine and heparin, yielding an additional 0.17 QALYs with savings of CAD$88,277 compared with heparin, and an additional 0.06 QALYs with savings of CAD$52,120 compared with taurolidine lock from the healthcare payer perspective. From the societal perspective, 4% tetrasodium EDTA resulted in savings of CAD$90,696 compared with heparin and savings of CAD$36,973 compared with taurolidine lock.

CONCLUSIONS

This model-based analysis indicates that 4% tetrasodium EDTA can be considered the optimal strategy compared with taurolidine and heparin in terms of cost-effectiveness. The decision uncertainty can be reduced by conducting further research on the model input parameters. An expected value of perfect information analysis can identify what model input parameters would be most valuable to focus on.

A survival analysis of cuffed tunneled silicon central venous catheters in children affected by short bowel syndrome: A lesson from the past

BACKGROUND

Tunneled central venous catheters (CVC) are crucial in the management of children affected by short bowel syndrome (SBS). This work aims to investigate the outcomes of tunneled CVC and to identify factors influencing their survival.

METHODS

All the children diagnosed with SBS and undergone a procedure of insertion of a tunneled CVC from 2010 to 2019 were included. Demographic data and surgical information about the procedures were collected. Regression models and Kaplan-Meier analysis were performed to estimate the survival.

RESULTS

Eighteen patients, eight males (44%), with a median length of residual bowel measuring 72 cm (IQR 50-102 cm), were enrolled. Thirty-nine Broviac CVCs were inserted with a mean number of 2.2 CVCs per patient and 13365 line-days. The overall incidence of complications was 3.2/1000 line-days, and the incidence of central line associated bloodstream infections (CLABSI) was 1.1/1000 line-days. No episode of catheter thrombosis was reported. The median survival was 269 days (IQR 82-1814 days). The survival was negatively influenced by a younger age at insertion (R2 = 0.29; p < 0.001), 2.7 Fr diameter (median survival 76 days; p < 0.001) and the occurrence of complications (median survival 169 days; p = 0.002). The length of residual bowel was a mild risk factor for anticipated removal (OR 1.1; CI95 1.0-1.1; p = 0.05).

CONCLUSION

CVC-related complications negatively influenced the survival of the line. An elder age at insertion together with a larger CVC diameter increased the survival of the line, while a shorter residual bowel was associated with an anticipated removal due to complications.

Safe care transitions for patients receiving parenteral nutrition

Transitions of care require coordination between inpatient healthcare providers, care managers, outpatient/ambulatory providers, and the patient/caregiver and family members. Poor communication during transitions of care can affect health outcomes and economic costs for patients/caregivers, healthcare providers, and healthcare systems. The goal of this paper is to identify risk-prone processes in the transition of care for patients requiring parenteral nutrition (PN) between healthcare environments, including the hospital, home, skilled nursing facility, and long-term acute care hospital settings. To facilitate the evaluation of the transition, a sequential series of steps in the transition process were identified: initial notification, assessment in preparation for transfer, identifying the receiving organization, identifying accountable providers at each sending/receiving organization, communicating the nutrition care plan, implementing the plan and additional considerations regarding PN preparation and readmissions. Safety concerns with risk-prone processes are identified and recommended best practices are proposed for improving processes at each step of the transition. Pediatric considerations are included in the evaluation of the various steps in the transition of care. This paper was approved by the American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (ASPEN) Board of Directors.

Quantifying Empiric Antibiotic Use in US Children's Hospitals

OBJECTIVES

Empirical broad-spectrum antibiotics are routinely administered for short durations to children with suspected bacteremia while awaiting blood culture results. Our aim for this study was to estimate the proportion of broad-spectrum antibiotic use accounted for by these "rule-outs."

METHODS

The Pediatric Health Information System was used to identify children aged 3 months to 20 years hospitalized between July 2016 and June 2017 who received broad-spectrum antibiotics for suspected bacteremia. Using an electronic definition for a rule-out, we estimated the proportion of all broad-spectrum antibiotic days of therapy accounted for by this indication. Clinical and demographic characteristics, as well as antibiotic choice, are reported descriptively.

RESULTS

A total of 67 032 episodes of suspected bacteremia across 42 hospitals were identified. From these, 34 909 (52%) patients were classified as having received an antibiotic treatment course, and 32 123 patients (48%) underwent an antibiotic rule-out without a subsequent treatment course. Antibiotics prescribed for rule-outs accounted for 12% of all broad-spectrum antibiotic days of therapy. Third-generation cephalosporins and vancomycin were the most commonly prescribed antibiotics, and substantial hospital-level variation in vancomycin use was identified (range: 16%-58% of suspected bacteremia episodes).

CONCLUSIONS

Broad-spectrum intravenous antibiotic use for rule-out infections appears common across children's hospitals, with substantial hospital-level variation in the use of vancomycin in particular. Antibiotic stewardship programs focused on intervening on antibiotics prescribed for longer durations may consider this novel opportunity to further standardize antibiotic regimens and reduce antibiotic exposure.

Clinical Features and Biomarkers Suggestive of Bloodstream Infection in Pediatric Patients With Intestinal Failure and Central Venous Lines for Parenteral Nutrition: A Retrospective Pilot Study

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to describe demographic, clinical, and laboratory values in febrile pediatric intestinal failure patients with indwelling central venous catheters presenting to the emergency department to determine if there are low-risk features predictive of negative blood cultures that could help identify a subset that do not need hospitalization and/or broad-spectrum antibiotics.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective cohort study of febrile patients younger than 18 years with diagnosis of intestinal failure requiring a central venous catheter for home parenteral nutrition to identify factors associated with normal blood cultures to identify a low-risk subset.

RESULTS

Of 119 encounters, 46% had a bloodstream infection. Children with a bloodstream infection were older than those without. A normal lactate and heart rate were associated with negative blood cultures.

CONCLUSION

Pediatric intestinal failure patients with a central venous catheter for home parenteral nutrition presenting to the emergency department with fever and found to have a normal lactate and heart rates had lower rates of bloodstream infection. Although we were unable to create a highly sensitive clinical decision-making rule to identify a low-risk cohort because of the low number of patients meeting both criteria, the promising candidate variables identified merit for future multicenter studies.

Time to Blood Culture Positivity by Pathogen and Primary Service

OBJECTIVES

Initiation and continuation of empirical antimicrobial agents for a 48-72-hour observation period is routine practice in the diagnosis and treatment of infants and children with concern for bacteremia. We examined blood cultures at a freestanding pediatric hospital over a 6-year period to determine the time to positivity.

METHODS

Data were extracted for all patients who were hospitalized and had blood cultures drawn between January 2013 and December 2018. Time to positivity was calculated on the basis of date and time culture was collected compared with date and time growth was first reported.

RESULTS

Over a 6-year period, 89 663 blood cultures were obtained, of which 6184 had positive results. After exclusions, a total of 2121 positive blood culture results remained, including 1454 (69%) pathogens and 667 contaminants (31%). For all positive blood culture results, the number and percentage positive at 24, 36, and 48 hours were 1441 of 2121 (68%), 1845 of 2121 (87%) and 1970 of 2121 (93%), respectively. One hundred twenty-five (66 pathogens, 59 contaminants) of the 89 663 cultures (0.14%) yielded positive results between 36 and 48 hours, indicating that 719 patients would need to be treated for 48 hours rather than 36 hours to prevent 1 case of antibiotic termination before positive result. Median times to positive result by pathogen and service line are presented.

CONCLUSIONS

This study reveals that ≤36 hours may be a sufficient period of observation for infants and children started on empirical antimicrobial agents for concern for bacteremia. These findings highlight opportunities for antimicrobial stewardship to limit antimicrobial .

Elimination of hospital-acquired central line-associated bloodstream infection on a mixed-service pediatric unit

INTRODUCTION

Hospital-acquired central line-associated bloodstream infections (CLABSI) are "never events" in U.S. healthcare. National efforts to improve CLABSI rates are ongoing. Efforts are important for all patients with a central venous catheter (CVC) and critical to children with intestinal failure (IF) who depend on long-term, daily use of a CVC and undergo extended hospitalizations. We describe outcomes of a multidisciplinary CLABSI elimination effort on a 24-bed medical-surgical unit caring for children with IF.

METHODS

Unit CLABSI events from 1/9/2012 to 4/16/2020 were evaluated with multiple improvement interventions. We leveraged prospectively maintained clinical registries and National Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN) reporting data to extract patient and unit demographics, ethanol lock utilization, and unit CVC days. Interventions were developed utilizing expert consensus and CDC guidelines with active frontline staff engagement. Descriptive statistics and tests of non-parametric data were employed for analysis.

RESULTS

Ninety-five patients with IF and 862 non-IF patients experienced a total of 1,629 admissions with 20,372 CVC days. Twelve hospital-acquired CLABSI events occurred during the study period, including 7 following NHSN definition change on 1/1/2015 (0.56 per 1,000 CVC days). After the last unit CLABSI on 12/5/2016, there were 7,117 CVC days through study conclusion.

CONCLUSIONS

Described interventions with an enhanced culture of collaborative care profoundly improved hospital-acquired CLABSI occurrence. Success in a specific population translated to all other unit patients with a CVC. Findings suggest elimination is not the result of a single new product or practice, but also includes support and empowerment of those caring for the patient and their CVC.

Effectiveness of a central line associated blood stream infection protocol in a pediatric population

BACKGROUND

Central line associated bloodstream infections are a common cause of bacteremia and sepsis in pediatric patients with intestinal failure, secondary to long-term CVC use.

METHODS

An IRB approved retrospective chart review was conducted on TPN-dependent patients with IF who had an identified CLABSI and presented to Children's of Alabama's emergency department (ED) and were admitted to the hospital.

RESULTS

Forty-four patients were included in the study, 28 in the first 18-month period and 26 in the second, with 10 in both populations. After implementation, mean time from ED presentation to antibiotic ordered and ED admission to antibiotic administered were lower. Mean time between antibiotic administration and admission to the floor was greater, and number of infectious disease consultations was greater. Floor-ICU transfers were lower, readmissions within 30 days was similar, and mean length of stay was similar.

CONCLUSION

A collaborative, multidiscipline-supported protocol for the care of patients with IF presenting to the ED enhances efficiency of antibiotic ordering/administration, as well as reduces the number of unplanned floor-ICU transfers.

Management of Central Venous Access in Children With Intestinal Failure: A Position Paper From the NASPGHAN Intestinal Rehabilitation Special Interest Group

ABSTRACT

Intestinal failure requires the placement and maintenance of a long-term central venous catheter for the provision of fluids and/or nutrients. Complications associated with this access contribute to significant morbidity and mortality, while the loss of access is an increasingly common reason for intestinal transplant referral. As more emphasis has been placed on the prevention of central line-associated bloodstream infections and new technologies have developed, care for central lines has improved; however, because care has evolved independently in local centers, care of central venous access varies significantly in this vulnerable population. The present position paper from the Intestinal Failure Special Interest Group of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (NASPGHAN) reviews current evidence and provides recommendations for central line management in children with intestinal failure.

Pediatric Ambulatory Central Line-Associated Bloodstream Infections

BACKGROUND

Inpatient pediatric central line-associated bloodstream infections (CLABSIs) cause morbidity and increased health care use. Minimal information exists for ambulatory CLABSIs despite ambulatory central line (CL) use in children. In this study, we identified ambulatory pediatric CLABSI incidence density, risk factors, and outcomes.

METHODS

Retrospective cohort with nested case-control study at 5 sites from 2010 through 2015. Electronic queries were used to identify potential cases on the basis of administrative and laboratory data. Chart review was used to confirm ambulatory CL use and adjudicated CLABSIs. Bivariate followed by multivariable backward logistic regression was used to identify ambulatory CLABSI risk factors.

RESULTS

Queries identified 4600 potentially at-risk children; 1658 (36%) had ambulatory CLs. In total, 247 (15%) patients experienced 466 ambulatory CLABSIs with an incidence density of 0.97 CLABSIs per 1000 CL days. Incidence density was highest among patients with tunneled externalized catheters versus peripherally inserted central catheters and totally implanted devices: 2.58 CLABSIs per 1000 CL days versus 1.46 vs 0.23, respectively (P < .001). In a multivariable model, clinic visit (odds ratio [OR] 2.8; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.4-5.5) and low albumin (OR 2.3; 95% CI: 1.2-4.3) were positively associated with CLABSI, and prophylactic antimicrobial agents for underlying conditions within the preceding 30 days (OR 0.22; 95% CI: 0.12-0.40) and operating room CL placement (OR 0.36; 95% CI: 0.16-0.79) were inversely associated with CLABSI. A total of 396 patients (85%) were hospitalized because of ambulatory CLABSI with an 8-day median length of stay (interquartile range 5-13).

CONCLUSIONS

Ambulatory pediatric CLABSI incidence density is appreciable and associated with health care use. CL type, patients with low albumin, prophylactic antimicrobial agents, and placement setting may be targets for reduction efforts.

Optimizing Duration of Empiric Management of Suspected Central Line-Associated Bloodstream Infections in Pediatric Patients with Intestinal Failure

OBJECTIVES

To assess whether a 24-hour length of hospitalization and empiric antibiotic therapy to exclude central line-associated bloodstream infection (CLABSI) in children with intestinal failure is potentially as safe as 48 hours, which is the duration most commonly used but not evidence based.

STUDY DESIGN

A prospective single-institution observational cohort study was conducted among pediatric patients with intestinal failure from July 1, 2015, through June 30, 2018, to identify episodes of suspected CLABSI. The primary end point was time from blood sampling to positive blood culture. Secondary end points included presenting symptoms, laboratory test results, responses to a parent/legal guardian-completed symptom survey, length of inpatient stay, costs, and charges.

RESULTS

Seventy-three patients with intestinal failure receiving nutritional support via central venous catheters enrolled; 35 were hospitalized with suspected CLABSI at least once during the study. There were 49 positive blood cultures confirming CLABSI in 128 episodes (38%). The median time from blood sampling to positive culture was 11.1 hours. The probability of a blood culture becoming positive after 24 hours was 2.3%. Elevated C-reactive protein and neutrophil predominance in white blood cell count were associated with positive blood cultures. Estimated cost savings by transitioning from a 48-hour to a 24-hour admission to rule-out CLABSI was $4639 per admission.

CONCLUSIONS

A 24-hour duration of empiric management to exclude CLABSI may be appropriate for patients with negative blood cultures and no clinically concerning signs. A multi-institutional study would more robustly differentiate patients safe for discharge after 24 hours from those who warrant longer empiric treatment.

Prolonged Parenteral Nutrition Is One of the Most Significant Risk Factors for Nosocomial Infections in Adult Patients With Intestinal Failure

BACKGROUND

Intestinal failure (IF) and its management are associated with an increased likelihood of infectious complications. This study aimed to evaluate the prevalence and potential risk factors for nosocomial infections (NIs) in hospitalized adult patients with IF.

METHODS

In total, 259 eligible patients with IF admitted to a single clinical nutrition center in a tertiary referral hospital from January 1, 2012, to January 1, 2019, were retrospectively identified. NIs were defined according to the 2008 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention criteria. Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed to identify independent risk factors for NIs.

RESULTS

The mean age of the study population was 47.0 ± 17.7 years, and 158 (61.0%) were men. The mean body mass index was 16.2 ± 2.9 kg/m² , and 219 (84.6%) were diagnosed with malnutrition. The prevalence of NIs was 25.5% (113 NIs in 66 patients). The most common NIs were pneumonia (14.3%), bacteremia of unknown origin (13.5%), catheter-related bloodstream infection (5.0%), lower respiratory tract infection (5.0%), surgical site infection (3.9%), and urinary tract infection (1.9%). Multivariate analysis revealed that decreased serum albumin level (odds ratio [OR], 0.884; 95% CI, 0.883-0.978, P < .05), presence of gallbladder stones or cholestasis (OR, 3.144; 95% CI, 1.044-9.464; P < .05), and prolonged parenteral nutrition (PN) use (OR, 1.072; 95% CI, 1.039-1.105; P < .001) were independent predictors for NIs.

CONCLUSIONS

NIs remain prevalent in hospitalized adult patients with IF. Prolonged PN use was one of the most significant predictors for NIs.

Excluding Clinically Significant Bacteremia by 24 Hours in Otherwise Well Febrile Children Younger Than 16 Years: A Study of More Than 50,000 Blood Cultures

BACKGROUND

In febrile children given empiric parenteral antibiotics, guidelines advise provisional reporting of negative blood cultures and antibiotic review after 36 hours incubation for neonates and 48 hours for older children. Following improvements in culture processing and childhood vaccination, we revisited this important clinical topic, assessing time to exclude clinically significant bacteremia in well-appearing febrile children with no comorbidities or features of sepsis.

METHODS

We analyzed the results of all 53,276 pediatric blood cultures taken during an 8-year period at a UK hospital.

RESULTS

1308 (2.5%) cultures were positive, of which 333 (25.5%) grew pathogens typically associated with clinically significant bacteremia. The remaining 975 (74.5%) grew organisms associated with contaminated culture, or with opportunistic infection only in children with relevant risk factors. Time to positivity (TTP) from incubation was significantly shorter for the 333 definite pathogens than the 975 contaminating/opportunistic organisms, with 92% of definite pathogens identified by 24 hours incubation. Only 3 of all definite pathogens were identified after 24 hours in children otherwise eligible for discharge at 24 hours. There was no significant difference in TTP for definite pathogens between neonates and older children. Median time from specimen collection to incubation was 3 hours.

CONCLUSIONS

Clinically significant bacteremia can be excluded by 24 hours incubation in well-appearing febrile children with no comorbidities or features of sepsis. This is the largest dataset of its kind, and the second to compare neonates and older children. Our findings may inform future guidelines, facilitating earlier antibiotic review and discharge.

Analysis of Healthcare Institutional Costs of Pediatric Home Parenteral Nutrition Central Line Infections

BACKGROUND

Although previous literature suggests home parenteral nutrition (HPN)-dependent children experience frequent complications like community-acquired central line-associated bloodstream infections (CLABSI), few studies have characterized the cost.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to evaluate institutional cost of community-acquired CLABSI in pediatric patients with HPN.

METHODS

This is a single-center retrospective review of institutional costs for patients with HPN with community-acquired CLABSI at a tertiary care children's hospital. Inclusion was age 18 years or less between October 2011 and April 2016. Exclusions were death during hospitalization and readmission within 2 days of discharge. Patient-level factors were compared between high-cost group and all others using Welch 2-sample t test and analysis of variance. Multivariable logistic regression was used to determine predictors of higher cost.

RESULTS

There were 176 CLABSI admissions among 68 patients during the study period (median 2 hospitalizations per patients). The mean cost and length of stay per hospital admission are $28,375 (2015 US dollars) and 8 days, and both were associated with intensive care unit admission (ICU), central venous catheter removal, private insurance, and age <2 years at admission. Nine percent of patients were classified as "super-utilizers" whose 54 hospitalizations accounted for 28% of total institutional costs.

CONCLUSIONS

Among pediatric patients with HPN, community-acquired CLABSI is associated with significant cost and length of stay. Healthcare utilization is disproportionately concentrated in a small number of patients. These study findings may help inform cost analysis for future CLABSI prevention strategies.

Time-to-Positivity of Blood Cultures in Children With Sepsis

Background: Blood cultures are essential for the diagnosis and further appropriate treatment in children with suspected sepsis. In most hospitals, children will be empirically treated or closely monitored for at least 48 h awaiting results of blood cultures. Several studies have challenged the optimal duration of empiric treatment in the era of continuously monitored blood culture systems. The aim of our study was to investigate time-to-positivity (TTP) of blood cultures in children with proven sepsis. Methods: The Swiss Pediatric Sepsis Study prospectively enrolled children 0-16 years of age with blood culture positive sepsis between September 2011 and October 2015. TTP was prospectively assessed in six participating academic pediatric hospitals by fully automated blood culture systems. Results: In 521 (93%) of 562 bacteremia episodes (493 children, median age 103 days, range 0 days-16.9 years) a valid TTP was available. Median TTP was 12 h (IQR 8-17 h, range 0-109 h). By 24, 36, and 48 h, 460 (88%), 498 (96%), and 510 (98%) blood cultures, respectively, were positive. TTP was independent of age, sex, presence of comorbidities, site of infection and severity of infection. Median TTP in all age groups combined was shortest for group B streptococcus (8.7 h) and longest for coagulase-negative staphylococci (16.2 h). Conclusion: Growth of bacteria in blood cultures is detectable within 24 h in 9 of 10 children with blood culture-proven sepsis. Therefore, a strict rule to observe or treat all children with suspected sepsis for at least 48 h is not justified.

Central Line-Associated Bloodstream Infection among Children with Intestinal Failure Presenting to the Emergency Department with Fever

OBJECTIVES

To determine which factors confer the greatest risk of central line-associated bloodstream infection (CLABSI) in children with intestinal failure and fever presenting to an emergency department (ED), and to assess whether a low-risk group exists that may not require the standard treatment of admission for 48 hours on intravenous antibiotics pending culture results.

STUDY DESIGN

This retrospective cohort study included children with intestinal failure and fever presenting to an ED over a 6-year period. Multivariable models were created using risk factors selected a priori to be associated with CLABSI as well as univariate predictors with P < .2.

RESULTS

Among 81 patients with 278 ED encounters, 132 (47.5%) CLABSI episodes were identified. Multivariable models showed higher initial temperature in the ED (aOR, 1.99; 95% CI, 1.25-3.17) and low white blood cell count (aOR, 2.65; 95% CI, 1.03-6.79) and platelet count (aOR, 2.65; 95% CI, 1.20-5.87) relative to age-specific reference ranges were strongly associated with CLABSI. Among the 63 encounters in which the patient had none of these risk factors, the rate of CLABSI was 25.4%.

CONCLUSIONS

Children with intestinal failure who present to the ED with fever have high rates of CLABSI. Although higher temperature in the ED, lower white blood cell count, and lower platelet count are strongly associated with CLABSI, patients without these risk factors frequently have positive blood cultures as well. Antibiotics should, therefore, be given to all children with intestinal failure and fever until CLABSI is ruled out.

Epidemiology and Risk Factors for Outpatient-Acquired Catheter-Related Bloodstream Infections in Children Receiving Home Parenteral Nutrition

BACKGROUND

Few studies have examined the epidemiology and risk factors for the development of outpatient-acquired catheter-related bloodstream infections (CRBSIs) in children receiving home parenteral nutrition. This study aimed to (1) characterize the incidence, clinical presentation, and epidemiology of CRBSIs and (2) identify risk factors for CRBSIs in children receiving home parenteral nutrition.

METHODS

A longitudinal database approved by our Institutional Review Board was created to prospectively track CRBSIs in the UCLA pediatric population from January to December 2012. Eligible patients included those < 18 years old receiving home parenteral nutrition.

RESULTS

Thirty of 60 patients (50%) were diagnosed with 66 CRBSIs, for an overall CRBSI rate of 3.6 per 1000 catheter days. Of the CRBSIs, 73% were due to single microorganisms and 27% were polymicrobial. There was a significant difference in median (range) time for blood cultures to turn positive depending on type of CRBSIs (p = 0.03), with polymicrobial infections detected at 13.4 (8.7-24.3) hours, gram-negative infections at 16.5 (9-30.8) hours, and gram-positive infections at 18.9 (8.4-37.1) hours. The most common presenting symptom was fever (82%), followed by gastrointestinal symptoms (42%) and chills (29%). The only significant multivariate risk factor for CRBSIs was presence of a feeding tube (2.3-fold increase in CRBSI risk, p = 0.04).

DISCUSSION

Outpatient-acquired CRBSIs are common in children receiving home parenteral nutrition. CRBSIs typically present with fever, but are also associated with gastrointestinal and/or respiratory symptoms. The presence of feeding tubes may predispose children on home parenteral nutrition to developing CRBSIs.

Long-term outcomes of pediatric intestinal failure

Management of pediatric intestinal failure has evolved in recent decades, with improved survival since the advent of specialized multidisciplinary intestinal failure centers. Though sepsis and intestinal failure associated liver disease still contribute to mortality, we now have growing data on the long-term outcomes for this population. While intestinal adaptation and parenteral nutrition weaning is most rapid during the first year on parenteral support, achievement of enteral autonomy is possible even after many years as energy and protein requirements decline dramatically with age. Intestinal transplant is an option for patients experiencing complications of long-term parenteral nutrition who are expected to have permanent intestinal failure, but outcomes are hindered by immunosuppression-related complications. Much of the available data comes from single center retrospective reports, with variable inclusion criteria, intestinal failure definitions, and follow-up durations; this limits the ability to analyze outcomes and identify best practices. As most children now survive long-term, the focus of management has shifted to the avoidance and management of comorbidities, support of normal growth and development, and optimization of quality of life for these medically and surgically complex patients.

Predictors of failure of fish-oil therapy for intestinal failure-associated liver disease in children

BACKGROUND

Parenteral fish-oil (FO) therapy is a safe and effective treatment for intestinal failure-associated liver disease (IFALD). Patients whose cholestasis does not resolve with FO may progress to end-stage liver disease.

OBJECTIVE

We sought to identify factors associated with the failure of FO therapy in treating IFALD to guide prognostication and referral guidelines.

DESIGN

Prospectively collected data for patients treated with FO at Boston Children's Hospital from 2004 to 2014 were retrospectively reviewed. Resolution of cholestasis was defined as sustained direct bilirubin (DB) <2 mg/dL, and treatment failure as liver transplantation or death while DB was >2 mg/dL as of July 2015. Demographics, laboratory values, and medical history at FO therapy initiation were compared between patients who achieved resolution of cholestasis and those who failed therapy.

RESULTS

Among 182 patients treated with FO, 86% achieved resolution of cholestasis and 14% failed therapy. Patients who failed therapy had median (IQR) lower birth weight [1020 g (737, 1776 g) compared with 1608 g (815, 2438 g); P = 0.03] and were older at FO initiation [20.4 wk (9.9, 38.6 wk) compared with 11.7 wk (7.3, 21.4 wk); P = 0.02] than patients whose cholestasis resolved. Patients who failed therapy had more advanced liver disease at therapy initiation than patients whose cholestasis resolved, as evidenced by lower median (IQR) γ-glutamyltransferase [54 U/L (41, 103 U/L) compared with 112 U/L (76, 168 U/L); P < 0.001], higher DB [10.4 mg/dL (7.5, 14.1 mg/dL) compared with 4.4 mg/dL (3.1, 6.6 mg/dL); P < 0.001], and a higher pediatric end-stage liver disease (PELD) score [22 (14, 25) compared with 12 (7, 15); P < 0.001]. A PELD score of ≥15, history of gastrointestinal bleeding, age at FO initiation ≥16 wk, presence of nongastrointestinal comorbidities, and mechanical ventilation at FO initiation were independent predictors of treatment failure.

CONCLUSIONS

Most infants with IFALD responded to FO therapy with resolution of cholestasis, and liver transplantation was rarely required. Early FO initiation once biochemical cholestasis is detected in parenteral nutrition-dependent patients is recommended. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT00910104.