Cytokine pathways in allergic disease

The impact of allergies on patient-reported outcomes after total hip and knee arthroplasty: a systematic review and meta-analysis

INTRODUCTION

Metal hypersensitivity has been associated with persistent symptoms after total hip arthroplasty (THA) and total knee arthroplasty (TKA), despite successful joint replacement. Allergies frequently co-occur and have been linked to psychiatric disturbances such as anxiety. There is a knowledge gap regarding the effect of allergies, including metal hypersensitivity, on patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) after THA and TKA. This study aimed to evaluate the influence of allergies including metal hypersensitivity on PROMs in patients undergoing THA and TKA.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A systematic search PROSPERO (CRD42023475972) was conducted using PubMed, EMBASE, Scopus, and Cochrane databases. Studies that compared allergic and non-allergic adults undergoing primary THA or TKA and reported PROMs were included. Methodological quality was assessed using the MINORS criteria. The mean differences (MD) and standardized mean differences (SMD) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated. Eight studies, involving 33,808 patients, were included.

RESULTS

For functional outcomes assessed using SF-12, SF-36, KOOS JR, and HOOS JR, allergic patients demonstrated significantly worse scores (SMD - 0.23, 95% CI -0.36 to -0.09). The WOMAC functional scale also demonstrated poorer results in allergic patients (MD 2.49, 95% CI 0.64 4.35). For pain assessed using the WOMAC pain scale, allergic patients reported significantly greater pain (MD 1.04, 95% CI 0.46 1.62). Changes in mental status assessed using the SF-12 and SF-36 did not show significant differences between the groups (MD -0.46, 95% CI -1.40 to 0.47). In subgroup analysis, patients in the THA subgroup showed significantly worse outcomes (MD -7.20, 95% CI -12.97 - -1.43).

CONCLUSION

This meta-analysis found that patients with allergies, including metal hypersensitivity, generally had worse functional outcomes after THA and TKA than patients without allergies. Further research is required to confirm these findings. Preoperative allergy screening can identify individuals at risk of treatment optimization.

Comparison of cow's milk allergy models highlighted higher humoral and Th2 immune responses in BALB/c than C3H/HeNCrl mice

Cow's milk allergy (CMA) is common in early childhood and the incidence is increasing. However, its mechanisms of action are still not fully understood due to the range of different clinical symptoms. So far, the development of different mouse models has been the best choice to study the molecular mechanisms triggering allergy. However, the selection of suitable strains for the establishment of animal models truly representative of associated human pathologies is still a challenge. Hence, we focused on both C3H/HeNCrl and BALB/c mice to characterize their susceptibility to CMA. After intraperitoneal sensitization, BALB/c and C3H/HeNCrl strains were challenged with β-lactoglobulin (BLG), and compared in allergic symptoms and active immune response, which assessed by specific antibody production and cytokine release. At first, both groups exhibited anaphylaxis, showed specific BLG-related IgE, Th2 response and seemed both suitable for the development of CMA models. However, a detailed analysis revealed that BALB/c had both stronger humoral and Th2 immune responses, producing more antibodies (IgE and IgG/IgG1/IgG2a), and releasing higher levels of Th2-associated cytokines (IL-4, IL-5, IL-13) compared to C3H/HeNCrl mice. Therefore, BALB/c strain would represent a preferential choice in the establishment of CMA models. This study highlights the subtle differences and major outcomes in the selection of mouse strains for the development of suitable food allergy models.

Therapeutic potency of curcumin for allergic diseases: A focus on immunomodulatory actions

In light of increasing research evidence on the molecular mechanisms of allergic diseases, the crucial roles of innate and acquired immunity in the disease's pathogenesis have been well highlighted. In this respect, much attention has been paid to the modulation of unregulated and unabated inflammatory responses aiming to suppress pathologic immune responses in treating allergic diseases. One of the most important natural compounds with a high potency of immune modulation is curcumin, an active polyphenol compound derived from turmeric, Curcuma longa L. Curcumin's immunomodulatory action mainly arises from its interactions with an extensive collection of immune cells such as mast cells, eosinophils, epithelial cells, basophils, neutrophils, and lymphocytes. Up to now, there has been no detailed investigation of curcumin's immunomodulatory actions in allergic diseases. So, the present review study aims to prepare an overview of the immunomodulatory effects of curcumin on the pathologic innate immune responses and dysregulated functions of T helper (T_H) subtypes, including T_H1, T_H2, T_H17, and regulator T cells (Tregs) by gathering evidence from several studies of In-vitro and In-vivo. As the second aim of the present review, we also discuss some novel strategies to overcome the limitation of curcumin in clinical use. Finally, this review also assesses the therapeutic potential of curcumin regarding its immunomodulatory actions in allergic diseases.

Atopy manifestations in pediatric patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia: correlation assessment with interleukin-4 (IL-4) and IgE level

BACKGROUND

Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is the most common type of cancer in the age range of under 15 years old and accounts for 25-30% of all childhood cancers. Although conventional chemotherapy regimens are used to improve the overall survival rate, it has been associated with some complications, amongst which allergic manifestations with unknown mechanisms are more common.

METHODS

Our study compared serum IgE and IL-4 concentration, as a hallmark of allergic responses in pediatric ALL patients before and after 6 months of intensive (high-dose) chemotherapy, to show whether changes in the level of these markers may be associated with atopy. Serum level of IL-4 and IgE was measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method.

RESULTS

The results showed that the level of IgE and IL-4 increased following chemotherapy in both ALL patients with and without atopy. In addition, post-chemotherapy treatment IgE and IL-4 levels were significantly elevated in patients with atopy compared to those without it. The difference between baseline and post-chemotherapy level of IgE and IL-4 was significantly higher in patients with atopy compared to those without it.

CONCLUSIONS

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that showed a connection between post-chemotherapy allergic manifestations in pediatric ALL patients and IL-4 and IgE level. Flow cytometry analysis of the T-helper 2 (Th2) lymphocytes and other allergy-related T cell subsets like Tc2 and Th9 as well as the study of the genetic variations in atopy-related genes like IL-4/IL-4R, IL-5, IL-9, IL-13, and high affinity FcεRI IgE receptor and also HLA genes is necessary to clearly define the underlying mechanism responsible for post-chemotherapy hypersensitivity reaction in pediatric ALL patients.

Does Allergy Break Bones? Osteoporosis and Its Connection to Allergy

: Osteoporosis and allergic diseases are important causes of morbidity, and traditionally their coexistence has been attributed to causality, to independent processes, and they were considered unrelated. However, the increasing knowledge in the field of osteoimmunology and an increasing number of epidemiological and biological studies have provided support to a correlation between bone and allergy that share pathways, cells, cytokines and mediators. If the link between allergic pathology and bone alterations appears more subtle, there are conditions such as mastocytosis and hypereosinophilic or hyper-IgE syndromes characterized by the proliferation of cells or hyper-production of molecules that play a key role in allergies, in which this link is at least clinically more evident, and the diseases are accompanied by frank skeletal involvement, offering multiple speculation cues. The pathophysiological connection of allergy and osteoporosis is currently an intriguing area of research. The aim of this review is to summarize and bring together the current knowledge and pursue an opportunity to stimulate further investigation.

CRM197-Coupled Der p 2 Peptides Suppress Allergic Airway Inflammation in a Der p 2-Induced Asthma Mouse Model

Allergic diseases affect more than 25% of the global population. Der p 2 is the major allergen of the house dust mite (HDM) Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus. Allergen-specific immunotherapy is the only treatment to change the course of allergic diseases. In this study, two synthesized Der p 2 peptides coupled to cross-reacting material 197 (CRM197) showed reduced IgE reactivity and allergenic activity. CRM197-coupled Der p 2 peptides induced rDer p 2-specific IgG1 antibodies in mice, which could inhibit HDM-allergic patients' IgE binding to rDer p 2. The immunity effects of CRM197-coupled Der p 2 peptides were studied in an rDer p 2-induced asthma mouse model. CRM197-coupled Der p 2 peptides can suppress asthmatic airway inflammation in this model. Analysis of IL-4, IL-5, and IFN-γ levels in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid revealed that the suppression was associated with a shift from a Th2 to a Th1 response. Thus, CRM197-bound Der p 2 peptides exhibited less allergenic activity than the rDer p 2 allergen, which preserved immunogenicity and may be candidates for mite allergy vaccines.

Reproducibility of nasal allergen challenge responses in adults with allergic rhinitis

Background

Allergic rhinitis is characterized by nasal inflammation in response to allergen exposure. Nasal allergen challenges are used in clinical trials evaluating drug effects. Reproducibility of nasal secretion cytokine responses and physiological measurements are needed to determine the optimum measurements and power calculations for future studies. We have investigated the reproducibility of nasal cytokine measurements, using ready-to-use polyvinyl acetate sponges to collect nasal secretions, and measurements of nasal physiological responses.

Methods

Twelve subjects with allergic rhinitis and no history of respiratory disease, and 12 subjects with asthma and allergic rhinitis underwent a nasal allergen challenge. This was repeated at 7-14 days later.

Results

There were increases in IL-5, CCL11, and CXCL8 responses post-challenge (all P<0.05). There was better reproducibility at later time points when higher cytokine levels were detected for IL-5 (r_i =0.64 at 8 hours) and CXCL8 (r_i =0.91 at 8 hours). Acoustic rhinometry provided good to excellent reproducibility (r_i =0.66-0.89). Rhinomanometry had lower reproducibility with greater variation (r_i =0.10-0.70), with some subjects unable to perform the measurement. Multiplex immunoassays provided greater sensitivity for CCL11 measurements. There were no differences between allergic rhinitis patients with and without asthma.

Conclusion

Polyvinyl acetate sponges are a practical and reproducible way to sample nasal secretions. Acoustic rhinometry is a practical and reproducible method for assessing physiological responses. There were no differences in nasal response due to the presence of concurrent asthma.

The Iron Chelator and Anticancer Agent Dp44mT Relieves Allergic Inflammation in Mice With Allergic Rhinitis

Our previous study showed that an iron chelator and anticancer agent Di-2-pyridylketone-4,4-dimethyl-3-thiosemicarbazone (Dp44mT) has an antiinflammatory effect in human mast cells. However, antiinflammatory effect of Dp44mT remains unclear in animal models. In this study, we assessed whether administration of Dp44mT could relieve clinical symptoms of ovalbumin (OVA)-induced allergic rhinitis (AR) mice. After administration of Dp44mT, number of rubs was significantly decreased, and levels of histamine and IgE were suppressed in serum of AR mice. Also, serum levels of interleukin (IL)-1β, thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP), and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α increased by OVA challenge were significantly lowered by administration of Dp44mT. T helper type 1 (Th1) cytokine interferon-γ level was significantly increased by administration of Dp44mT, whereas Th2 cytokines such as IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 were significantly reduced by administration of Dp44mT. In intranasal tissues of AR mice, levels of IL-1β, TSLP, TNF-α, and IL-6 and activities and protein levels of caspase-1 were significantly reduced by administration of Dp44mT. Interestingly, administration of Dp44mT reduced number of infiltrated eosinophils and mast cells through the inhibition of macrophage inflammatory protein-2 and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 in intranasal tissues of AR mice. In conclusion, these results indicate that Dp44mT also has potential antiinflammatory effects in vivo as well as in vitro.

Pollen Lipids Can Play a Role in Allergic Airway Inflammation

In seed plants, pollen grains carry the male gametes to female structures. They are frequent in the ambient air, and cause airway inflammation in one out of four persons in the population. This was traditionally attributed to soluble glycoproteins, leaking into the nasal mucosa or the conjunctiva, and able to bind antibodies. It is now more and more recognized that also other immunomodulating compounds are present. Lipids bind to Toll-like and PPARγ receptors belonging to antigen-presenting cells in the mammal immune system, activate invariant Natural Killer T-cells, and are able to induce a Type 2 reaction in effector cells. They may also mimic lipid mediators from mammal mast cells. Pollen grains have a rich lipodome of their own. Among the lipids that have been associated with an atopic reaction are saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, glycophospholipids, sphingolipids, sterols, and oxylipids, as well as lipopolysaccharides from the microbiome on the pollen surface. Lipids can be ligands to allergenic proteins.

Effect of fresh frozen plasma on the in vitro activation of U937 monocytes: a potential role for the age of blood donors and their underlying cytokine profile

BACKGROUND

Fresh frozen plasma (FFP) administration may increase the risk of nosocomial infections in parallel with the development of immune modulation. This could be driven by soluble mediators, possibly influencing the in vitro activation of human U937 monocyte cells, in a manner dependent on the age of the donors.

METHODS

FFP donors were stratified into groups of 19-30 years, 31-40 years or 41-50 years, and U937 cells were cultured with FFP (alone or plus lipopolysaccharide-LPS) for 24 h. Both in FFP and supernatants, TNF, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-10 levels were measured by ELISA. Additionally, CD11B, TLR2, and CASP3 gene expression were measured by qtPCR in U937 cells. Total phagocytic activity was also assayed.

RESULTS

Elevated IL-10, but low TNF and IL-1β levels were measured in FFP from individuals aged 19-40 years, whereas in individuals aged 41-50 years FFP were characterized by equalized TNF and IL-10 levels. Elevated IL-6 levels were found in all FFP samples, especially in those from the oldest individuals. FFP stimulation was associated with striking modifications in cytokine production in an age-dependent way. Exposure to FFP attenuates the response to LPS. TLR2 and CD11B expression were enhanced regardless of the age of plasma donors, although CASP3 expression was increased only when FFP from individuals aged 19-40 years were tested. Phagocytosis decreased after exposure to FFP regardless of donor age.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that soluble mediators in FFP may modulate the functioning of monocytes. Interestingly, this effect appears to be partially influenced by the age of donors.

Association between allergic disease, sleep-disordered breathing, and childhood nocturnal enuresis: a population-based case-control study

BACKGROUND

Little is known about the associations between allergic disease, sleep-disordered breathing (SDB), and childhood nocturnal enuresis (NE). We examined whether allergic disease and SDB were associated with childhood NE.

METHODS

Data were assessed from the 2007-2012 Taiwan National Health Insurance Research Database. We enrolled 4308 children aged 5-18 years having NE diagnosis and age- and sex-matched 4308 children as the control group. The odds ratios of NE were calculated to determine an association with preexisting allergic disease and SDB.

RESULTS

A total of 8616 children were included in the analysis. Prevalence of allergic diseases and SDB was significantly higher for the NE group than the control group (all p < 0.001). After adjusting odds ratios for potential confounding factors, except asthma, children with allergic rhinitis, atopic dermatitis, allergic conjunctivitis, and obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) had significantly higher odds of NE compared with children never diagnosed. With stratification for sex, girls with allergic rhinitis, atopic dermatitis, allergic conjunctivitis, OSA, and snoring had significantly higher odds of NE, compared with girls never diagnosed. Only boys with allergic rhinitis and OSA were associated with increased odds of NE. With stratification for age, children aged 5-12 years with allergic rhinitis, atopic dermatitis, allergic conjunctivitis, and OSA had significantly higher odds of NE compared with those never diagnosed. Odds of NE increased with the number of comorbid allergic diseases.

CONCLUSIONS

Allergic diseases and SDB are associated with increased odds of childhood NE. The odds of NE increased with the number of comorbid allergic diseases present.

Pathological and therapeutic roles of innate lymphoid cells in diverse diseases

Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) are a recently defined type of innate-immunity cells that belong to the lymphoid lineage and have lymphoid morphology but do not express an antigen-specific B cell or T-cell receptor. ILCs regulate immune functions prior to the formation of adaptive immunity and exert effector functions through a cytokine release. ILCs have been classified into three groups according to the transcription factors that regulate their development and function and the effector cytokines they produce. Of note, ILCs resemble T helper (Th) cells, such as Th1, Th2, and Th17 cells, and show a similar dependence on transcription factors and distinct cytokine production. Despite their short history in immunology, ILCs have received much attention, and numerous studies have revealed biological functions of ILCs including host defense against pathogens, inflammation, tissue repair, and metabolic homeostasis. Here, we describe recent findings about the roles of ILCs in the pathogenesis of various diseases and potential therapeutic targets.

The study of a possible correlation between serum levels of interleukin 17 and clinical severity in patients with allergic rhinitis

Introduction:

Allergic rhinitis (AR) is one of the most common allergic diseases, which affects ∼20% of the world's population. T-helper (Th) type 2 cells produce interleukin (IL) 4 and IL-13, and mediate allergic responses, and these cytokines have been extensively studied as key players in the atopic airway diseases. However, the involvement of Th17 cells and IL-17 in AR has not been clearly examined.

Aim:

To reevaluate AR clinical severity with serum IL-17, whether IL-17 affects the disease alone or in contribution with the atopic predisposition.

Patients and Methods:

During an 18-month period, 39 individuals were divided into three groups: A, (13 control), B (13 with mild-to-moderate AR), and C (13 with severe AR). Both group B and group C patients (26) were subjected to clinical examination and allergy skin testing, and to measurement of both total serum immunoglobulin E (IgE) and IL-17 levels. Eleven patients with AR then were exposed to 6 months of cluster immunotherapy, whereas the rest of the patients were not exposed.

Results:

Revealed a significant elevation of serum IL-17 levels with an associated increase in serum IgE in the patients with AR compared with controls and revealed that the serum levels of both total serum IgE and IL-17 decreased significantly after cluster immunotherapy.

Conclusion:

These preliminary results added new data about the use of injective immunotherapy as well as reported on the use of sublingual immunotherapy.

Cytokine profile and maternal depression and anxiety symptoms in mid-pregnancy-the FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study

Maternal prenatal psychological symptoms are associated with child health outcomes, e.g., atopic diseases. Altered prenatal functioning of the immune system is a potential mechanism linking maternal symptoms with child health. Research on prenatal distress and cytokines is warranted. The study population comprised consecutive N = 139 women from a general population-based FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study. Standardized questionnaires for depressive, overall anxiety, and pregnancy-related anxiety symptoms were used. Serum concentrations of selected cytokines were analyzed using Multiplex bead arrays from samples drawn at the gestational week 24. The concentrations of T helper (Th)2-related interleukins (IL)-9 and IL-13 and Th1-related IL-12 correlated positively with prenatal depressive and overall anxiety symptom scores (p values, range 0.011-0.029). Higher interferon (IFN)-γ/IL-4 ratio (p = 0.039) and Th2-related IL-5 (p = 0.007) concentration correlated positively with depressive symptoms. Pregnancy-related anxiety score correlated positively with IL-12 (p = 0.041), IL-13 (p = 0.025), and anti-inflammatory IL-10 (p = 0.048) concentrations. IL-6 and TNF-α concentrations were unrelated to prenatal symptoms. As a novel finding, we observed positive correlations between concentrations of potentially proallergenic cytokines and maternal prenatal psychological symptoms. Different symptom measures may yield distinct cytokine responses. This provides hypotheses for studies on mechanisms bridging prenatal stress and child health.

Monocyte/Macrophage: NK Cell Cooperation-Old Tools for New Functions

Monocyte/macrophage and natural killer (NK) cells are partners from a phylogenetic standpoint of innate immune system development and its evolutionary progressive interaction with adaptive immunity. The equally conservative ways of development and differentiation of both invertebrate hemocytes and vertebrate macrophages are reviewed. Evolutionary conserved molecules occurring in macrophage receptors and effectors have been inherited by vertebrates after their common ancestor with invertebrates. Cytolytic functions of mammalian NK cells, which are rooted in immune cells of invertebrates, although certain NK cell receptors (NKRs) are mammalian new events, are characterized. Broad heterogeneity of macrophage and NK cell phenotypes that depends on surrounding microenvironment conditions and expression profiles of specific receptors and activation mechanisms of both cell types are discussed. The particular tissue specificity of macrophages and NK cells, as well as their plasticity and mechanisms of their polarization to different functional subtypes have been underlined. The chapter summarized studies revealing the specific molecular mechanisms and regulation of NK cells and macrophages that enable their highly specific cross-cooperation. Attention is given to the evolving role of human monocyte/macrophage and NK cell interaction in pathogenesis of hypersensitivity reaction-based disorders, including autoimmunity, as well as in cancer surveillance and progression.

Treatment with cytokine thymic stromal lymphopoietin short hairpin RNA substantially reduces TGF-β1-induced interstitial cellular fibrosis

Thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) has previously been linked to allergic inflammatory diseases, and tissue fibrosis and organ dysfunction may also arise from such inflammation. It remains unclear, however, whether TSLP plays any role in the occurrence of renal fibrosis, so this study investigated that possibility. An in vitro fibrosis model was established by treating normal rat kidney fibroblast (NRK-49F) cells with transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1), after which the levels of various fibrogenic markers (e.g., fibronectin) and downstream fibrogenic signal proteins (e.g., smad 7) were investigated. Also, TSLP shRNA was used to silence the effects of TSLP, while an ELISA was conducted to evaluate the fibronectin secretions. The level of fibronectin in the NRK-49F cells was dose- and time-dependently increased by the administration of exogenous TSLP (P<0.05). TSLP also significantly increased the level of fibrosis signaling, in addition to inducing a marked decrease in the down-regulation of Smad7. Interestingly, the application of TSLP shRNA caused a stark reversal of the TGF-β1-induced cellular fibrosis while simultaneously leading to the suppression of fibronectin and fibrogenic signal proteins. Taken together, these observations provide insights into how extracellular matrices develop and could thus lead to potential therapeutic interventions for the suppression of renal fibrosis.

Anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic effects and underlying mechanisms of Huang-Lian-Jie-Du extract: Implication for atopic dermatitis treatment

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Huang-Lian-Jie-Du Decoction (HLJDD), a well-known Chinese herbal formula recorded in the Tang dynasty, is composed of Coptidis rhizoma (Huang-Lian), Scutellariae radix (Huang-Qin), Phellodendri Chinensis cortex (Huang-Bai) and Gardenia fructus (Zhi-Zi). It has clinical efficacy of purging fire for removing toxin and is commonly used for the treatment of disease including Alzheimer's disease, stroke and gastrointestinal disorders. HLJDD is also frequently applied for the treatment of various skin diseases, such as atopic dermatitis (AD) and various types of eczema. The aim of this study is to investigate the anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic actions of Huang-Lian-Jie-Du ethanolic extract (HLJDE) and to elucidate underlying molecular mechanisms of action using relevant in vitro experimental models.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The anti-inflammatory effects of HLJDE were investigated through evaluating the change of nitric oxide (NO) and the production of several cytokines and chemokines in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 cell line. Expression of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), NF-κB p65 phosphorylation, inhibitor-κBα (IκBα) degradation were further investigated to elucidate its anti-inflammatory molecular mechanisms. Meanwhile, the anti-allergic activities of HLJDE was also evaluated using antigen-induced RBL-2H3 cell line. β-hexosaminidase and histamine release and selected cytokines and chemokines were measured to evaluate the anti-allergic activities of HLJDE. In addition, intracellular Ca(2+)level, MAPKs and Lyn phosphorylation were further investigated to reveal its anti-allergic molecular mechanisms.

RESULTS

HLJDE could significantly suppress the secretion of NO, IL-1β, IL-4, MCP-1 and GM-CSF in RAW264.7 cells in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, HLJDE also markedly reduced the phosphorylation of MAPKs, and inhibited the transcriptional activity of NF-κB and IκBα degradation. Furthermore, HLJDE exerted marked anti-allergic activity through inhibiting the release of β-hexosaminidase and histamine. The release of cytokines and chemokines (IL-4, TNF-α, MCP-1) from activated RBL-2H3 cells were also attenuated by pretreatment with HLJDE. The inhibitory effects on intracellular Ca(2+)level, and reduced phosphorylation of MAPKs and Lyn are believed to be the anti-allergic mechanisms.

CONCLUSIONS

HLJDE exerted significant anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic effects through suppressing the production of allergic and inflammatory mediators via the NF-κB and MAPKs inactivation and IκBα degradation in the LPS-stimulated RAW24.7 cells, inactivation of MAPKs and Lyn pathway in antigen-induced RBL-2H3 cells. The present study provides in vitro experimental evidence to support the use of HLJDE for the clinical treatment of AD.

Exposure to Aedes aegypti Bites Induces a Mixed-Type Allergic Response following Salivary Antigens Challenge in Mice

Classical studies have shown that Aedes aegypti salivary secretion is responsible for the sensitization to mosquito bites and many of the components present in saliva are immunogenic and capable of inducing an intense immune response. Therefore, we have characterized a murine model of adjuvant-free systemic allergy induced by natural exposure to mosquito bites. BALB/c mice were sensitized by exposure to A. aegypti mosquito bites and intranasally challenged with phosphate-buffered saline only or the mosquito’s salivary gland extract (SGE). Blood, bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) and lung were collected and evaluated for cellularity, histopathological analyses, cytokines and antibody determination. Respiratory pattern was analyzed by Penh measurements and tracheal segments were obtained to study in vitro reactivity to methacholine. BAL recovered from sensitized mice following challenge with SGE showed an increased number of eosinophils and Th2 cytokines such as IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13. Peribronchoalveolar eosinophil infiltration, mucus and collagen were also observed in lung parenchyma of sensitized mice, suggesting the development of a typical Th2 response. However, the antibody profile in serum of these mice evidenced a mixed-type response with presence of both, IgG1/IgE (Th2-related) and IgG2a (Th1-related) isotypes. In addition, changes in breathing pattern and tracheal reactivity to methacholine were not found. Taken together, our results show that A. aegypti bites trigger an atypical allergic reaction, with some classical cellular and soluble Th2 components in the lung, but also systemic Th1 and Th2 antibody isotypes and no change in either the respiratory pattern or the trachea responsiveness to agonist.

INVITED REVIEW: Evolution of meat animal growth research during the past 50 years: Adipose and muscle stem cells

If one were to compare today's animal growth research to research from a mere 50 yr ago, one would see programs with few similarities. The evolution of this research from whole-animal through cell-based and finally molecular and genomic studies has been enhanced by the identification, isolation, and in vitro evaluation of adipose- and muscle-derived stem cells. This paper will highlight the struggles and the milestones that make this evolving area of research what it is today. The contribution of adipose and muscle stem cell research to development and growth, tissue regeneration, and final carcass composition are reviewed.

Cytokine profiles in nasal fluid of patients with seasonal or persistent allergic rhinitis

Background

New therapeutic approaches with biologic agents such as anti-cytokine antibodies are currently on trial for the treatment of asthma, rhinosinusitis or allergic diseases necessitating patient selection by biomarkers. Allergic rhinitis (AR), affecting about 20 % of the Canadian population, is an inflammatory disease characterised by a disequilibrium of T-lymphocytes and tissue eosinophilia. Aim of the present study was to describe distinct cytokine patterns in nasal secretion between seasonal and perennial AR (SAR/PAR), and healthy controls by comparing cytokines regulating T-cells or stimulating inflammatory cells, and chemokines.

Methods

Nasal secretions of 44 participants suffering from SAR, 45 participants with PAR and 48 healthy controls were gained using the cotton wool method, and analysed for IL-1β, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12, IL-13, IL-17, GM-CSF, G-CSF, IFN-γ, MCP-1, MIP-1α, MIP-1β, eotaxin, and RANTES by Bio-Plex Cytokine Assay as well as for ECP and tryptase by UniCAP-FEIA.

Results

Participants with SAR or PAR presented elevated levels of tryptase, ECP, MCP-1, and MIP-1β, while values of GM-CSF, G-CSF, IL-1β, and IL-6 did not differ from the controls. Increased levels of IL-5, eotaxin, MIP-1α, and IL-17 and decreased levels of IFN-γ, IL-12 and IL-10 were found in SAR only. RANTES was elevated in SAR in comparison to PAR. Interestingly, we found reduced levels of IL-4 in PAR and of IL-13 in SAR.

Conclusions

Elevated levels of proinflammatory cytokines were seen in both disease entities. They were, however, more pronounced in SAR, indicating a higher degree of inflammation. This study suggests a downregulation of T_H1 and T_reg-lymphocytes and an upregulation of T_H17 in SAR. Moreover, the results display a prominent role of eosinophils and mast cells in AR. The observed distinct cytokine profiles in nasal secretion may prove useful as a diagnostic tool helping to match patients to antibody therapies.

Association between Prediagnostic Allergy-Related Serum Cytokines and Glioma

Allergy is inversely related to glioma risk. To determine whether prediagnostic allergy-related serum proteins are associated with glioma, we conducted a nested case-control study of seven cytokines (IL4, IL13, IL5, IL6, IL10, IFNG, TGFB2), two soluble cytokine receptors (sIL4RA, sIL13RA2) and three allergy-related transcription factors (FOXP3, STAT3, STAT6) using serum specimens from the Janus Serum Bank Cohort in Oslo, Norway. Blood donors subsequently diagnosed with glioma (n = 487) were matched to controls (n = 487) on age and date of blood draw and sex. We first estimated individual effects of the 12 serum proteins and then interactions between IL4 and IL13 and their receptors using conditional logistic regression. We next tested equality of case-control inter-correlations among the 12 serum proteins. We found that TGFB2 is inversely related to glioblastoma (Odds Ratio (OR) = 0.87, 95% Confidence Interval (CI)) = 0.76, 0.98). In addition, ≤ 5 years before diagnosis, we observed associations between IL4 (OR = 0.82, 95% CI = 0.66, 1.01), sIL4RA (OR = 0.80, 95% CI = 0.65, 1.00), their interaction (OR = 1.06, 95% CI = 1.01, 1.12) and glioblastoma. This interaction was apparent > 20 years before diagnosis (IL4-sIL4RA OR = 1.20, 95% CI = 1.05, 1.37). Findings for glioma were similar. Case correlations were different from control correlations stratified on time before diagnosis. Five years or less before diagnosis, correlations among case serum proteins were weaker than were those among controls. Our findings suggest that IL4 and sIL4RA reduce glioma risk long before diagnosis and early gliomagenesis affects circulating immune function proteins.

Distinct sustained structural and functional effects of interleukin-33 and interleukin-25 on the airways in a murine asthma surrogate

Interleukin-25 (IL-25) and IL-33, which belong to distinct cytokine families, induce and promote T helper type 2 airway inflammation. Both cytokines probably play a role in asthma, but there is a lack of direct evidence to clarify distinctions between their functions and how they might contribute to distinct 'endotypes' of disease. To address this, we made a direct comparison of the effects of IL-25 and IL-33 on airway inflammation and physiology in our established murine asthma surrogate, which involves per-nasal, direct airway challenge. Intranasal challenge with IL-33 or IL-25 induced inflammatory cellular infiltration, collagen deposition, airway smooth muscle hypertrophy, angiogenesis and airway hyper-responsiveness, but neither increased systemic production of IgE or IgG1. Compared with that of IL-25, the IL-33-induced response was characterized by more sustained laying down of extracellular matrix protein, neoangiogenesis, T helper type 2 cytokine expression and elevation of tissue damping. Hence, both IL-25 and IL-33 may contribute significantly and independently to asthma 'endotypes' when considering molecular targets for the treatment of human disease.

Alantolactone from Saussurea lappa Exerts Antiinflammatory Effects by Inhibiting Chemokine Production and STAT1 Phosphorylation in TNF-α and IFN-γ-induced in HaCaT cells

Skin inflammation is the most common condition seen in dermatology practice and can be caused by various allergic reactions and certain toxins or chemicals. In the present study, we investigated the antiinflammatory effects of Saussurea lappa, a medicinal herb, and its marker compounds alantolactone, caryophyllene, costic acid, costunolide, and dehydrocostuslactone in the HaCaT human keratinocyte cell line. HaCaT cells were stimulated with tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), and treated with S. lappa or each of five marker compounds. Chemokine production and expression were analyzed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, respectively. Phosphorylation of signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) 1 was determined by immunoblotting. Stimulation with TNF-α and IFN-γ significantly increased the production of the following chemokines: thymus-regulated and activation-regulated chemokine (TARC): regulated on activation, normal T-cell expressed and secreted (RANTES): macrophage-derived chemokine (MDC): and interleukin-8 (IL-8). By contrast, S. lappa and the five marker compounds significantly reduced the production of these chemokines by TNF-α and IFN-γ-treated cells. S. lappa and alantolactone suppressed the TNF-α and IFN-γ-stimulated increase in the phosphorylation of STAT1. Our results demonstrate that alantolactone from S. lappa suppresses TNF-α and IFN-γ-induced production of RANTES and IL-8 by blocking STAT1 phosphorylation in HaCaT cells.

Synergy of chemotherapy and immunotherapy revealed by a genome-scale analysis of murine tuberculosis

OBJECTIVES

Although TB immunotherapy improves the results of conventional drug treatment, the effects of combining chemotherapy and immunotherapy have never been systematically evaluated. We used a comprehensive lung transcriptome analysis to directly compare the activity of combined chemotherapy and immunotherapy with that of single treatments in a mouse model of TB.

METHODS

Mycobacterium tuberculosis-infected mice in the chronic phase of the disease (day 30) received: (i) isoniazid and rifampicin (drugs) daily for 30 days; (ii) DNA immunotherapy (DNA), consisting of four 100 μg injections at 10 day intervals; (iii) both therapies (DNA + drugs); or (iv) saline. The effects were evaluated 10 days after the end of treatment (day 70 post-infection).

RESULTS

In all groups a systemic reduction in the load of bacilli was observed, bacilli became undetectable in the drugs and DNA + drugs groups, but the whole lung transcriptome analysis showed 867 genes exclusively modulated by the DNA + drugs combination. Gene enrichment analysis indicated that DNA + drugs treatment provided synergistic effects, including the down-regulation of proinflammatory cytokines and mediators of fibrosis, as confirmed by real-time PCR, ELISA, histopathology and hydroxyproline assay.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results provide a molecular basis for the advantages of TB treatment using combined chemotherapy and DNA immunotherapy and demonstrate the synergistic effects obtained with this strategy.

An Inflammatory Cytokine Milieu is Prominent in Premalignant Oral Lesions, but Subsides when Lesions Progress to Squamous Cell Carcinoma

While head and neck squamous cell carcinomas (HNSCC) are associated with profound immune suppression, less is known about the immunological milieu of premalignant oral lesions. The present study shows dynamic shifts in the immune milieu within premalignant oral lesions and when they have progressed to HNSCC. Specifically, this study showed that the premalignant lesion environment consists of inflammatory mediators and IL-17, but this inflammatory phenotype declines when premalignant oral lesions have progressed to HNSCC. The cytokine profiles of human tissues did not correspond with plasma cytokine profiles. A murine carcinogen-induced premalignant lesion model that progresses to HNSCC was used to examine cytokine profiles released from tissues as well as regional lymph nodes. As in human tissues, murine premalignant lesions and regional lymph nodes released high levels of inflammatory cytokines and, very prominently, IL-17. Also similar to human tissues, release of inflammatory cytokines declined in HNSCC tissues of mice and in the regional lymph nodes of mice with HNSCC. Studies focusing on IL-17 showed that mediators from premalignant lesions stimulated normal spleen cells to produce increased levels of IL-17, while mediators from HNSCC were less stimulatory toward IL-17 production. IL-17 production by Th17-skewed CD4+ cells was strongly inhibited by normal oral epithelium as well as HNSCC. In contrast, premalignant lesion-derived mediators further increased IL-17 production by Th17-skewed cells. The stimulation of IL-17 production by premalignant lesions was dependent on IL-23, which premalignant lesions released in higher amounts than control tissues or HNSCC. HNSCC tissues instead produced increased levels of TGF-β compared to premalignant lesions, and skewed normal spleen cells toward the Treg phenotype. This skewing was blocked by supplementation with IL-23. These studies suggest IL-23 to be a significant contributor to the inflammatory IL-17 phenotype in premalignant oral lesions and suggest the decline in IL-23 in HNSCC leads to a decline in Th17 cells.

Association of interleukin genes polymorphism with asthma susceptibility in Indian children: a case-control study

BACKGROUND

Interleukins (IL) 4 and 13 genes and their receptors (R) are the key cytokines which amplify inflammatory reactions in asthma.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate the association of IL 4, 4 R, 13 and 13 R genes polymorphism with asthma in Indian children.

METHODS

In this hospital-based case-control study, included were children aged 1-15 years recruited as diagnosed cases of bronchial asthma, according to EPR 2007 and excluded were subjects with other respiratory diseases. Children with no present or past history of asthma were enrolled as controls. Spirometry was done in cases age ≥ 6 years. Gene-gene interaction was evaluated using binary logistic regression.

RESULTS

From October 2010 to July 2013, 275 cases and 275 controls were recruited. Gene-gene interactions between C1112T in IL 13 and Ile50Val in IL 4 R gene polymorphisms were found to be statistically significant (OR = 2.37, 95% CI = 1.04-5.42, p = 0.040). Individuals with CT and GG genotype of C1112T in IL 13 and Ile50Val in IL 4 R were at twice the risk for the development of asthma compared to individuals with both non-risk genotypes.

CONCLUSION

The data suggests that gene-gene interactions between IL 13 and IL 4 R genes may play an important role in asthma among Indian children.

Skewing of immune cell cytokine production by mediators from adipocytes and endothelial cells

Since adipose tissue is composed of adipocytes as well as other cell types including endothelial cells, this study sought to determine how mediators from adipocytes and from endothelial cells impact on immune cell production of cytokines. A minimalistic design was used in which media conditioned by adipocytes or by endothelial cells were added individually or as a mixture to normal spleen cells. Media from adipocytes or endothelial cells each stimulated spleen cell production of Th1 cytokines, Th2 cytokines, most of the measured inflammatory cytokines, and some chemokines. However, a mixture of media conditioned by adipocytes and by endothelial cells inhibited production of Th1 cytokines and skewed reactivity toward a Th2 and inflammatory phenotype. Adiponectin, but not leptin, was shown to contribute to the skewing of immune responsiveness to endothelial cell-derived mediators.

Homoegonol attenuates the asthmatic responses induced by ovalbumin challenge

Homoegonol is a lignan derived from styraxlignolide A, which was isolated from Styrax japonica, a medicinal plant widely used for treatment of inflammatory diseases in Korea. We investigated the efficacy of homoegonol for the treatment of allergic asthma using an ovalbumin (OVA)-induced murine asthma model. The mice were sensitized through intraperitoneal injections of OVA on days 0 and 14. On days 21, 22 and 23 after the initial OVA sensitization, the mice were received OVA airway challenge. Homoegonol was administered by oral gavage at a dose of 30 mg/kg 1 h prior to the OVA challenge. The homoegonol-treated mice exhibited reduced inflammatory cell counts and Th2 cytokines in BALF, AHR, and IgE in the serum compared with the OVA-sensitized/challenged mice. The histological analysis of the lung tissue revealed that the administration of homoegonol attenuated the airway inflammation and the mucus overproduction in airway epithelial lesions induced by OVA through a reduction in expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase and matrix metalloproteinase-9. These findings indicate that homoegonol effectively suppresses the asthmatic responses induced by OVA challenge and suggests that homoegonol exhibits potential as therapeutic drug for allergic asthma.

IL-17 producing T cells correlate with polysensitization but not with bronchial hyperresponsiveness in patients with allergic rhinitis

Background

Th2-type T cell response has a considerable role in atopic diseases. The involvement of Th17 and IL-17 in atopy process provided new understanding of allergic diseases. Bronchial hyperresponsiveness is quite common in allergic rhinitis. We aimed to explore the expression of IL-17 producing CD3⁺ CD4⁺ T cells in peripheral blood of rhinitic patients, with/without bronchial hyperresponsiveness and sensitized to common allergens, as this relationship has not been examined.

Methods

Sixty one patients with allergic rhinitis and thirty controls were examined. IL-17 producing T cells were detected by flow cytometry, IL-17, IL-4 and IL-13 levels in peripheral blood were evaluated by ELISA. Bronchial hyperresponsiveness was investigated with methacholine challenge test. Atopy was evaluated by skin prick tests with common allergens.

Results

IL-17 producing T cell percentage of AR group was significantly higher: 2.59 ± 1.32 than in controls 1.24 ± 0.22, (p = 0.001). Significant sex related difference in CD3⁺ CD4⁺ IL-17 T cells was observed: respectively in male patients versus female 3.15 ± 1.8% and 2.31 ± 0.9%, (p = 0.02). Rhinitics had greater bronchodilator responses compared to controls (p = 0.001), however the percentages of T cells in both groups appeared equal. Serum IL-17 levels in AR group were significantly higher (5.10 ± 4.40) pg/ml than in controls (3.46 ±1.28) pg/ml, (p = 0.04). IL-4 levels (0.88 ± 1.27) and IL-13 levels (3.14 ± 5.85) in patients were significantly higher than in control’s (0.54 ± 0.10) pg/ml, (p = 0.001) and (1.19 ± 0.64) pg/ml; (p = 0.001) respectively.

The percentages of T cells in patients sensitized to 5 allergens (group I) were significantly lower (1.91 ± 0.62) than those sensitized to more than 5 allergens (group II) (2.91 ± 1.5) (p = 0.004).

Conclusions

The observed higher levels of IL-17 producing T cells in polysensitized males suggest a role of IL-17 in pathogenesis of AR. The higher airway responsiveness in AR may not be Th17 dependent. The higher serum values of IL-17, IL-4 and IL-13 demonstrate the presence of cytokine balance in atopic diseases.

An Inflammatory Cytokine Milieu is Prominent in Premalignant Oral Lesions, but Subsides when Lesions Progress to Squamous Cell Carcinoma

While head and neck squamous cell carcinomas (HNSCC) are associated with profound immune suppression, less is known about the immunological milieu of premalignant oral lesions. The present study shows dynamic shifts in the immune milieu within premalignant oral lesions and when they have progressed to HNSCC. Specifically, this study showed that the premalignant lesion environment consists of inflammatory mediators and IL-17, but this inflammatory phenotype declines when premalignant oral lesions have progressed to HNSCC. The cytokine profiles of human tissues did not correspond with plasma cytokine profiles. A murine carcinogen-induced premalignant lesion model that progresses to HNSCC was used to examine cytokine profiles released from tissues as well as regional lymph nodes. As in human tissues, murine premalignant lesions and regional lymph nodes released high levels of inflammatory cytokines and, very prominently, IL-17. Also similar to human tissues, release of inflammatory cytokines declined in HNSCC tissues of mice and in the regional lymph nodes of mice with HNSCC. Studies focusing on IL-17 showed that mediators from premalignant lesions stimulated normal spleen cells to produce increased levels of IL-17, while mediators from HNSCC were less stimulatory toward IL-17 production. IL-17 production by Th17-skewed CD4+ cells was strongly inhibited by normal oral epithelium as well as HNSCC. In contrast, premalignant lesion-derived mediators further increased IL-17 production by Th17-skewed cells. The stimulation of IL-17 production by premalignant lesions was dependent on IL-23, which premalignant lesions released in higher amounts than control tissues or HNSCC. HNSCC tissues instead produced increased levels of TGF-β compared to premalignant lesions, and skewed normal spleen cells toward the Treg phenotype. This skewing was blocked by supplementation with IL-23. These studies suggest IL-23 to be a significant contributor to the inflammatory IL-17 phenotype in premalignant oral lesions and suggest the decline in IL-23 in HNSCC leads to a decline in Th17 cells.

Maternal Supplementation with LGG Reduces Vaccine-Specific Immune Responses in Infants at High-Risk of Developing Allergic Disease

Probiotics are defined as live micro-organisms that when administered in adequate amounts confer a health benefit on the host. Among their pleiotropic effects, inhibition of pathogen colonization at the mucosal surface as well as modulation of immune responses are widely recognized as the principal biological activities of probiotic bacteria. In recent times, the immune effects of probiotics have led to their application as vaccine adjuvants, offering a novel strategy for enhancing the efficacy of current vaccines. Such an approach is particularly relevant in regions where infectious disease burden is greatest and where access to complete vaccination programs is limited. In this study, we report the effects of the probiotic, Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG) on immune responses to tetanus, Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) and pneumococcal conjugate (PCV7) vaccines in infants. This study was conducted as part of a larger clinical trial assessing the impact of maternal LGG supplementation in preventing the development of atopic eczema in infants at high-risk for developing allergic disease. Maternal LGG supplementation was associated with reduced antibody responses against tetanus, Hib, and pneumococcal serotypes contained in PCV7 (N = 31) compared to placebo treatment (N = 30) but not total IgG levels. Maternal LGG supplementation was also associated with a trend to increased number of tetanus toxoid-specific T regulatory in the peripheral blood compared to placebo-treated infants. These findings suggest that maternal LGG supplementation may not be beneficial in terms of improving vaccine-specific immunity in infants. Further clinical studies are needed to confirm these findings. As probiotic immune effects can be species/strain specific, our findings do not exclude the potential use of other probiotic bacteria to modulate infant immune responses to vaccines.

Saussurea lappa alleviates inflammatory chemokine production in HaCaT cells and house dust mite-induced atopic-like dermatitis in Nc/Nga mice

Saussurea lappa is a traditional herbal medicine used for to treat various inflammatory diseases. In this study, we investigated the protective effects of S. lappa against atopic dermatitis using human keratinocyte HaCaT cells, murine mast cell line MC/9 cells, and a house dust mite-induced atopic dermatitis model of Nc/Nga mice. Treatment with the S. lappa caused a significant reduction in the mRNA levels and production of inflammatory chemokines and cytokine, including thymus- and activation-regulated chemokine (TARC), macrophage-derived chemokine (MDC), regulated on activation, normal T-cell expressed and secreted (RANTES), and interleukin-8 (IL-8) in tumor necrosis factor-α/interferone-γ-stimulated HaCaT cells. S. lappa exhibited the significant reduction in histamine production in MC/9 cells. In the atopic dermatitis model, S. lappa significantly reduced the dermatitis score and serum IgE and TARC levels. In addition, the back skin and ears of S. lappa-treated Nc/Nga mice exhibited reduced histological manifestations of atopic skin lesions such as erosion, hyperplasia of the epidermis and dermis, and inflammatory cell infiltration. In conclusion, an extract of S. lappa effectively suppressed the development of atopic dermatitis, which was closely related to the reduction of chemokines and cytokine. Our study suggests that S. lappa may be a potential treatment for atopic dermatitis.

T cell-mediated host immune defenses in the lung

Evidence has increasingly shown that the lungs are a major site of immune regulation. A robust and highly regulated immune response in the lung protects the host from pathogen infection, whereas an inefficient or deleterious response can lead to various pulmonary diseases. Many cell types, such as epithelial cells, dendritic cells, macrophages, neutrophils, eosinophils, and B and T lymphocytes, contribute to lung immunity. This review focuses on the recent advances in understanding how T lymphocytes mediate pulmonary host defenses against bacterial, viral, and fungal pathogens.

Chemokines mediate ethanol-induced exacerbations of murine cockroach allergen asthma

Asthma imposes considerable patient and economic burdens, with the most severe cases causing the greatest affliction. Identifying stimuli that worsen asthma severity is an essential step to controlling both disease morbidity and the lessening economic impact. This study provides the first mechanistic investigation into how acute ethanol exposure will increase asthma severity in a murine model of mild cockroach allergen (CRA)-induced asthma. Outbred mice were sensitized to induce mild allergic asthma, with intratracheal CRA exposures on days 0 and 14. On day 21 mice were gavaged with water or 32% ethanol, and the third allergen exposure was given 30 min post-gavage. Asthmatic responses were measured at several time-points up to 42 h after the third allergen challenge. Ethanol-gavaged mice showed increased asthma severity within 90 min post-allergen challenge, with exacerbations lasting for 24 h. Ethanol caused greater airways obstruction, including an eightfold increase in epithelial cell mucin and increased mucus plugs, resulting in a 50% reduction in bronchiole patency. Ethanol gavage also induced significant increases in airways hyperreactivity. While T helper type 1 (Th1) and Th2 cytokines were not altered by ethanol gavage, pulmonary neutrophil and eosinophil recruitment were augmented. This increase was associated with increased chemokine production. Administration 2 h prior to ethanol gavage of a neutralizing antibody cocktail to keratinocyte-derived chemokine, macrophage inflammatory protein-2, eotaxin-1 and eotaxin-2 prevented ethanol-induced eosinophil recruitment and airways hyperreactivity. These data provide evidence that acute alcohol exposure immediately prior to a mild allergen-triggered asthmatic episode will exacerbate asthma severity mediated by increased production of chemokines.

Regulation of immune responsiveness in vivo by disrupting an early T-cell signaling event using a cell-permeable peptide

The inducible T cell kinase (ITK) regulates type 2 (Th2) cytokines that provide defense against certain parasitic and bacterial infections and are involved in the pathogenesis of lung inflammation such as allergic asthma. Activation of ITK requires the interaction of its SH3 domain with the poly-proline region of its signaling partner, the SH2 domain containing leukocyte phosphoprotein of 76 kilodaltons (SLP-76). The specific disruption of the ITK-SH3/SLP-76 poly-proline interaction in vitro by a cell-permeable competitive inhibitor peptide (R9-QQP) interferes with the activation of ITK and the transduction of its cellular functions in T lymphocytes. In the present investigation, we assessed the effects of R9-QQP treatment on the induction of an in vivo immune response as represented by lung inflammation in a murine model of allergic asthma. We found that mice treated with R9-QQP and sensitized and challenged with the surrogate allergen ovalbumin (OVA) display significant inhibition of lung inflammation in a peptide-specific manner. Thus, parameters of the allergic response, such as airway hyper-responsiveness, suppression of inflammatory cell infiltration, reduction of bronchial mucus accumulation, and production of relevant cytokines from draining lymph nodes were significantly suppressed. These findings represent the first demonstration of the biological significance of the interaction between ITK and SLP-76 in the induction of an immune response in a whole animal model and specifically underscore the significance of the ITK-SH3 domain interaction with the poly-proline region of SLP-76 in the development of an inflammatory response. Furthermore, the experimental approach of intracellular peptide-mediated inhibition might be applicable to the study of other important intracellular interactions thus providing a paradigm for dissecting signal transduction pathways.

Innate immune responses in house dust mite allergy

Sensitizations to house dust mites (HDM) trigger strong exacerbated allergen-induced inflammation of the skin and airways mucosa from atopic subjects resulting in atopic dermatitis as well as allergic rhinitis and asthma. Initially, the Th2-biased HDM allergic response was considered to be mediated only by allergen B- and T-cell epitopes to promote allergen-specific IgE production as well as IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 to recruit inflammatory cells. But this general molecular model of HDM allergenicity must be revisited as a growing literature suggests that stimulations of innate immune activation pathways by HDM allergens offer new answers to the following question: what makes an HDM allergen an allergen? Indeed, HDM is a carrier not only for allergenic proteins but also microbial adjuvant compounds, both of which are able to stimulate innate signaling pathways leading to allergy. This paper will describe the multiple ways used by HDM allergens together with microbial compounds to control the initiation of the allergic response through engagement of innate immunity.

Molecular immunology of allergic conjunctivitis

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Successful treatment of allergic eye disease depends on understanding the pathophysiology of ocular allergy. Thus, in this review, recent experimental and clinical research that has provided significant information about the immunopathology of allergic eye disease will be discussed.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recently, role of various cells, cytokines and chemokines has been scrutinized in the immunopathogenesis of ocular allergy. In this respect, current research highlights contribution of special molecules and cells in the development and clinical features of immunoglobulin E (IgE) and T-cell-mediated eye allergies.

SUMMARY

Recent findings in molecular immunology of ocular allergy, which comprise complex inflammatory conditions of the conjunctiva, have enabled us to better understand the pathophysiology of these diseases and have aided in the potential development of new therapeutic agents.

Exposure to triclosan augments the allergic response to ovalbumin in a mouse model of asthma

During the last decade, there has been a remarkable and unexplained increase in the prevalence of asthma. These studies were conducted to investigate the role of dermal exposure to triclosan, an endocrine-disrupting compound, on the hypersensitivity response to ovalbumin (OVA) in a murine model of asthma. Triclosan has had widespread use in the general population as an antibacterial and antifungal agent and is commonly found in consumer products such as soaps, deodorants, toothpastes, shaving creams, mouthwashes, and cleaning supplies. For these studies, BALB/c mice were exposed dermally to concentrations of triclosan ranging from 0.75 to 3% (0.375-1.5mg/mouse/day) for 28 consecutive days. Concordantly, mice were ip injected with OVA (0.9 µg) and aluminum hydroxide (0.5mg) on days 1 and 10 and challenged with OVA (125 µg) by pharyngeal aspiration on days 19 and 27. Compared with the animals exposed to OVA alone, increased spleen weights, OVA-specific IgE, interleukin-13 cytokine levels, and numbers of lung eosinophils were demonstrated when mice were coexposed to OVA and triclosan. Statistically significant increases in OVA-specific and nonspecific airway hyperreactivity were observed for all triclosan coexposed groups compared with the vehicle and OVA controls. In these studies, exposure to triclosan alone was not demonstrated to be allergenic; however, coexposure with a known allergen resulted in enhancement of the hypersensitivity response to that allergen, suggesting that triclosan exposure may augment the allergic responses to other environmental allergens.

IL-33 mediates multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT)-induced airway hyper-reactivity via the mobilization of innate helper cells in the lung

Allergic asthma is a chronic inflammatory disorder of the airway associated with bronchial obstruction, airway hyper-reactivity (AHR), and mucus production. The epithelium may direct and propagate asthmatic-like responses. Central to this theory is the observation that viruses, air pollution, and allergens promote epithelial damage and trigger the generation of IL-25, IL-33, and TSLP via innate pathways such as TLRs and purinergic receptors. Similarly, engineered nanomaterials promote a Th2-associated pathophysiology. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that instillation of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) impair pulmonary function in C57Bl/6 mice due to the development of IL-33-dependent Th2-associated inflammation. MWCNT exposure resulted in elevated levels of IL-33 in the lavage fluid (likely originating from airway epithelial cells), enhanced AHR, eosinophil recruitment, and production of Th2-associated cytokines and chemokines. Moreover, these events were dependent on IL-13 signaling and the IL-33/ST2 axis, but independent of T and B cells. Finally, MWCNT exposure resulted in the recruitment of innate lymphoid cells. Collectively, our data suggest that MWCNT induce epithelial damage that results in release of IL-33, which in turn promotes innate lymphoid cell recruitment and the development of IL-13-dependent inflammatory response.