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Gothreau CM, Schuessler J, Alvarez AM. Can exposure to sexual objectification impact policy attitudes? Evidence from two survey experiments. Politics Life Sci 2024:1-10. [PMID: 38818758 DOI: 10.1017/pls.2024.5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2024]
Abstract
Research in social psychology has long argued that exposure to objectifying portrayals of women can lead to increasingly misogynist attitudes and behavior. We argue that such images can also impact on gendered policy attitudes. We suggest that objectifying images prime sexist attitudes and reduce perceptions of women's agency, warmth, and competence. We argue that this may translate into decreased support for reproductive rights and other gender-salient policies. Furthermore, these effects may vary by the gender of those exposed to these images. In two survey experiments with brief exposures to objectifying images, we find mixed support for these predictions. Although we find some negative effects as predicted, we also find positive effects of objectification among women in the sample that are suggestive of a backlash effect. We discuss potential explanations for this heterogeneity. Overall, our results suggest interesting avenues to further explore the effects of objectification on political outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire M Gothreau
- Center for the Experimental-Philosophical Study of Discrimination, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Julian Schuessler
- Center for the Experimental-Philosophical Study of Discrimination, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
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2
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Zhang X, Fu T, Yang J, Li R, Liu X, Zheng L. Association Between Pornography Use, Sexism, and Sexual Violence Myth Acceptance in Chinese Men: The Moderating Effect of Perceived Realism. HEALTH COMMUNICATION 2024:1-10. [PMID: 38693691 DOI: 10.1080/10410236.2024.2346675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2024]
Abstract
Pornography is spreading more and more widely due to websites, applications, and social media. It has attracted the attention of a large number of researchers who are sometimes divided on the impact of pornography. However, the relationship between pornography and sexual violence myths has received little scholarly attention in China. Based on the 3AM model and previous research, the study examined hostile sexism (HS) as a mediator and perceived realism as a moderator in the links between pornography use frequency and sexual violence myths in a sample of Chinese men (N = 376). The results showed that although pornography use and sexual violence myths did not directly correlate with one another, there was an indirect correlation through HS. Further, perceived realism moderated the relationship between pornography use frequency and HS. When participants' perceived realism was high (i.e. +1 SD), the indirect effect of HS was strong; when participants' perceived realism was low (i.e. -1 SD), the indirect effect of HS was not significant. Taken together, the findings reveal the cross-cultural consistency of the 3AM theory in China, and the findings provide new insight into the potential impact of pornography on sexism. At the same time, the results suggest an increase in appropriate education and interventions to reduce the incidence of sexual violence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyue Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality (Ministry of Education), Southwest University
- Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University
| | - Tianqi Fu
- Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality (Ministry of Education), Southwest University
- Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University
| | - Jin Yang
- Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality (Ministry of Education), Southwest University
- Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University
| | - Rongrong Li
- Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality (Ministry of Education), Southwest University
- Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University
| | - Xinyi Liu
- Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality (Ministry of Education), Southwest University
- Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University
| | - Lijun Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality (Ministry of Education), Southwest University
- Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University
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Maas MK, Slaker J, Holt K, Ratan RA, Cary KM, Greer KM. Sexual Experiences and Beliefs Vary by Patterns of Pornography Genre Preferences Among Women. JOURNAL OF SEX & MARITAL THERAPY 2023; 49:659-672. [PMID: 36744624 PMCID: PMC10404303 DOI: 10.1080/0092623x.2023.2174225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Pornography use is multidimensional, yet most studies of the topic use variable-oriented methods (e.g., frequency of use) that reduce the experience to a single dimension. In this study, we sought to identify different multidimensional patterns of pornography genre preferences among a sample of women (n = 206) and examine how those patterns are differentially associated with sexual experiences and beliefs examined in previous literature. Latent Class Analysis uncovered four patterns (or classes): Heterogeneous (39%), Traditionally Feminine (27%), Female Pleasure (23%) and Rough/violent (11%). Class membership was differentially predicted by prior sexual victimization, sexual esteem, and diverse sexual experiences while controlling for frequency of use. These findings suggest that genre preference could account for much of the mixed findings of prior work that measured pornography use with unidimensional approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan K Maas
- Department of Human Development and Family Studies, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
| | - Janine Slaker
- Department of Communication, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Karen Holt
- School of Criminal Justice, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
| | - Rabindra A Ratan
- School of Media and Information, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
| | - Kyla M Cary
- Department of Human Development and Family Studies, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
| | - Kirsten M Greer
- School of Public Health, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA
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Noll LK, Harsey SJ, Freyd JJ. Assessment of attitudes toward internet pornography in emerging adults using the Internet Pornography Questionnaire. COMPUTERS IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2022.107231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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5
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Beyond the Screen: Violence and Aggression towards Women within an Excepted Online Space. SEXES 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/sexes3010007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
This theoretical review explores the possibility that the consumption of internet pornography (IP) represents a credible risk factor in the perpetration of aggression and violence against women. Sexual violence, abuse, and degradation of women is commonly depicted in mainstream heterosexual IP. Despite the violent tenor, the effect this material may have on beliefs, attitudes and behaviors is understudied, as are the reasons why violent and degrading IP is so widely viewed, enjoyed, and accepted. Both theory and empirical findings support the contention that depictions of violence in IP may contribute to real world aggression and violence against women, with two relevant spheres of inquiry proposed in this theoretical review. The first considers IP as a ‘zone of cultural exception’, in which the perpetration of violent and degrading acts against women are eroticized and celebrated, despite such behaviors being considered antisocial in wider society. It is suggested that this excepted status is enabled by the operation of the third person effect to negate the detrimental effects of IP. The second explores the objectification and dehumanization of women in IP and the use of moral disengagement by viewers to enable their disavowal of any harm in the depicted violence.
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Borgogna NC, Lathan EC, McDermott RC. She Asked for It: Hardcore Porn, Sexism, and Rape Myth Acceptance. Violence Against Women 2021; 28:510-531. [PMID: 34855559 DOI: 10.1177/10778012211037378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The present study examined pornography viewing, rape myth acceptance, and sexist attitudes. Data came from 392 male and 903 female participants. Multigroup SEM indicated neither pornography viewing, nor hardcore pornography viewing, were related to rape myth acceptance when controlling for sexist attitudes among men. Wald tests indicated hostile sexism to be a significantly stronger predictor of all rape myths examined compared to pornography viewing or hardcore pornography viewing in men and women. Latent variable interaction analyses suggested hardcore pornography viewing as a significant exacerbating factor for the relationship between hostile sexism and "she asked for it" rape myths across genders.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Emma C Lathan
- The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, TX, USA
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Speed D, MacDonald J, Parks A, Doucette H, Munagapati K. Pornography Consumption and Attitudes Towards Pornography Legality Predict Attitudes of Sexual Equality. JOURNAL OF SEX RESEARCH 2021; 58:396-408. [PMID: 33428456 DOI: 10.1080/00224499.2020.1864263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Some scholars argue that the existence of pornography is an ongoing assault on women and that it should be banned. However, the existing evidence suggests the connection between pornography consumption and sexism is overstated and may actually run in the opposite direction. Using data from the General Social Survey (2010-2018), the current study investigated if "pornography consumption" and "pornography tolerance" predicted sexism and whether these associations varied by sex. Results indicated that pornography consumption predicted lower levels of sexism, although these effects were rendered nonsignificant with the inclusion of sociodemographic, religious, and sociocultural covariates. When comparing the results of the current study to findings based on data from the 1970s-1990s, it appears that pornography consumption is now irrelevant to sexism rather than promoting egalitarianism. Our analyses focusing on "pornography tolerance" revealed that people who supported regulated pornography were more egalitarian than people who supported a pornography ban. Generally, men were more likely to report sexist attitudes than women, but sex moderated the relationship that pornography variables had with sexism in several of the models. Overall, pornography consumption and pornography tolerance were either irrelevant in predicting sexism or were associated with greater egalitarianism.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Speed
- Department of Psychology, University of New Brunswick
| | | | - Alyssa Parks
- Department of Psychology, University of New Brunswick
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Wright PJ. Pornographic Socialization as "Selective-Exposure": Let it Go, Let it Go II. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2021; 50:393-399. [PMID: 33537881 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-021-01922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2020] [Revised: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Paul J Wright
- The Media School at Indiana University, Bloomington, 601 East Kirkwood Avenue, Bloomington, IN, 47405, USA.
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Wright PJ. Pornographic Socialization as "Selective-Exposure": Let it Go, Let it Go II. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2021; 50:393-399. [PMID: 33537881 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-021-01922-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2020] [Revised: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Paul J Wright
- The Media School at Indiana University, Bloomington, 601 East Kirkwood Avenue, Bloomington, IN, 47405, USA.
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Wright PJ. Overcontrol in Pornography Research: Let it Go, Let it Go…. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2021; 50:387-392. [PMID: 33398701 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-020-01902-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2020] [Revised: 11/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/02/2020] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Paul J Wright
- The Media School at Indiana University, Bloomington, 601 East Kirkwood Avenue, Bloomington, IN, 47405, USA.
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Abstract
AbstractMedia that sexually objectify women by portraying them in ways that emphasize physical beauty and sexual readiness as well as reduce them to decorative and sexual objects have been traditionally identified by scholars as a powerful cultural risk factor encouraging sexual harassment and sexual violence. In the present article we review the existing empirical evidence linking sexually objectifying media and sexual harassment of women to the overarching and integrative Media-Induced Sexual Harassment framework. This framework offers a coherent scheme for explaining the effects of sexually objectifying media on three target groups directly involved in sexual harassment—perpetrators, victims, and bystanders—and it postulates three cognitive and emotional mechanisms through which sexually objectifying media lead to sexual harassment: dehumanization, disruption of emphatic resonance, and a shift in gender norms. The evidence reviewed on the basis of the Media-Induced Sexual Harassment framework shows that sexually objectifying media converge in normalizing harassing behaviors and can be a causal risk factor for increasing engagement in sexual harassment, heightening victims’ acceptance of sexual harassment and discouraging bystander intervention. We discuss implications of these arguments for effectively preventing negative effects of exposure to sexually objectifying media and for education programs aimed at critical media-consumption.
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Rasmussen KR, Kohut T. Does Religious Attendance Moderate the Connection Between Pornography Consumption and Attitudes Toward Women? JOURNAL OF SEX RESEARCH 2019; 56:38-49. [PMID: 29185817 DOI: 10.1080/00224499.2017.1396571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Feminist theory and religious doctrines alike often suggest that pornography alters the attitudes of those who consume it, particularly with respect to how consumers view women. Many would assume that pornography would universally encourage sexism and female objectification, but recent evidence has linked pornography use with more gender egalitarian views. Using data from a large-scale, nationally representative survey, we argue that cognitive dissonance among pornography consumers could alter egalitarian attitudes. We found that those who reported consuming pornography had more egalitarian attitudes than those who did not, but this difference was stronger among those who attended religious services more regularly-those who would be likely to experience dissonance when consuming pornography. This pattern was consistent across the three egalitarian attitudes we examined: attitudes toward women in power, women in the workplace, and abortion. Our results suggest that pornography might foster progressive attitudes among those most likely to hold conservative beliefs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Taylor Kohut
- b Department of Psychology , University of Western Ontario
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Wright PJ, Sun C, Steffen NJ, Tokunaga RS. Associative pathways between pornography consumption and reduced sexual satisfaction. SEXUAL AND RELATIONSHIP THERAPY 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/14681994.2017.1323076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Paul J. Wright
- The Media School, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
| | - Chyng Sun
- NYU School of Professional Studies, New York University, New York, NY, USA
| | | | - Robert S. Tokunaga
- Department of Communicology, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA
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From Orgasms to Spanking: A Content Analysis of the Agentic and Objectifying Sexual Scripts in Feminist, for Women, and Mainstream Pornography. SEX ROLES 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-017-0759-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Wright PJ, Tokunaga RS, Kraus A. Consumption of Pornography, Perceived Peer Norms, and Condomless Sex. HEALTH COMMUNICATION 2016; 31:954-963. [PMID: 26752322 DOI: 10.1080/10410236.2015.1022936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Sexual scripts in pornography rarely include condoms. Many U.S. college students consume pornography and have unprotected sex. Yet no study appears to have investigated whether pornography consumption is correlated with having unprotected sex among U.S. college students. This article reports results from two studies of pornography consumption and condomless sex among U.S. college students. Pornography consumption was directly associated with a higher likelihood of condomless sex in study 1. This finding was replicated in study 2. Study 2 also explored whether perceptions of peers' use of condoms partially mediates the association between pornography consumption and condomless sex. Pornography consumption was associated with lower estimations of peers' condom use, and lower estimations of peers' condom use were associated with personally engaging in condomless sex.
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Wright PJ, Tokunaga RS. Men's Objectifying Media Consumption, Objectification of Women, and Attitudes Supportive of Violence Against Women. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2016; 45:955-964. [PMID: 26585169 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-015-0644-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2014] [Revised: 03/25/2015] [Accepted: 04/24/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
A recent White House Council Report on Women and Girls called attention to sexual assault on college campuses and encouraged continued research on this important public health problem. Media that sexually objectify women have been identified by feminist scholars as encouraging of sexual assault, but some researchers question why portrayals that do not feature sexual assault should affect men's attitudes supportive of violence against women. Guided by the concepts of specific and abstract sexual scripting in Wright's (Communication Yearbook 35:343-386, 2011) sexual script acquisition, activation, application model of sexual media socialization, this study proposed that the more men are exposed to objectifying depictions, the more they will think of women as entities that exist for men's sexual gratification (specific sexual scripting), and that this dehumanized perspective on women may then be used to inform attitudes regarding sexual violence against women (abstract sexual scripting). Data were gathered from collegiate men sexually attracted to women (N = 187). Consistent with expectations, associations between men's exposure to objectifying media and attitudes supportive of violence against women were mediated by their notions of women as sex objects. Specifically, frequency of exposure to men's lifestyle magazines that objectify women, reality TV programs that objectify women, and pornography predicted more objectified cognitions about women, which, in turn, predicted stronger attitudes supportive of violence against women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul J Wright
- The Media School and Kinsey Institute, Indiana University, 1229 East 7th St., Bloomington, IN, 47405, USA.
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Rye BJ, Serafini T, Bramberger T. Erotophobic or erotophilic: What are young women’s attitudes towards BDSM? PSYCHOLOGY & SEXUALITY 2015. [DOI: 10.1080/19419899.2015.1012108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Abstract
Although the objectification of women is widespread, there is relatively little research on objectification in romantic relationships. The purpose of our research was to explore how partner-objectification might be related to sexual pressure and coercion in heterosexual relationships. Two studies were conducted, one with heterosexual men and one with heterosexual women as participants. An online survey of 119 heterosexual men in the United States demonstrated that men who frequently survey their partners’ bodies are more likely to sexually pressure and coerce their partners—primarily because partner-surveillance is related to feelings of shame regarding one’s partner’s body, which in turn is related to increased sexual pressure and coercion. An online survey of 162 heterosexual women in the United States demonstrated feeling objectified by a partner is related to several (but not all) measures of sexual pressure and coercion. Furthermore, women who felt that their partners frequently surveyed their bodies were more likely to experience self-surveillance, which in turn predicted increased body shame and lowered sexual agency. Our research can inform interventions aimed at reducing sexual coercion and spark future research on the distinction between physical attraction and objectification in the context of romantic relationships.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura R. Ramsey
- Department of Psychology, Bridgewater State University, Bridgewater, MA, USA
| | - Tiffany Hoyt
- Department of Psychology, Bridgewater State University, Bridgewater, MA, USA
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