Does Encouragement by Others Increase Rape Reporting? Findings from a National Sample of Women

Aspects of Selective Sexual Assault Disclosure: Qualitative Interviews With Survivors and Their Informal Supports

Two-thirds of survivors typically disclose their experience to informal supports (e.g., friends, family, partners) at some point following sexual assault, but little in-depth research has addressed specific aspects of disclosure. In the current study, a diverse sample of 45 sexual assault survivors and their informal support providers (SP; e.g., family, friends, romantic partners) were interviewed separately about experiences of disclosure, social reactions, and help-seeking following the assault. Narrative data on the overarching thematic category of selective disclosure were analyzed using thematic analysis methods. Several subthemes emerged specific to (a) the circumstances of disclosure (prompted or coerced), (b) withholding details (framing disclosures to avoid rape myths and blame, strategic use of language, protecting others by not disclosing or limiting details), and (c) sharing details (selecting who was told, selecting trusted others for disclosure, selective details told to specific people, sharing with strangers easier). Implications are drawn for future research on aspects of selective disclosure of sexual assault and clinical practice implications for supporting survivors and their informal support networks.

'Maybe we just seem like easy targets': A qualitative analysis of autistic adults' experiences of interpersonal violence

LAY ABSTRACT

Research has consistently shown that autistic children are more likely to be victimised than non-autistic children. More recently, studies have also found that autistic adults report experiencing more violence than non-autistic adults however the circumstances surrounding these incidents and the reasons for this are not clear. We wanted to learn more about violence during adulthood for autistic people including what led up to these incidents and what happened afterwards. We spoke to 22 autistic adults who had experienced violence and analysed what they told us to look for common themes. They told us that violence was commonplace in their own lives and in the lives of other autistic people that they know, so much so that they had even come to expect it to happen. They also talked about the negative effect these experiences had on their mental health, the way they felt about themselves and their ability to trust people. This was made worse if people did not believe them when they disclosed what had happened to them. They told us that certain autistic characteristics might make them more vulnerable like being too trusting or going along with people just to please them. They thought that some of these characteristics had been shaped by their experiences, especially being told that that their thoughts, feelings or behaviours were wrong and being pressured to change the way they behaved to 'fit in'. These findings are important in helping us to understand how to improve the personal safety of autistic people.

But Someone Was Right There: An Examination of How Third-Party Presence Is Associated With Rape and Sexual Assault Victim Help-Seeking Behavior and Reports to Police

This research evaluates whether third-party presence is associated with rape and sexual assault (RSA) victims help-seeking and reporting to police, addressing a gap in the literature about how the presence of a third-party is associated with victim behavior. This research uses secondary data from the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS). Findings indicate that third-party presence has no statistically significant association with help-seeking and marginal significance with police reporting. This research focuses on third-party presence as a precursor to understanding victim help-seeking behaviors and reports to police. This research raises questions about the expected role of third parties in RSA victimizations.

Facilitators of Sexual Assault Disclosure: A Dyadic Study of Female Survivors and Their Informal Supports

Two-thirds of survivors typically disclose their experience to others at some point following sexual assault, but little in-depth research has addressed factors facilitating disclosure. In the current study, a diverse sample of 45 female sexual assault survivors (75% racial/ethnic minorities) and their 45 informal support providers (SP; e.g., family, friends, romantic partners) were interviewed separately about experiences of disclosure, social reactions, and help-seeking following assault. Disclosure facilitation was expressed by 40 survivors and 31 SPs, of which 28 were matched S/SP dyadic pairs. Narrative data on the overarching thematic category of sexual assault disclosure facilitation was analyzed using descriptive thematic analysis methods. Several themes emerged from the analysis of quotes specific to the facilitation of disclosure, including: individual (e.g., survivor psychological, behavioral, and disclosure recipient factors), interpersonal (e.g., SP-solicited disclosures, helping others, mutual disclosures), and societal (e.g., lack of barriers, formal supports, media). Implications are drawn for future research on facilitators of sexual assault disclosure. Clinical practice implications are provided for professionals supporting survivors and their informal support networks.

Factors Related to Police Reporting in Sexual Assault Care Centers: Are We Underestimating the Role of Support Persons?

Few victims of sexual assault (SA) report to the police. Research on the role of support persons in victims' reporting is sparse. We address this gap by examining the association of victim, assailant, victimization incident, and support characteristics with reporting rates among victims attending sexual assault care centers (SACCs). Logistic regression results show that type of SA, delay between SA and presentation at SACC, and presence of an informal support person at SACC and SACC site are significantly associated with police reporting. These findings reveal the importance of targeting victims' support persons to alter reporting behavior among SA victims.

Examining the Roles of Prior Victimization, Perpetrator Identity and the Correlates of Female Rape Myth Acceptance Among Indian Females

This research attempts to address a widely under-explained phenomenon of female rape myth acceptance (RMA) among the female population. A total number of 500 literate women from India with a mean age of 28.89 years were selected to examine the different determinants of their RMA. The research explored the important correlates of RMA among women, where the stepwise regression model revealed the significant impact of sexual desires, rejection sensitivity, loneliness, and neuroticism/emotional stability on their RMA. This further implied that women high on these four constructs run a 17.7% chance of endorsing female rape myths. The model eliminated the construct of online pornography usage, owing to its non-significant impact on RMA. Further, it was revealed that the history of prior victimization had a significant effect on the rape myths endorsed by the women. The study also reflected on the identity of the perpetrators of the women with a prior victimization history, where 55.43% reported it was perpetrated by a "known" person in their last experienced assault (and 44.57% "stranger" perpetrator). Whereas most women were victimized by "known" perpetrators, there was no significant difference in the sample's RMA, between the perpetrator identity groups (known and stranger perpetrators). The research concretely adds novel knowledge on identifying and predicting the female rape supportive attitudes among females.

Beyond Obstacles: Toward Justice for Victims of Sexual Violence in Hungary. A Literature Review

Alarmed by research that reveals Hungary as having one of the lowest reporting rates in cases of sexual violence in Europe, this article provides an overview of the research that explains why, historically, sexual violence has been and continues to be underreported all over the globe, from law enforcement and criminal justice perspective. Furthermore, we describe the unique circumstances that might influence Hungarian victims of sexual violence to make formal reports. Among other possible factors, we discuss rape myth acceptance, victim blaming, feminist activism, institutional betrayal, and media representations of rape. In an effort to provide insight into Hungarian gender politics, this article raises salient theoretical works on gender ideology and gender policy in contemporary Hungary. This article concludes with a discussion on what implications such research in Hungary may have on a global understanding of sexual violence reporting.

Examining peer response to sexual assault disclosure in two groups of college students with no history of college sexual assault

ObjectiveThis study examined rates and predictors of peer recommendation of resources after disclosure of actual and hypothetical unwanted sexual experiences. Participants: Private university students without a history of college sexual assault were recruited in 2 groups. One was a group of peers who had received an assault disclosure (N = 122) and one was a group of peers who had never received an assault disclosure (N = 166). Methods: Participants responded to an anonymous online survey and reported on their history of receiving disclosures and related measures such as rape myth beliefs, attitudes toward help-seeking, and social norms. Results: Actual and hypothetical disclosure recipients had similar rates of awareness and helpfulness of resources for sexual assault but different levels of recommendation of resources. Perceived helpfulness, awareness of resources, and social norms emerged as key predictors of recommendations. Conclusions: In addition to prevention programing, training and education are needed for potential disclosure recipients.

Factors Associated With Law Enforcement Reporting in Patients Presenting for Medical Forensic Examinations

Law enforcement reporting following sexual assault is lower than for other violent crimes. Sexual assault nurse examiners (SANEs) provide care for patients in the acute period following sexual assault and are well-positioned to identify and address barriers to reporting. We examined data from medical forensic examination records documented by SANEs for a 5-year period (2011-2015). We examined 347 records of women 18 and older to identify factors associated with law enforcement reporting at the time of the exam using binomial logistic regression to construct odds ratios (OR). A total of 56.5% of patients in the sample reported to law enforcement. Patients who did not voluntarily consume alcohol were more likely to report than those who did (OR = 4.45; p = .001). Patients who were not students were more likely to report than students (OR = 3.24; p = .002). Patients who had a medical forensic exam within 32 hr of the assault were more likely to report than those having exams after 32 hr (OR = 2.68; p = .007). Patients who had anogenital and/or bodily injuries were more likely to report than those who had no injuries (OR = 2.50; p = .008). Patients who were penetrated (vaginally, orally, and/or anally) were more likely to report than those who were not penetrated (OR = 2.50; p = .056). Knowing the assailant, having multiple assailants, and patient and assailant race/ethnicity were not associated with different likelihood of reporting to law enforcement. SANEs and others who work with victims of sexual assault can use data to understand and address barriers to reporting.

The Value and Validity of Self-Reported Survey Data on the Rape Experiences of College Students

Self-reported survey data on the extent and nature of rape and sexual assault experienced by a population represent an important source of information because these crimes often go unreported, and are thus undercounted in law enforcement or other official statistics. This article compares Campus Climate Survey Validation Study (CCSVS) data to Clery Act data in an effort to (1) assess the validity of the CCSVS data and the Clery Act data based on the extent to which they corroborate one another, and (2) estimate the extent to which Clery Act data potentially underestimate the true incidence of rape. The results help to establish the extent to which self-report surveys on sexual victimization are needed to understand the magnitude of the problem among a given population.

Recommendations to disclose sexual assault are motivated by retribution among women who endorse honor values

Rape arrests are higher in US states wherein residents more typically endorse honor values. Because honor values reflect an association between reputation and self-worth, which is based on one's ability to uphold traditional gender norms, one should expect that women who endorse honor values are motivated to conceal a sexual assault. However, honor values also engender the expectation that women defend their reputations if threatened. Thus, women from honor cultures should be more likely to seek retribution by disclosing a sexual assault to others. The current research investigates the impact of honor values on the recommendation to disclose a sexual assault when women believe the victim is motivated to protect her reputation. We evaluated the role of common post-rape emotions (shame, anger, and fear) on motivations to either conceal a "victim" status or to punish the transgression. In two studies, US women (total n = 842) responded to vignettes of sexual assault that varied the relationship of the perpetrator (acquaintance or husband). Using path modeling to test the two competing hypotheses, we found that women who endorsed honor values more strongly perceived that the victim of a sexual assault experienced more anger and fear, was more likely to seek retribution, and, in turn, were more likely to recommend that she disclose to confidants (similar across the acquaintance and husband scenarios). These findings may help increase researchers' and practitioners' cultural understanding of the help-seeking behavior of survivors of sexual assault across different communities.

#DomesticViolence During the COVID-19 Global Pandemic: An Analysis of Public Commentary via Twitter

The current study sought to characterize commentary regarding intimate partner violence during the COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic via the Twitter hashtags #DomesticAbuse and #DomesticViolence. A sample of 481 original, English-language tweets containing the hashtag #DomesticAbuse or #DomesticViolence posted across five consecutive weekdays from March 22 to March 27, 2020-during which many places were enacting lockdown mandates-was examined using thematic content analyses. Overall, Twitter users commented on potential increased rates of IPV, while adding details about abuse tactics that could be employed by perpetrators during the pandemic. Additionally, Twitter users disclosed personal experiences of IPV victimization. Four themes were identified, including (1) type of domestic violence (i.e. whether the violence was COVID-specific or general domestic violence), (2) commentary about IPV (i.e. general reflections, decentralizing and centralizing survivorhood), (3) perpetrator tactic (i.e. abuse tactic used by the perpetrator), and (4) institutions responsible (i.e. institutions responsible for providing services to survivors). Overall, the commentary on Twitter reflected an effort to raise awareness and share informational aid for potential victims/survivors of IPV. Data highlight the potential of social media networks in conveniently facilitating the sharing and spreading of useful resources to other users. Future research should examine whether resources shared via Twitter reach individuals who need them and empower individuals to garner support.

Sexual Assault Disclosure: The Effect of Victim Race and Perpetrator Type on Empathy, Culpability, and Service Referral for Survivors in a Hypothetical Scenario

The aftermath of sexual assault warrants further attention surrounding the responses provided by those to whom survivors disclose, especially when perpetrator type or victim race may affect whether the bystander response is supportive or attributes culpability to the victim. Disclosure responses have significant consequences for survivors' posttrauma mental health and formal help-seeking behavior. The current study used a sample of 348 self-report, paper-and-pencil surveys administered during the fall 2015 semester to a purposive sample of undergraduate students with a mean age of 20.94 years old at a midsized, Southern public university. Survey design included a randomly assigned 2 × 2 hypothetical sexual assault disclosure vignette. The objective of the study was to assess the effect of perpetrator type (stranger vs. acquaintance) and victim race (White vs. Black) on empathic concern, culpability attributions, and resource referral. Between-subjects factorial ANOVA and multivariate ordinary least squares (OLS) regression models were estimated to identify the role of vignette manipulations, participant-sexual victimization history, and rape myth acceptance on empathy, culpability, and resource referral for the sexual assault survivor portrayed in the vignette. Multivariate analyses included main effects and moderation models. Findings revealed increased culpability and decreased resource referral for victims of acquaintance rape as compared with stranger rape, independent of victim race. Although no direct victim race effects emerged in the multivariate analyses, race moderated the effect of culpability on resource referral indicating culpability attributions decreased resource referral, but only when the victim was Black . Implications from the results presented here include a continued focus on bystander intervention strategies, empathy-building techniques, and educational programming targeting potential sexual assault disclosees and race stereotypes that disadvantage victims of color.

Sensitivity of Sexual Victimization Estimates to Definitional and Measurement Decisions

Self-report surveys are subject to measurement error associated with variation in the methodology employed. The current analysis uses data from the Campus Climate Survey Validation Study (CCSVS) to examine the impact that measurement decisions have on estimates. The findings demonstrate that asking victims to provide detailed information in an effort to properly place incidents in time and classify incidents by type resulted in relatively minor decreases in estimate magnitude. Ultimately, asking respondents to provide or confirm additional incident-level information for proper classification resulted in more complete information with very little impact on estimates.

College Students' Responses to Their Sexually Assaulted Friends: Impact of Rape Myth Acceptance, Prior Victimization, and Social Relationships

College students often confide in their friends following sexual assaults. Friends' reactions may include a variety of emotions and helping behaviors; prior victimization, knowing the accused, and rape myth acceptance may affect these. A sample of 1016 students at a religiously affiliated university completed quantitative surveys measuring their rape myth acceptance, history of sexual assault victimization, disclosures received, and reactions to the most recent disclosure. A subset of 636 students (506 females, 130 males) reported receiving at least one rape disclosure from a friend. Regression analysis of the subset revealed that participants' rape myth acceptance, victimization histories, and relationships to the accused influenced reactions to friends who were sexually assaulted. Students who endorsed rape myths were less likely to lend support to survivors; they were also more likely to experience shame and anger, and to blame their sexually assaulted friends. Students who shared friends with both the survivor and the accused were more likely to offer support to the survivor, experience feelings of divided loyalty, and blame the survivor. Blaming or feeling embarrassed toward survivors was associated with a tendency to advise them on how to avoid revictimization. This suggests that some disclosure recipients focused on their friend's behavior to explain the sexual assault. Cognitive dissonance theory may partially explain the findings.

Factors Related to College Students' Decisions to Report Sexual Assault

Sexual assault is a serious problem on college campuses. Using a sample of 266 survivors of sexual assault during their college years, results from a multinomial regression identified factors linked with the odds of making either a formal report to university officials, an informal disclosure, or telling no one of the assault. Survivors were more likely to formally report the sexual assault to university officials if they had received sexual assault training, if the assault included vaginal or anal penetration, and if the survivor had a positive perception of the overall campus climate. Survivors were less likely to formally report the assault to university officials if the perpetrator was an acquaintance, friend, or dating partner compared with a stranger. Racial or ethnic minorities were less likely to formally report or informally disclose the assault. Our findings suggest that universities can aid survivors in reporting their sexual assault through education, training, and improving the overall campus climate.

Facilitating Sexual Assault Reporting on the College Campus: The Role of Procedural Justice in Bystander Decisions to Provide Police Referrals

Using a randomly assigned 2 (victim race) × 2 (alcohol consumption) between-subjects factorial design, this study used surveys from a sample of 571 undergraduate students at a mid-sized, public university in the United States to determine the effect of procedural justice on police referral after reading a sexual assault disclosure vignette. Multivariate binary logistic regression models demonstrated that positive perceptions of procedural justice increased police referral following sexual assault disclosure. Victim alcohol consumption and rape myth acceptance decreased police referral. Victim race, victim alcohol consumption, and participant sex did not moderate the effect of procedural justice on police referral. Implications are discussed.

Religiousness and Rape Myth Acceptance: Risk and Protective Effects

This study addressed the lack of research simultaneously examining multiple dimensions of religiousness when predicting rape myth acceptance, and extended prior findings of a mediating role for right-wing authoritarianism (i.e., uncritical submission to authority and aggressive attitude toward those who do not conform to social norms) in the association between religiousness and prejudice. The sample consisted of 99 undergraduate and graduate students (M age = 31.87 years, 66.7% female, 80.82% White, and 93% Christian affiliated) from a religiously affiliated university in the Midwest United States. As hypothesized, dimensions of religiousness exhibited differential associations with rape myth acceptance. Religious motivation characterized by openness and exploration (i.e., quest religiousness) was a significant negative predictor of rape myth acceptance, directly, and indirectly through right-wing authoritarianism. In contrast, rigid adherence to religious beliefs, assumed to be "right" and absolutely true (i.e., religious fundamentalism), and extrinsically motivated religiousness each exhibited a positive association with rape myth acceptance through right-wing authoritarianism. In addition, internally motivated religiousness and religious fundamentalism each moderated the nonlinear effect for quest predicting rape myth acceptance. Findings suggest that uncritical religious and secular submission to external authorities or uncommitted and nonexploring religiousness may have increased the extent to which persons adhered to rape myths, whereas religious exploration was protective. Practical implications center on the need for socioculturally relevant prevention and intervention efforts with religious identifying college students.

Undergraduates' Disclosures of Unwanted Sexual Experiences: Who, Why, and When?

This study evaluated patterns of sexual assault disclosures as well as the response and impact of that response on assault survivors. The sample consisted of 217 undergraduates with a history of sexual assault (89.5% female, 76.5% Caucasian). Participants reported the order in which they disclosed and the nature and impact of the response they received. Results indicated that the majority of participants told close peers first and perceived the first response to be supportive. These findings are encouraging but also demonstrate the need for improving the response that an assault survivor receives.

Bystander Response to Sexual Assault Disclosures in the U.S. Military: Encouraging Survivors to use Formal Resources

Experiencing military sexual assault (MSA) results in serious mental health consequences. Sexual assault survivors often disclose to informal sources of support, and how these individuals respond can have a significant effect on survivors' wellbeing. Bystander intervention is one mechanism through which institutions, such as the U.S. Military, aim to teach informal support providers to respond positively and effectively to sexual assaults. One bystander response that survivors may find helpful is the discussion of formal resources (e.g., counseling options, reporting options). The current study examined factors associated with U.S. Service members' intentions to encourage sexual assault survivors to report and seek mental health counseling, including individual characteristics (rank, gender, personal experience of MSA) and perceptions of military sexual assault response efforts (exposure to sexual assault training, leader response to sexual assault, service barriers). The study also examined contextual factors (branch) and interactions between individual and contextual predictors. We analyzed survey data from 27,505 active duty Service members collected by the U.S. Department of Defense. As expected, rank, gender, experience of MSA, training exposure, leader response, and service barriers were associated with Service members' intentions to encourage MSA survivors to report and seek-help. Bystander responses to disclosures can have a significant effect on survivors' response to the assault, and these findings can help in identifying why bystanders may or may not encourage the use of formal resources after receiving a sexual assault disclosure.

[Study of the factors associated with the delay of health consultation of victims of rape in Senegal]

INTRODUCTION

Rape remains one of the most serious forms of sexual violence because of its negative impact on the physical and mental health of victims. The objective of this study is to identify the factors associated with the delay in rape victims seeking medical assistance from healthcare professionals in Senegal.

METHODOLOGY

A retrospective, descriptive and analytical observation study was conducted. The study population consisted of all the court files of girls or women victims of rape recorded by the investigators at the 11 high courts of Senegal during the period from 2006 to 2015. An exhaustive recruitment of the full records of rape victims meeting the inclusion criteria were completed. The uni and multivariate analyses were carried out with Epi Info 2000 and R 2.2.9 software respectively.

RESULTS

At the end of the collection, 1,037 cases of rape were included in the study population. The average age of the victims was 16.3±7.9 years (range 1-72). Minors (<18 years) accounted for 24.8 %. The median time from rape to consultation at a health facility was 24hours. Long delay in consultation (>24hours) was noted for 38.6 % of victims. Risk of late consultation after rape was higher among victims residing in the southern areas (ORaj=4.31 [1.15-16.14]), or northern areas (ORaj=4.22 [1.26-14.14]), who were major (ORaj=1.67 [1.04-2.68]) or married (ORaj=3.44 [1.58-7.5]) or who were pregnant after the aggression (ORaj=34.03 [15.47-74.85]) or had an abortion (ORaj=5.45 [1.04-24.47]).

CONCLUSION

Medical and judicial assistance are more difficult if there is a long delay between the aggression and consultation. Thus, it is important for the health and judicial authorities to raise awareness about the harmful consequences of sexual violence, and to put forward the benefits of therapeutic care, compensation for the harm suffered by rape victims, as well as the availability of holistic care services 24hours a day.

A Qualitative Study Of Sexual Assault Survivors' Post-Assault Legal System Experiences

Following sexual assault, survivors may turn to the civil or criminal justice systems in pursuit of some form of legal justice. Informal support providers (SPs) often play a large role in survivors' post-assault experiences and recovery, including providing support during survivors' decision to pursue legal justice and in navigating the system. Yet, this has not been thoroughly examined in research, particularly through a dyadic lens. Using qualitative dyadic data from 45 survivor-SP matched pairs (i.e., friend, family, or significant other), the current study addresses this gap by looking broadly at survivors' post-assault experiences with the criminal and civil legal systems. Of the 45 pairs in the sample, the current study presents findings from a subsample of 28 survivors and 13 SPs regarding post-assault legal system experiences. Our findings suggest that survivors and SPs consider the perceived strength of their case, perceptions of police, and the possibility of institutional bias when deciding to report the assault to the police. Interviews revealed that reasons for legal system involvement extend beyond pursuance of perpetrator prosecution, such as filing for custody of their children after leaving a domestic violence situation or seeking financial compensation. Many survivors who had interactions with the police and legal system experienced secondary victimization, while a few survivors had positive experiences, despite their expectations. We recommend improved access to survivor advocates and suggest directions for future research stemming from findings.

Reliability and Findings From an Instrument Examining Sexual Assault Disclosure Content and Context: The Sexual Assault Inventory of Disclosure

Compared to the depth of research examining the impact of sexual assault disclosure and related responses from others, little is known about the content shared during disclosures. Categorizing survivors as disclosers or nondisclosers disregards the nuanced and complex nature of disclosure. To address this gap, the current studies examined the reliability and preliminary results of the Sexual Assault Inventory of Disclosure (SAID), an inventory of content shared during disclosures and the context in which it was shared. The SAID proved reliable and preliminary findings suggest that perceptions of disclosures as positive or negative are predicted by differences in content and context, above and beyond disclosure recipients' response. The current study also explored gender differences in disclosure. Additional findings, implications, and suggestions for future studies using the SAID are discussed.

Sexual Assault Reporting and Emotional Distress Among College Female-Identified Victims/Survivors

PURPOSE

The current study tests associations between reporting sexual victimization to a healthcare provider, campus authority, police, or social contact, and emotional well-being among college women.

METHODS

Data from 2,162 women who participated in the 2015 College Student Health Survey at 17 colleges in Minnesota was used. Analyses tested associations between reporting sexual assault to formal or informal resources and diagnosis with anxiety, depression, panic attacks, and posttraumatic stress disorder, as well as self-rated health.

RESULTS

Significantly higher rates of all four diagnoses were observed among those who reported to formal resources (e.g., healthcare provider, police) compared with those who reported to informal resources (i.e., friends, family). However, no differences were seen in self-rated physical or mental health.

CONCLUSIONS

Expansion of trauma-informed healthcare services and advocacy efforts is recommended to optimally support students who report sexual assault experiences.

Correlates of Disclosure Cessation After Sexual Assault

Contacts with responders after sexual assault may influence further disclosure, but this possibility has not been explored empirically. Thus, this study investigates associations between survivors' contacts with responders and their decisions to discontinue disclosure. Fifty-four college students with a history of unwanted sexual experiences described 94 ordered contacts with responders. Results indicate that survivors' perceptions of responsiveness were not associated with continued disclosure, but survivors were more likely to continue disclosing when they perceived more rape myth acceptance from responders and when the assault was more recent. These findings highlight survivors' tenacity in meeting their needs, even after problematic responses.

Disclosure of sexual assault experiences among undergraduate women at historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs)

OBJECTIVE

To document the sexual assault disclosure experiences of historically black college or university (HBCU) students.

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 3,951 female, undergraduate students at 4 HBCUs.

METHODS

All women at the participating schools were recruited in November 2008 to participate in a Web-based survey including both closed- and open-ended questions. Survey data were weighted for nonresponse bias.

RESULTS

The majority of sexual assault survivors disclosed their experience to someone close to them, but disclosure to formal supports, particularly law enforcement agencies, was extremely rare. Nonreporters had concerns about the seriousness of the incident and their privacy. On the basis of qualitative data, strategies identified by students to increase reporting included more education and awareness about sexual assault, more survivor services and alternative mechanisms for reporting, and better strategies for protecting the confidentiality of survivors.

CONCLUSIONS

Official sexual assault victimization data are of limited utility in conveying the extent of sexual assault among HBCU students, and efforts to increase reporting, such as peer education and enhanced confidentiality procedures, are needed.

Introducing the Date and Acquaintance Rape Avoidance Scale

We present the Date and Acquaintance Rape Avoidance Scale (DARAS). The DARAS is a measure of a woman's behaviors used to avoid date and acquaintance rape. Three factor structures were possible. The DARAS may have measured several factors related to alcohol and drug use, self-defense, and date behaviors; 2 factors related to behaviors to avoid acquaintance versus date rape; or a single factor that represented general vigilance. The data revealed a highly reliable, 63 item single factor that was correlated with stranger rape avoidance, rejection of rape myths, hostile sexist beliefs about men, and benevolent sexist beliefs about women. The creation of the DARAS adds to the growing body of research on rape avoidance. The DARAS is key to understanding the behaviors women employ to avoid date rape. Rather than placing the responsibility for rape on the victim, the DARAS was developed as a theoretical and applied tool that can be used to improve theory and construct rape education and prevention programs.

Sexual Assault Disclosure Recipients' Experiences: Emotional Distress and Changes in the Relationship With the Victim

Sexual assault victims are more likely to disclose their experience to friends and family than formal support sources (e.g., police, counselors). As such, disclosure receipt is a relatively common occurrence, but little is known about the recipients' disclosure experience. This study examined predictors of recipient emotional distress and positive and negative changes in the victim-recipient relationship postdisclosure among 69 female undergraduates at 3 universities. Predictors of distress included greater self-rated closeness to the victim and greater confusion about how to help. Positive changes were predicted by greater closeness and less responsibility attributed to the victim, and negative changes were predicted by less closeness, greater assigned responsibility, and greater perceived ineffectiveness of one's help. Implications for improving the disclosure experience via psychoeducational interventions are presented.

Perceptions of, and assistance provided to, a hypothetical rape victim: differences between rape disclosure recipients and nonrecipients

OBJECTIVE

Undergraduate rape disclosure recipients' and nonrecipients' sociodemographic and life experience variables, attitudes towards rape, and responses to a hypothetical rape disclosure were compared to determine differences between them.

PARTICIPANTS

One hundred ninety-two undergraduates at 3 universities participated in this online survey between November 2011 and April 2012.

METHODS

Participants reported on their rape myth acceptance (RMA) and personal direct and indirect (ie, disclosure receipt) experiences with sexual assault. Participants also responded to a hypothetical rape disclosure.

RESULTS

Disclosure recipients were more likely to report a victimization history, and less confusion and perceived ineffectiveness in helping the hypothetical victim. RMA and nonrecipient status predicted perceived victim responsibility; these variables and childhood victimization predicted confusion about helping. RMA also predicted perceived ineffectiveness of one's helping behaviors. Victimization history and female gender predicted victim empathy.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings can inform sexual assault-related programming for undergraduates through the provision of targeted assistance and corrective information.