Perceptions of women who confront hostile and benevolent sexism

Little is known about the differences between confronting explicitly negative (hostile) vs. subjectively positive (benevolent) forms of sexism. Across three studies (N = 1315), we test a) whether confronting benevolent sexism is more costly for women than confronting hostile sexism and b) whether confronting some subtypes of benevolent sexism are more costly than others. We compared confrontations and non-confrontations of hostile sexism, benevolent sexism involving complementary gender differentiation (CGD), and benevolent sexism involving protective paternalism (PP). Surprisingly, confronting benevolent sexism was not more costly than confronting hostile sexism; a finding that replicated across studies and in two different contexts. Confronters of PP were evaluated more positively than confronters of CGD, but only when CGD embodied themes of gender essentialism (i.e., beliefs that men and women are naturally different). Confronters were mostly evaluated favorably relative to non-confronters and especially among women. Results imply that confronting benevolent sexism may have fewer consequences than anticipated.

Ambivalent Sexism and Tolerance of Violence Against Women in India

We examined associations between sexist beliefs and tolerance of violence against women in India using a nationally representative probability sample of adults (n = 133,398). Research consistently indicates that hostile sexism fosters tolerance of violence against women. However, benevolent sexism is sometimes associated with higher tolerance and sometimes with lower tolerance of violence. We proposed that this inconsistency could be resolved by considering the source of violence: Is violence perpetrated by outsiders or intimate partners? Results of a multigroup structural equation model showed that endorsement of hostile sexism was related to greater tolerance of violence regardless of the source. In contrast, endorsement of benevolent sexism was associated with lower tolerance of violence from outsiders but was simultaneously associated with higher tolerance of spousal violence. These opposing processes indicate that although benevolent sexism promises women protection from violence, the very same ideology legitimizes spousal violence, thereby reinforcing men's power within intimate relationships.

Who is Represented in the Research on Undergraduate Research Experiences in the Natural Sciences? A Review of Literature

Positive outcomes from undergraduate research experiences (UREs) have resulted in calls to broaden and diversify participation in research. However, we have little understanding of what demographics are reported and considered in the analyses of student outcomes from UREs. Without this information, it is impossible to assess whether participation in UREs has been diversified and how outcomes may vary by participant identity. Through a comprehensive literature search, we systematically identified 147 peer-reviewed research articles on student participation in UREs in the natural sciences, published between 2014 and 2020. We coded each paper to document which student demographic variables are reported and considered in analyses. The majority (88%) of articles on UREs reported at least one demographic variable and 62% incorporate demographics into their analyses, but demographics beyond gender and race/ethnicity were infrequently considered. Articles on independent research apprenticeships included demographics in their analyses more frequently than studies on course-based undergraduate research experiences (CUREs). Trends in reporting and analyzing demographics did not change from 2014 to 2020. Future efforts to collect these data will help assess whether goals to diversify UREs are being met and inform how to design UREs to meet the needs of diverse student groups.

"Hardly Able to Move, Much Less Open a Book": A Systematic Review of the Impact of Sexual and Gender-Based Violence Victimization on Educational Trajectories

Sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) is a highly prevalent issue, both in North America and globally, with well-recognized adverse impact on survivors' physical, emotional, and economic well-being. The objective of this systematic review is to collect and synthesize empirical work on the effects of SGBV victimization on educational trajectories, goals, attainment, and outcomes. The review summarizes what is known about factors associated with victimization that affect survivors' educational trajectories and highlights gaps in the literature pertaining to the effects of victimization on education. Five databases were searched for this review: Web of Science, Sociological Abstracts, PubMed, APA PsycInfo, and ERIC. For inclusion, the articles must present research on the academic impact of any form of SGBV experienced in higher education and must have been conducted in the United States or Canada. The 68 studies that met these criteria presented research on six key areas of educational outcomes: impacts on academic performance and motivation; attendance, dropout, and avoidance; changes in major/field of study; academic disengagement; educational attitudes and satisfaction; and academic climate and institutional relationships. Research also revealed factors mediating the relationship between SGBV exposure and educational outcomes such as mental health, physical health, social support, socioeconomic status, and resiliency, which we summarize in a pathway model. The research reviewed had significant limitations, including weak study designs, limited generalizability, and diversity concerns. We offer recommendations for future research on this topic.

Gender and social class inequalities in higher education: intersectional reflections on a workshop experience

Research about the experiences of underrepresented groups in higher education (HE) demonstrates the persistence of challenges, despite policies and institutional strategies to promote inclusion. Diversity and inclusion policies have been part of the HE agenda for several decades, yet most policies and interventions focus on (a) a given, isolated identity experience (e.g., based solely on gender, social class, or ethnicity) rather than more intersectional approaches to identity; and (b) top-down interventions that do not include participants insights in their design. In this paper, we report a case study of a workshop with students at an elite university that drew on an intersectional approach to social identities (IASI), specifically, looking at gender and social class. We explore three key themes: (a) the importance of group processes, (b) the use of visual techniques, and (c) the institutional tensions and the (de)politicisation of social psychology research. Reflecting on this case study we argue that approaches to identity and inclusion in HE can benefit from intersectionality beyond the use of multi and overlapping identity and social group categories. We argue that research in this space is not neutral and needs to acknowledge researchers' position about (a) inclusion and diversity, (b) perceptions of participants in research, and (c) the motivation and aims of institutions where the research is conducted. Finally, we discuss the theoretical and practical implications of integrating an intersectional approach within social identity research in HE when focusing on underrepresented groups.

Neural Processing of Sexist Comments: Associations between Perceptions of Sexism and Prefrontal Activity

Sexism is a widespread form of gender discrimination which includes remarks based on gender stereotypes. However, little is known about the neural basis underlying the experience of sexist-related comments and how perceptions of sexism are related to these neural processes. The present study investigated whether perceptions of sexism influence neural processing of receiving sexist-related comments. Participants (N = 67) read experimental vignettes describing scenarios of comments involving gender stereotypes while near-infrared spectroscopy recordings were made to measure the hemodynamic changes in the prefrontal cortex. Results found a significant correlation between participants' perceptions of sexism and brain activation in a brain cluster including the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and inferior frontal gyrus. There was a significant gender difference where female participants showed a stronger negative correlation compared to male participants. Future research can expand on these initial findings by looking at subcortical structures involved in emotional processing and gender stereotype application as well as examining cultural differences in perceptions of gender stereotypes and sexism.

The Roles of Gender Identity, Peer Support, and Math Anxiety in Middle School Math Achievement

The current study explored the relationships between three components of gender identity, peer support, math anxiety, and math outcomes in a sample of middle school students (N = 295). Separate path analyses were conducted for girls and boys. For boys, gender contentedness was related to higher math grades through a reduction in evaluation math anxiety. For girls, felt pressure was related to a reduction in self reported math grades through an increase in learning math anxiety. In addition, peer support in math was associated with lower learning math anxiety and higher math grades for girls, whereas peer support in math was not associated with math anxiety or math outcomes for boys. Implications for future research and education interventions are discussed.

Personal Relative Deprivation Increases Men's (but Not Women's) Hostile Sexism: The Mediating Role of Sense of Control

Hostile sexism is a blatant and explicit form of sexism consisting of antagonistic attitudes toward women. We hypothesized that men's personal relative deprivation, a subjectively perceived disadvantage, would predict their hostile sexism toward women. In addition, we expected that, if this effect occurs, a sense of control would act as a mediator. Five studies ( N = 1352) confirmed these hypotheses. Study 1 showed that personal relative deprivation predicted hostile sexism only for men, but not for women among Chinese college students. In addition, we observed the effect of personal relative deprivation only on hostile sexism, but not on benevolent sexism. Study 2, which employed participants from the United States, directly replicated the findings of Study 1. Studies 3 and 4 further showed that a sense of control acted as a mediator in this process. As such, increased hostile sexism attitude (Study 3) and hostile sexism behavior (Study 4) predicted by personal relative deprivation could result from a reduced sense of control. Study 5 further provided causal evidence that a temporarily induced state of personal relative deprivation resulted in a higher level of hostile sexism via a reduced sense of control. We discuss theoretical and practical implications for relative deprivation, gender inequality, and interventions.

Undergraduates’ pSTEM identity and motivation in relation to gender- and race-based perceived representation, stereotyped beliefs, and implicit associations

Women and underrepresented minoritized (URM) persons remain marginalized in physical science, technology, engineering, and math (pSTEM). Relative to non-URM men, URM women may experience a double disadvantage based on their gender and race whereby they observe few same-gender and few same-race role models in pSTEM while additionally internalizing stereotypes linking pSTEM with non-URM men. Our hypothesized model was partly supported in a sample of undergraduates ( N = 1,068; 68% women, 44% URM). First, perceiving same-gender or same-race pSTEM role models predicted lower explicit stereotypes among women and URM individuals regarding gender and race, respectively. Second, explicit and implicit associations linking pSTEM with men and White/Asian persons predicted (a) lower pSTEM identity among women and URM students and (b) higher identity among men and non-URM students. Finally, both implicit and explicit pSTEM identity positively predicted expectancy–value beliefs.

Analysis of Representations of the Aid That Public Psychological Support Points Provide to Adolescent Female Victims of Gender-Based Violence: Reformulation of Policies and Practices

Gender-based violence in adolescence has become a social health problem that is creating great concern and interest worldwide. In this regard, knowledge of the role taken by the professionals responsible for screening, detecting, referring, and caring for adolescent victims is essential to be able to understand the phenomenon and its characteristics in a practical way. In this sense, psychologists specialising in the care of victims of adolescent gender-based violence have complete and in-depth knowledge, not only of the phenomenon itself and the way in which it is presented in society, but also of the features presented by these victims and the aspects that need to be worked on during the intervention process. Given this context, a series of interviews with psychologists specialised in the care of gender-based violence victims were subjected to a qualitative deductive/inductive analysis. These interviews addressed the psychologists' theoretical-practical knowledge about the adolescent gender-based violence phenomenon. The analysis of the results points to the victims' irrational ideas regarding abusive relationships, to the form in which Psychological Support Points are organised to help the victims, and to the strengths, weaknesses, and needs of these centres for them to be able to improve their operation and effectiveness in providing comprehensive care for adolescents beyond the psychological consultations themselves.

Ten simple rules for succeeding as an underrepresented STEM undergraduate

Undergraduate students from underrepresented backgrounds (e.g., Black, Indigenous, and people of color [BIPOC], members of the Deaf community, people with disabilities, members of the 2SLGBTQIA+ community, from low-income backgrounds, or underrepresented genders) continue to face exclusion and marginalization in higher education. In this piece, authored and edited by a diverse group of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) scholars, we present 10 simple rules for succeeding as an underrepresented STEM undergraduate student, illuminating the “hidden curriculum” of STEM specifically as it relates to the underrepresented undergraduate experience. Our rules begin by encouraging students to embrace their own distinct identities and scientific voices and explain how students can overcome challenges unique to underrepresented students throughout their undergraduate degrees. These rules are derived from a combination of our own experiences navigating our undergraduate STEM degrees and the growing body of literature on improving success for underrepresented students.

Evaluation of Sexist and Prejudiced Attitudes Toward Homosexuality in Spanish Future Teachers: Analysis of Related Variables

Discrimination and inequality on the basis of gender and sexual diversity remain prevalent in today’s society (Beck et al., 2010; Dispenza et al., 2012; Dugan et al., 2012; Barrientos and Cárdenas, 2013). These situations of exclusion and rejection show the need to train individuals and organizations in the prevention of violence, harassment and inequality (Kattari et al., 2018). Teacher training, both initial and ongoing, is a fundamental axis of action, and consequently, the study of the opinions and beliefs of students and teachers on these issues. This research, therefore, analyses the sexist and prejudiced attitudes toward homosexuality of future teachers in the Spanish educational system. The sample of this research is made up of 452 students in the Degree in Primary Education Teaching and in the Master’s Degree in Compulsory Secondary Education, Upper Secondary Education, Vocational Training and Language Teaching (MUPES) with an average age of 24.74 (SD = 6.51). For the collection of information, a questionnaire was used consisting of questions on sociodemographic and cultural aspects, the Inventory of Ambivalent Sexism (ASI) by Glick and Fiske (1996) validated in Spanish by Expósito et al. (1998), and the Scale of Attitudes of Heterosexuals toward Homosexuals (HATH) by Larsen et al. (1980), validated in Spanish by Barrientos and Cárdenas (2010). The main results include the presence of significant differences (p < 0.01) in the levels of ambivalent sexism (hostile and benevolent) and in the maintenance of negative attitudes toward homosexuality according to sex and political ideology.

Gendered Beliefs in STEM Undergraduates: A Comparative Analysis of Fuzzy Rating versus Likert Scales

Women are underrepresented in growing positions such as those related to STEM field careers (i.e., science, technology, engineering, and mathematics). One of the causes for remaining out of that field could lie on gender stereotypes. Undergraduate stereotypes and beliefs are important as could easily uphold future gender segregation at the workplace. In the research arena the measurement of those biased beliefs is important as most commonly used Likert scales (LS) could raise problems in terms of accuracy. As fuzzy rating scales (FRS) are a promising measurement alternative, the aim of this study is to compare the properties of FRS against LS. We conducted a cross-sectional study with 262 STEM and non-STEM participants who answered to a questionnaire that, besides gendered beliefs and injustice perception towards the situation of women at the workplace, included personal characteristics as coursed degree and working experience. Results pointed out, on one hand, that FRS allowed for a better capture of the variability of individual responses, but on the other hand, that LS were better valued than FRS in what is concerned with satisfaction and ease of response. Advantages of FRS for psychosocial measurement are discussed to facilitate the study around causes of segregation that excludes women from the STEM labour market.

The Queen Bee phenomenon in Academia 15 years after: Does it still exist, and if so, why?

Fifteen years ago, the British Journal of Social Psychology published a set of studies on male and female academics, documenting that female faculty members were more likely than male faculty members to express stereotyped views of women at the beginning of their academic careers (PhD candidates; Ellemers et al., 2004, Br. J. Soc. Psychol., 43, 3). At the same time, the self‐descriptions of female faculty members were just as masculine as those of their male colleagues. Ellemers and colleagues (2004, Br. J. Soc. Psychol., 43, 3) referred to this combination of results as indicating the existence of a ‘Queen Bee (QB) phenomenon’ in academia. The present contribution investigates whether the QB phenomenon is also found among current generations of academics, investigating this in two recent samples of academic professionals (N = 462; N = 339). Our findings demonstrate that the phenomenon first documented in 2004 still exists: Advanced career female academics are more likely than their male counterparts to underestimate the career commitment of women at the beginning of their academic careers. At the same time, both male and female academics at advanced career stages describe themselves in more masculine terms than those at early career stages. We argue this indicates a response pattern in which successful women emulate the masculinity of the work environment. To indicate this, the term ‘self‐group distancing’ might be more appropriate than ‘Queen Bee effect’.

A Scoping Review of Measures Assessing Gender Microaggressions Against Women

While considerable knowledge exists about blatant gender discrimination and violence targeting women, less is known about gender microaggressions. To understand gender microaggressions’ frequency, prevalence, and effects, researchers need robust quantitative measures. To advance gender microaggressions scholarship and support researchers’ efforts to identify high-quality measures, we conducted a psychometric scoping review. We identified 24 original, quantitative, multi-item measures designed to assess gender microaggressions or related constructs. Included measures needed at least one item assessing gender microaggressions and be used with adult women in the United States. Results indicated an increase in the number of measures including gender microaggressions’ items in recent years, with a major expansion in the number of named gender microaggressions’ measures. We found limited reporting of demographic information. Psychometric testing and characteristics varied across measures. While most ( n = 20) reported internal consistency reliability, only two-thirds ( n = 16) reported undergoing validity testing. When examining microaggressions named measures ( n = 10), we found inconsistent adherence to microaggressions’ theoretical and conceptual foundations. Substantial work remains to develop a “gold standard” measure that does not conflate subtle and blatant acts, assesses the full thematic range of gender microaggressions, and is psychometrically valid across different social contexts and diverse groups of women.

Perceptions of the Self Versus One's Own Social Group: (Mis)conceptions of Older Women's Interest in and Competence With Technology

Our analysis investigates how gender, age, and technology stereotypes relate to one another and how this relationship reinforces or questions stereotypes. Based on intersectionality, stereotyping, and sense-making literature, our study explores how older women perceive their own interest in and competence with technology and that of their peers. We conducted qualitative in-depth interviews with women between 65 and 75 years of age in Germany. Our findings indicate that their evaluations of others are age and gender stereotyped. When explaining their own interest in technology, they refer to their individual preferences, and for explaining their own competence of technology, they refer to social categories. Plus, assumptions of technology usage seem to be gendered. On the basis of our findings, we discuss the need for taking social categories into account when evaluating inclusiveness with new technologies.

Ten simple rules for running a successful women-in-STEM organization on an academic campus

The current academic culture facing women in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) fields in the United States has sparked the formation of grassroots advocacy groups to empower female scientists in training. However, the impact of these initiatives often goes unmeasured and underappreciated. Our Women in Science and Engineering (WiSE) organization serves postdoctoral researchers, graduate students, and research technicians (trainees) at a private research institute for biological sciences. Here we propose the following guidelines for cultivating a successful women-in-STEM-focused group based upon survey results from our own scientific community as well as the experience of our WiSE group leaders. We hope these recommendations can provide guidance to advocacy groups at other research and academic organizations that wish to strengthen their efforts. Whereas our own group specifically focuses on the underrepresented state of women in science, we hope these guidelines may be adapted and applied to groups that advocate for any minority group within the greater scientific community (i.e., those of gender, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic background, sexual orientation, etc.).

Women are underrepresented in leadership positions in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) despite obtaining undergraduate and graduate-level degrees at roughly the same rate as men. To take advantage of this resource of highly trained women in STEM fields, there needs to be better career support for female scientists in training. The authors report on their experience running a women-in-STEM-focused group to foster a more supportive, collaborative, and egalitarian scientific community. In particular, the authors use data-driven metrics to evaluate the success of their group in meeting the needs of their community. The results of this evaluation are presented as a set of 10 guidelines for establishing and maintaining advocacy groups that support the careers of women in science.

Women Publishing in American Psychological Association Journals: A Gender Analysis of Six Decades

Despite recent advances, gender inequality persists in many scientific fields, and Psychology is not alien to this phenomenon. This study presents the evolution of gender composition in American Psychological Association publications in the past six decades, from 1963 to 2016. Longitudinal analysis revealed an important change: women rose from a tiny 12% to 14% in the 1960s to almost gender parity in the last decade (2010s). The pattern of collaboration (coauthorship) shows that women tend to be slightly overrepresented as first author and underrepresented as the last or senior author. In the last two decades, women outnumber men as "new" American Psychological Association authors (authors who publish for the first time in an American Psychological Association journal). These features and the fact that men's publications tend to encompass a much wider range of years suggest that age may play a role in the gender composition of American Psychological Association contributors.

Helping and Hindering Undergraduate Women’s STEM Motivation: Experiences With STEM Encouragement, STEM-Related Gender Bias, and Sexual Harassment

Prior research indicates many women either leave or pursue science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) degrees because the social climate undermined or strengthened their motivation and career aspirations. We investigated whether women’s experiences of sexual harassment and STEM-related gender bias negatively predicted their STEM motivation (task value, competence beliefs, and perceived costs) and STEM career aspirations. We also tested whether STEM encouragement from friends and family positively predicted motivation and aspirations. To consider domain-specific effects, we also tested the predictors in relation to non-STEM motivation and career aspirations. Students’ grade point average was controlled in all analyses. The sample was undergraduate women enrolled in gateway biology courses for majors ( N = 685; M = 19.67 years of age; 35% Asian, 31% White, and 27% Latinx). A majority experienced gender bias (60.9%) or sexual harassment (78.1%) at least once in the past year. STEM-related gender bias from classmates and sexual harassment from instructors (faculty, teaching assistants, or graduate students) were negatively related to STEM motivation and career aspirations. Perceived STEM encouragement from friends was positively related to motivation, and STEM encouragement from friends and family predicted STEM career aspirations. Finally, domain-specific effects were indicated. Our research highlights the need for programs that increase awareness of discrimination, combat bias and harassment, and affirm students’ STEM interest. Additional online materials for this article are available on PWQ's website at https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/suppl/10.1177/0361684318806302

Sexism and Aggression in Adolescence—How Do They Relate to Perceived Academic Achievement?

Sexist attitudes are rooted in patriarchal structures, which uphold traditional gender stereotypes, and which are still found in society today. Scholars have found gender differences in perceived academic achievement, with girls performing better than boys, and negative relationships between sexism and perceived academic achievement. Moreover, perceived academic achievement and sexist attitudes have been associated with aggression and different kinds of violence. This study examined the associations between sexist attitudes and perceived academic achievement (using self-report data). The study also assessed the mediating role of physical and verbal aggression in the relationship between sexist attitudes and perceived academic achievement. Seven hundred eight Spanish adolescents participated in the study. The mean age was 13.00 (SD = 0.95; range = 12–14 years). Structural equation modelling (SEM) was used to analyse the effects among variables for boys and girls. Results showed the role of benevolent sexism and hostile sexism in perceived academic achievement, as well as the mediating role of aggression in the relationship between sexism and perceived academic achievement. Findings and implications are discussed to assess measures for establishing intervention programs and educating adolescents in a non-sexist manner.

“I’m Not a Science Nerd!”

Stereotypes reduce women’s identification with science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM), which can decrease their motivation to enter STEM domains. Stereotypes may be gender-based (e.g., STEM is for men) or trait-based (e.g., STEM is for geniuses). In this study, I explored two primary research questions: First, would stereotyping STEM as a domain for nerdy geniuses negatively relate to women’s STEM identity? Second, would STEM identity mediate the relation between stereotypes and STEM motivation? Nerd-genius stereotypes and gender stereotypes negatively contributed to women’s STEM identity. STEM identity positively contributed to women’s STEM motivation (including expectancy-value beliefs). Participants were a diverse sample of undergraduate women ( N = 195, mean age was 19.8; 30% of participants were Latina, 30% European, 24% Asian). Stereotype measures were (1) implicit gender-STEM associations, (2) explicit gender associations about STEM, and (3) a new scale that measured nerd-genius stereotypes. The results highlight the unique contribution different stereotypes make toward women’s identification with STEM and, in turn, their motivation to pursue STEM pathways. Practice implications include addressing nerd-genius stereotypes in STEM interventions and reducing classroom artifacts that might be reminiscent of these stereotypes.