Reviewing the Consequences of Electronic Gaming Machine Misuse in Australian Older Adults: Implications for Addiction Nurses

ABSTRACT

This review explores contemporary literature exploring electronic gaming machine (EGM) use in the Australian context. EGMs, colloquially known in Australia as pokies (poker machines), lead statistics on gambling losses in Australia and are a substantially different form of gambling when compared with other means, such as sports or casino wagering. This article focuses on Australian literature on EGMs, with comparisons made with international trends. Searches of the Scopus, CINAHL, and Medline electronic journal databases were performed to find literature examining problem gambling through EGM use in older adults. The results of the search found that little literature exists regarding problematic EGM use in older adults; however of the studies that do exist, problem EGM use in the older adult cohort is frequently related to mental ill health as well as alcohol, tobacco, and other substance use. Addiction nurses are in a unique position to assess and detect problematic EGM gambling in older adults; however, few screening tools are used in clinical practice. Given the ease of access and increasing sophistication of EGMs, it is foreseeable that problematic EGM use will be an issue addiction nurses encounter in their future practice and one they should be aware of.

Community Based Interventions for Problematic Substance Use in Later Life: A Systematic Review of Evaluated Studies and Their Outcomes

Problematic substance use (PSU) in later life is a growing global problem of significant concern in tandem with a rapidly ageing global population. Prevention and interventions specifically designed for older people are not common, and those designed for mixed-age groups may fail to address the unique and sometimes complex needs of ageing communities. We report findings from a systematic review of the empirical evidence from studies which formally evaluated interventions used with older people and reported their outcomes. Nineteen studies were included, of which thirteen focused solely on alcohol-related problems. Eight interventions utilised different types of screening, brief advice and education. The remaining drew on behavioural, narrative and integrated or multi-disciplinary approaches, which aimed to meet older people's needs holistically. Quality assessment of study design helped to review evaluation practice. Findings point to recommendations for sustainable and well-designed intervention strategies for PSU in later life, which purposefully align with other areas of health and well-being and are delivered in locations where older people normally seek, or receive, help. There is further scope for engagement with older people's own perspectives on their needs and help-seeking behaviours. Economic evaluation of the outcome of interventions would also be useful to establish the value of investing in targeted services to this underserved population.

Improving Care Provision to Older Adults with Dual Diagnosis: Recommendations from a Mixed-Methods Study

Older adults with dual diagnosis remain an under-diagnosed population in mental health services, with complex needs and high rates of medical comorbidity. Dual diagnosis is a significant challenge to contemporary mental health services, with recognition of the increased rate of relapse and costs of care of poorly managed dual diagnosis identified through comprehensive research. Unfortunately, the research attention paid to those with dual diagnosis in younger age groups has not been replicated in the older adult cohort, with few studies specifically exploring the treatment needs of these individuals. Of the studies that do exist, many identify poor screening and assessment, clinician frustration and a lack of cohesive treatment for co-occurring alcohol and other drug use disorders for older adults. We draw from a mixed methods exploratory study conducted in an inner Melbourne community older adult mental health service providing care to consumers with dual diagnosis to formulate recommendations to improve the care provision to this cohort. We discuss changes to the way older adult mental health services operate that are essential to improve the care and response to consumers presenting with dual diagnosis. Ultimately, we aim to discuss how older adult mental health services can improve to provide timely, responsive care to those with dual diagnosis.

The pattern of substance abuse in Thai elderly: Ramathibodi Poison Center

Objective

To describe substances, clinical manifestations, treatment, and medical outcomes of substance abuse exposures among older adults in Thailand.

Method

This is a retrospective study of individuals aged 60 years or older with intentional abuse exposures reported to the Ramathibodi Poison Center from 1 January 2010 to 31 December 2017.

Results

Forty-four cases were reported. The most common manifestation was somnolence (20, 45.5%). The most common substance used was kratom. There were 12 severe and fatal cases. Only one died due to methadone abuse. The most frequent manifestation among severe cases was respiratory failure (8 of 12 cases, 66.7%). Two cases had severe metabolic acidosis and were treated with hemodialysis. Three cases received norepinephrine.

Conclusion

Substance abuse in the elderly is a serious problem that is often overlooked. Health personnel should promptly recognize and address this issue in order to reduce morbidity and mortality in the elderly population.

Rising incidence of ageing opioid users within the EU wide treatment demand indicator; The Irish opioid epidemic from 1996 to 2014

BACKGROUND

Literature identifies older people who use opioids as a neglected population. Little is known about temporal changes, or about treatment demand among this population.

METHODS

The EU Treatment Demand Indicator (TDI) for Ireland (1996-2014) was analyzed for trends in new opioid treatment admissions, ageing and drug using behaviors. A Joinpoint analysis was conducted.

RESULTS

Data from 18,692 individuals entering treatment for the first time showed that while the trend of age-adjusted incidence declined between 1996 and 2014, incidence among older age groups increased, with a rising incidence not previously observed among those aged 50 years and older. Subgroups of early and late treatment entries, and early and late opioid onset were observed. The median age commencing opioid use increased by three years from 18 to 21 years (U = 326141.5, p < 0.001). The median age entering treatment increased by 11 years (from age 20 to age 31) (U = 145465.5, p < 0.001). The median opioid-using duration prior to treatment increased by 5 years (from 2 to 7 years) (U = 170807.5, p < 0.001). Half of the individuals started injecting within one year of first using opioids. The median time between first injecting and commencing treatment increased by 6 years for men and 2 years for women.

CONCLUSIONS

The study utilizes European TDI data and finds that those entering treatment in Ireland is older, are injecting longer and are taking longer to enter treatment. These findings highlight how TDI data can be used to identify hidden groups at risk of chronic harm which may require prioritizing in policy and practice.

Treatment for opioid use and outcomes in older adults: a systematic literature review

BACKGROUND

Historically, issues relating to problem substance use among older people have received little attention, and have only recently been recognised.

METHODS

A literature review of relevant material was conducted in November 2015 to assess current outcome research among older adults treated for opioid dependence. Multiple electronic databases were searched and results were supplemented by grey literature, library and online searches, and relevant references within selected articles. Retrieved articles were assessed for relevance against the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Results were reviewed to identify major findings and recommendations.

RESULTS

A total of 76 titles were included in the review. Most research conducted on older adults involves alcohol and prescription medications. Older drug users are growing in number and have a unique profile, with many presenting for treatment for the first time aged 50-70 years. Findings reveal (1) opioid treatment numbers are decreasing, however the average age of treatment admissions is increasing, (2) there is no consensus on what old is (3) two distinct types of older opioid substance users exist (early/late onset), (4) older clients achieve better treatment outcomes than younger counterparts, and (5) older women achieve better treatment outcomes than men.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest that little is known about treatment outcomes among older people. Problematic drug use (of which opioids make up the largest proportion) had been incorrectly assumed to end as patients age. Defining an age limit for 'older' is important. Addiction and healthcare services must anticipate and prepare for increased demand by this group.

Prevalence of substance abuse and socio-economic differences in substance abuse in an Australian community-dwelling elderly sample

A sample of 324 55-90-year-old Australian adults participated in a survey on elderly substance abuse using the Clinical Assessment Scales for the Elderly. Overall, males had a higher prevalence rate of substance abuse than females. Significant differences in substance abuse mean scores were found for gender, age, income, community involvement, and retirement. The findings also reveal that being a female, involved in community groups, being a retiree, and being a non-baby boomer are protective factors of substance abuse. Being an upper medium income earner appears to be a risk factor of substance abuse.

Sobriety and alcohol use among rural Alaska Native elders

BACKGROUND

Although notable health disparities related to alcohol use persist among Alaska Native people living in rural communities, there is a paucity of research examining drinking behaviour in particular segments of this population, including elders. One explanation for this is the distrust of behavioural health research in general and alcohol research in particular following the legacy of the Barrow Alcohol Study, still regarded as a notable example of ethics violations in cross-cultural research.

OBJECTIVE

The present study reports findings from one of the first research studies asking directly about alcohol abuse among rural Alaska Natives (AN) since the study in Barrow took place in 1979.

DESIGN

We report findings regarding self-reported alcohol use included in an elder needs assessment conducted with 134 Alaska Native elders from 5 rural villages off the road system in Alaska. Data were collected in partnership between academic researchers and community members in accordance with the principles of Community-Based Participatory Research.

RESULTS

Findings showed very high rates of sobriety and low rates of alcohol use, contradicting stereotypes of widespread alcohol abuse among AN. Possible explanations and future research directions are discussed.

CONCLUSIONS

This research represents one step forward in mending academic-community relationships in rural Alaska to further research on alcohol use and related health disparities.

Who benefits from additional drug counseling among prescription opioid-dependent patients receiving buprenorphine-naloxone and standard medical management?

BACKGROUND

In the multi-site Prescription Opioid Addiction Treatment Study (POATS), conducted within the National Drug Abuse Clinical Trials Network, participants randomly assigned to receive individual drug counseling in addition to buprenorphine-naloxone and medical management did not have superior opioid use outcomes. However, research with other substance-dependent populations shows that subgroups of participants may benefit from a treatment although the entire population does not.

METHOD

We conducted a secondary analysis of POATS data to determine whether a subgroup of participants benefited from drug counseling in addition to buprenorphine-naloxone and medical management, either due to greater problem severity or more exposure to counseling as a result of greater treatment adherence. Problem severity was measured by a history of heroin use, higher Addiction Severity Index drug composite score, and chronic pain. Adequate treatment adherence was defined a priori as attending at least 60% of all offered sessions.

RESULTS

Patients who had ever used heroin and received drug counseling were more likely to be successful (i.e., abstinent or nearly abstinent from opioids) than heroin users who received medical management alone, but only if they were adherent to treatment and thus received adequate exposure to counseling (OR=3.7, 95% CI=1.1-11.8, p=0.03). The association between severity and outcome did not vary by treatment condition for chronic pain or ASI drug severity score.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings emphasize the importance of treatment adherence, and suggest that patients with prescription opioid dependence are a heterogeneous group, with different optimal treatment strategies for different subgroups.

Feasibility and Utility of Experience Sampling to Assess Alcohol Consumption Among Older Adults

In the literature on alcohol use and aging, drinking has often been conceptualized as a means of coping with negative feelings, such as stress, yet much of the literature on older adults and drinking has utilized cross-sectional or other data ill-suited for exploring dynamic processes. Experience sampling methods have the ability to measure and analyze dynamic processes in real time, such as relations between alcohol use and mood states. Nonetheless, these approaches are intensive and may burden respondents. Therefore, this study evaluated the feasibility, acceptability, and validity of a modified daily diary to measure alcohol use and explored alternate methods of collecting diary data. Findings suggest that a modified diary was acceptable and not burdensome. Respondents were reluctant to consider technology (e.g., cellphone)-based means of data collection. Measures of alcohol use showed little within-person variation suggesting that for those who drink at all, drinking is a daily habit.

A review of existing treatments for substance abuse among the elderly and recommendations for future directions

Background

With population aging, there is widespread recognition that the healthcare system must be prepared to serve the unique needs of substance using older adults (OA) in the decades ahead. As such, there is an increasingly urgent need to identify efficient and effective substance abuse treatments (SAT) for OA. Despite this need, there remains a surprising dearth of research on treatment for OA.

Aims of review

This review describes and evaluates studies on SAT applied to and specifically designed for OA over the last 30 years with an emphasis on methodologies used and the knowledge gained.

Methods

Using three research databases, 25 studies published in the last 30 years which investigated the impact of SAT on OA and met specific selection criteria were reviewed.

Results

A majority of the studies were methodologically limited in that they were pre-to-post or post-test only studies. Of the randomized controlled trials, many were limited by sample sizes of 15 individuals or less per group, making main effects difficult to detect. Thus, with caution, the literature suggests that among treatment seeking OA, treatment, whether age-specific or mixed-age, generally works yielding rates of abstinence comparable to general populations and younger cohorts. It also appears that with greater treatment exposure (higher dosage), regardless of level of care, OA do better. Finally, based on only two studies, age-specific treatment appears to potentiate treatment effects for OA. Like younger adults, OA appear to have a heterogeneous response to treatments, and preliminary evidence suggests a possibility of treatment matching for OA.

Conclusions

Expansion of research on SAT for OA is urgently needed for maximum effectiveness and efficiency of the healthcare system serving these individuals. Future research needs to include laboratory and community based randomized controlled trials with high internal validity of previously vetted evidenced-based practices, including Motivational Interviewing, cognitive behavioral therapy, and medications such as naltrexone, to determine the best fit for OA.