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Dhole KS, Bahadure S, Bandre GR, Noman O. Navigating Challenges in Biomedical Waste Management in India: A Narrative Review. Cureus 2024; 16:e55409. [PMID: 38567234 PMCID: PMC10985054 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.55409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/02/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Biomedical waste management (BMWM) in India poses significant challenges that demand thorough examination and strategic interventions. As the country's healthcare sector expands rapidly, proper management of biomedical waste becomes increasingly critical to safeguarding public health and environmental integrity. Biomedical waste, encompassing industrial waste, hospital waste, and waste from other healthcare facilities, poses a heightened risk of infection and injury compared to any other form of waste. A lack of understanding regarding safe medical waste disposal practices can be hazardous to one's health as well as the environment. To improve waste management practices in the country, we can suggest effective strategies and recommendations by developing a deeper understanding of the current situation. To manage medical waste effectively, healthcare professionals must be knowledgeable about and have experience with this process. This evaluation study provides a comprehensive overview of current BMWM methods in India, shedding light on the benefits, drawbacks, challenges, and areas for improvement in the healthcare waste management system. Several important facets of BMWM were highlighted by the literature research, including waste segregation, treatment techniques, and disposal options, as well as compliance and regulatory frameworks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Komal S Dhole
- Pathology, School of Allied Health Sciences, Datta Meghe Institute of Higher Education and Research, Wardha, IND
| | - Sweta Bahadure
- Pathology, Datta Meghe Medical College, Datta Meghe Institute of Higher Education and Research, Wardha, IND
| | - Gulshan R Bandre
- Microbiology, Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College, Datta Meghe Institute of Higher Education and Research, Wardha, IND
| | - Obaid Noman
- Pathology, Datta Meghe Medical College, Datta Meghe Institute of Higher Education and Research, Wardha, IND
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2
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Askari R, Pourkosari F, Koupal R, Mokhtari M. Presented and prioritizing waste management strategies using SWOT and QSPM approach in two private hospitals in Yazd in 2021. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RESEARCH 2023; 33:1465-1478. [PMID: 35921515 DOI: 10.1080/09603123.2022.2099533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND This study aimed to present a strategic waste management in two private hospitals in Yazd using models of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) and quantitative strategic planning matrix (QSPM). METHODS The strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of the organization was identified according to existing documents and expert team. The internal and external factors were identified by internal factor evaluation (IFE) and external factor evaluation (EFE) matrices. The strategies to improve waste management in two hospitals were presented by comparing internal and external factors. Finally, the attractiveness table was compiled and weighted using the QSPM method to prioritize the strategies. RESULTS The results demonstrated that 24 strengths, 30 weaknesses, 16 opportunities, and 22 threats were identified. The final score of internal and external factors for hospital A and B were (X: 2.37, Y:1.88) and (X: 2.37, Y: 2.01), respectively. Based on the results, 12 strategies were presented. Finally, the strategy of "the improvement of green management indicators" was implemented as a priority according to QSPM matrix. CONCLUSION The result of this study duplicated that using the QSPM and SWOT models is assist to present viable strategies to improve the health-care waste management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roohollah Askari
- Department of health management and economics, School of public health, Shahid Sadoughi University of Medical Sciences, Yazd, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Pourkosari
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Environmental Science and Technology Research Center, School of Public Health, Shahid Sadoughi University of Medical Sciences, Yazd, Iran
| | - Roghayeh Koupal
- HSE Master, Shohada-e-Kargar Hospital, Social Security Organization of Yazd, Yazd, Iran
| | - Mehdi Mokhtari
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Environmental Science and Technology Research Center, School of Public Health, Shahid Sadoughi University of Medical Sciences, Yazd, Iran
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Shefali. Generation, types and impacts of biomedical waste during COVID-19: Indian context. Environ Anal Health Toxicol 2023; 38:e2023019-0. [PMID: 38298038 PMCID: PMC10834080 DOI: 10.5620/eaht.2023019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2023] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 02/02/2024] Open
Abstract
India's already-stressed waste disposal system has been strained by the COVID-19 outbreak. The challenge of managing biomedical Waste (BMW) in India has become more complicated in recent years, mainly due to the sudden emergence of COVID-19. As a methodology, a literature review was carried out with the help of Google Scholar, Research Gate, PubMed, and academic journal databases. Additionally, publications from numerous non-academic sources (such as news websites etc.) and current guidelines, such as those from the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India, were also accessed. The review study identifies that PPE (Personal Protective Equipment) made up the majority of biomedical waste, followed by vaccine waste, during the peak of the COVID-19 vaccination campaign. The increase in PPEs such as face masks, aprons, face shields, gloves, goggles, and sanitizers, as well as other medical waste like bandages, plastic containers, syringes, testing kits, and tissues, has significantly changed the makeup of the BMW. This pandemic has hampered the proper management of solid waste, which has now surfaced as a major threat to developing countries. In this paper, biomedical waste management strategies followed in India and its disposal methods, cost-effective and environment-friendly methods to treat medical waste are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shefali
- Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak, India
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Gautam S, Das DK, Kaur J, Kumar A, Ubaidullah M, Hasan M, Yadav KK, Gupta RK. Transition metal-based nanoparticles as potential antimicrobial agents: recent advancements, mechanistic, challenges, and future prospects. DISCOVER NANO 2023; 18:84. [PMID: 37382784 DOI: 10.1186/s11671-023-03861-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 06/01/2023] [Indexed: 06/30/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial transmission is considered one of the potential risks for communicable diseases, requiring promising antibiotics. Traditional drugs possess a limited spectrum of effectiveness, and their frequent administration reduces effectiveness and develops resistivity. In such a situation, we are left with the option of developing novel antibiotics with higher efficiency. In this regard, nanoparticles (NPs) may play a pivotal role in managing such medical situations due to their distinct physiochemical characteristics and impressive biocompatibility. Metallic NPs are found to possess extraordinary antibacterial effects that are useful in vitro as well as in vivo as self-modified therapeutic agents. Due to their wide range of antibacterial efficacy, they have potential therapeutic applications via diverse antibacterial routes. NPs not only restrict the development of bacterial resistance, but they also broaden the scope of antibacterial action without binding the bacterial cell directly to a particular receptor with promising effectiveness against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative microbes. This review aimed at exploring the most relevant types of metal NPs employed as antimicrobial agents, particularly those based on Mn, Fe, Co, Cu, and Zn metals, and their antimicrobial mechanisms. Further, the challenges and future prospects of NPs in biological applications are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonali Gautam
- Nano-Technology Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, GLA University, Uttar Pradesh, Mathura, 281406, India
| | - Dipak Kumar Das
- Nano-Technology Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, GLA University, Uttar Pradesh, Mathura, 281406, India
| | - Jasvinder Kaur
- Department of Chemistry, School of Sciences, IFTM University, Moradabad, Uttar Pradesh, 244102, India
| | - Anuj Kumar
- Nano-Technology Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, GLA University, Uttar Pradesh, Mathura, 281406, India.
| | - Mohd Ubaidullah
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, 11451, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Mudassir Hasan
- Department of Chemical Engineering, King Khalid University, Abha, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Krishna Kumar Yadav
- Faculty of Science and Technology, Madhyanchal Professional University, Ratibad, Bhopal, 462044, India
- Environmental and Atmospheric Sciences Research Group, Scientific Research Center, Al-Ayen University, Thi-Qar, Nasiriyah, 64001, Iraq
| | - Ram K Gupta
- Department of Chemistry, Kansas Polymer Research Center, Pittsburg State University, Pittsburg, KS, 66762, USA
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Bansod HS, Deshmukh P. Biomedical Waste Management and Its Importance: A Systematic Review. Cureus 2023; 15:e34589. [PMID: 36874306 PMCID: PMC9981497 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.34589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The waste generated in various hospitals and healthcare facilities, including the waste of industries, can be grouped under biomedical waste (BMW). The constituents of this type of waste are various infectious and hazardous materials. This waste is then identified, segregated, and treated scientifically. There is an inevitable need for healthcare professionals to have adequate knowledge and a proper attitude towards BMW and its management. BMW generated can either be solid or liquid waste comprising infectious or potentially infectious materials, such as medical, research, or laboratory waste. There is a high possibility that inappropriate management of BMW can cause infections to healthcare workers, the patients visiting the facilities, and the surrounding environment and community. BMW can also be classified into general, pathological, radioactive, chemical, infectious, sharps, pharmaceuticals, or pressurized wastes. India has well-established rules for the proper handling and management of BMW. Biomedical Waste Management Rules, 2016 (BMWM Rules, 2016) specify that every healthcare facility shall take all necessary steps to ensure that BMW is handled without any adverse effect on human and environmental health. This document contains six schedules, including the category of BMW, the color coding and type of containers, and labels for BMW containers or bags, which should be non-washable and visible. A label for the transportation of BMW containers, the standard for treatment and disposal, and the schedule for waste treatment facilities such as incinerators and autoclaves are included in the schedule. The new rules established in India are meant to improve the segregation, transportation, disposal methods, and treatment of BMW. This proper management is intended to decrease environmental pollution because, if not managed properly, BMW can cause air, water, and land pollution. Collective teamwork with committed government support in finance and infrastructure development is a very important requirement for the effective disposal of BMW. Devoted healthcare workers and facilities are also significant. Further, the proper and continuous monitoring of BMW is a vital necessity. Therefore, developing environmentally friendly methods and the right plan and protocols for the disposal of BMW is very important to achieve a goal of a green and clean environment. The aim of this review article is to provide systematic evidence-based information along with a comprehensive study of BMW in an organized manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Himani S Bansod
- Community Medicine, Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College, Datta Meghe Institute of Higher Education and Research, Wardha, IND
| | - Prasad Deshmukh
- Head and Neck Surgery, Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College, Datta Meghe Institute of Higher Education and Research, Wardha, IND
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Ngoc SMV, Nguyen MA, Nguyen TL, Thi HV, Dao TL, Bui TMP, Hoang VT, Chu DT. COVID-19 and environmental health: A systematic analysis for the global burden of biomedical waste by this epidemic. CASE STUDIES IN CHEMICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 2022; 6:100245. [PMID: 37520922 PMCID: PMC9364663 DOI: 10.1016/j.cscee.2022.100245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Revised: 08/02/2022] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 08/01/2023]
Abstract
Since the beginning of this outbreak, much evidence stated that the climb in the amount of biomedical waste harmed human health and had adverse effects on the environment. With the increase of cases of COVID-19 all around the globe, the amount of biomedical waste was also constantly rising. Also, many solutions regarding either reducing or recycling biomedical waste. However, the potential global burden of biomedical waste during this pandemic was not yet been analyzed. Herein, we perform a systematic review of literature on these modalities, including mentioning types of biomedical waste, the effect on health, the environment, and methods of handling biomedical waste during this pandemic. A total of 3551 published papers were identified by two databases. In the end, 15 references were selected for this systematic analysis. Most of the included studies focus on research on the impact of medical waste caused by the COVID-19 pandemic on the environment. The total biomedical waste during the COVID-19 pandemic was approximately 16,649.48 tons/day. Most publications agreed that the amount of waste has also increased due to the rapidly rising number of COVID-19 patients. In 15 articles, we identified 2 mentioning the COVID-19 biomedical waste on health. 9 out of 15 gave out the context related to the solution of BMW by COVID-19. More studies, including meta-analyses, are recommended to shed more light on the effects of medical waste on environmental health during the COVID-19 pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suong-Mai Vu Ngoc
- Center for Biomedicine and Community Health, International School, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, Viet Nam
- Faculty of Applied Sciences, International School, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, Viet Nam
| | - Mai-Anh Nguyen
- Center for Biomedicine and Community Health, International School, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, Viet Nam
- Faculty of Applied Sciences, International School, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, Viet Nam
| | - Thanh-Lam Nguyen
- Center for Biomedicine and Community Health, International School, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, Viet Nam
- Faculty of Applied Sciences, International School, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, Viet Nam
| | - Hue Vu Thi
- Center for Biomedicine and Community Health, International School, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, Viet Nam
- Faculty of Applied Sciences, International School, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, Viet Nam
| | - Thi Loi Dao
- Thai Binh University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Thai Binh, Viet Nam
| | | | - Van Thuan Hoang
- Thai Binh University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Thai Binh, Viet Nam
| | - Dinh-Toi Chu
- Center for Biomedicine and Community Health, International School, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, Viet Nam
- Faculty of Applied Sciences, International School, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, Viet Nam
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Kuppusamy PP, Bhatia A, Verma A, Shah NR, Pratyush P, Shanmugarajan V, Kim SC, Poongavanam G, Duraisamy S. Accumulation of biomedical waste during the COVID-19 pandemic: concerns and strategies for effective treatment. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:55528-55540. [PMID: 35697985 PMCID: PMC9191757 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-21086-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2021] [Accepted: 05/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
This study deals with the pollution impact of biomedical waste (BMW) generation due to the COVID-19 pandemic at both the global and national levels. This discussion is important in light of clear scientific evidence that, apart from the airborne transmission of the disease, the virus also survives on different surfaces and poses the risk of infection. Moreover, an investigation is conducted on BMW generation in tons/day in India during the COVID-19 period, with implications for future projection. Additionally, a pioneering study was conducted to estimate the usage of facemasks during the COVID-19 pandemic in India. This paper also provides a feasible solution, by adopting a modern perspective, towards managing BMW generated in the context of SARS-CoV-2 at isolation wards and crematoriums. Strategical approaches have been suggested for segregating and safely disposing BMW. The latest availability of disposal facilities is discussed based on source data provided by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), India. Among the many disposal methods, incineration technologies are examined in depth. The impact of existing incineration technology on the environment and human health has been extensively studied. This study suggests strategies for controlling BMW generation during the COVID-19 pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pon Pavithiran Kuppusamy
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, 632014, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Arpit Bhatia
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, 632014, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Anmol Verma
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, 632014, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Nehal Ratnesh Shah
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, 632014, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Prakash Pratyush
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, 632014, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Vigneswaran Shanmugarajan
- Department of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Saveetha School of Engineering, Chennai, 602105, India
| | - Sung Chul Kim
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Yeungnam University, 280 Daehak-Ro, Gyeongsan, Gyeongbuk, 712-749, Republic of Korea
| | - GaneshKumar Poongavanam
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Yeungnam University, 280 Daehak-Ro, Gyeongsan, Gyeongbuk, 712-749, Republic of Korea.
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, Chennai, 603203, Tamil Nadu, India.
| | - Sakthivadivel Duraisamy
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, 632014, Tamil Nadu, India
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Abdalhamed AM, Ghazy AA, Ibrahim ES, Arafa AA, Zeedan GSG. Therapeutic effect of biosynthetic gold nanoparticles on multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli and Salmonella species isolated from ruminants. Vet World 2021; 14:3200-3210. [PMID: 35153413 PMCID: PMC8829404 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2021.3200-3210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2021] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and Aim: Multidrug-resistant (MDR) pathogenic microorganisms have become a global problem in ruminants as a result of the intensive use of antibiotics, causing the development of resistance among gut microbiota. The antibiotic-resistant microorganisms can be transferred from diseased animals to humans. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of MDR Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. isolated from cattle, buffaloes, sheep, and goats suffering from respiratory signs, diarrhea, and mastitis and to screen the antibiotic sensitivity of selected isolated bacteria. It also detected antibiotic-resistance genes by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), produced green gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) using plant extracts (Artemisia herba-alba and Morus alba), and evaluated the antimicrobial activities of these biosynthesized nanoparticles on selected pathogens (E. coli and Salmonella spp.). Materials and Methods: MDR E. coli and Salmonella spp. were investigated using fecal samples (n=408), nasal swabs (n=358), and milk samples (n=227) of cattle, buffaloes, sheep, and goats with or without clinical signs, including respiratory manifestations, pneumonia, diarrhea, and mastitis, from different governorates in Egypt. E. coli and Salmonella spp. were isolated and identified on selective media, which were confirmed by biochemical reactions and PCR. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing against 10 commonly used antibiotics was performed using the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method. Antibiotic resistance genes blaTEM, blaSHV, blaOXA, and blaCTX−M were detected by PCR. The antibacterial effect of the biosynthesized AuNPs was evaluated by MIC and well diffusion assay. The biosynthesized AuNPs were also characterized by ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Results: Among all fecal samples, the prevalence of E. coli was 18.4% (183/993) and that of Salmonella spp. was 16.7% (66/408), as determined by cultural and molecular tests. All isolates of E. coli and Salmonella spp. were 100% resistant to ampicillin (AM) and amoxicillin and highly resistant to cefoxitin and AM-sulbactam. The total rate of resistance genes in E. coli was 61.2% (112/183), while that in Salmonella was 63.6% (42/66) for pathogens isolated from ruminants with respiratory manifestations, pneumonia, diarrhea, and mastitis. Among the resistance genes, blaTEM had the highest prevalence rate in E. coli (25.9%, 21/81) while blaSHV had the lowest (9.8%, 8/81) in fecal swabs. AuNPs were successfully synthesized using aqueous leaf extract of A. herba-alba and M. alba as bioreducing agents. TEM analysis showed particle size of 10-42 nm for A. herba-alba and M. alba AuNPs. The biosynthesized AuNPs showed antibacterial activity against MDR E. coli and Salmonella spp. Conclusion: Rapid and accurate diagnostic methods are the cornerstone for effective treatment to reduce the risk of antimicrobial-resistant pathogenic microorganisms. This is particularly important for overcoming the increasing rate of MDR in ruminants with respiratory manifestations, pneumonia, diarrhea, and mastitis. This can be complemented by the development of AuNPs synthesized in an environmentally friendly manner AuNPs using natural plant extracts for the treatment of antibiotic-resistant microorganisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abeer M. Abdalhamed
- Department of Parasitology and Animal Diseases, National Research Centre, Dokki, Egypt
| | - Alaa A. Ghazy
- Department of Parasitology and Animal Diseases, National Research Centre, Dokki, Egypt
| | - Eman S. Ibrahim
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, National Research Centre, Dokki, Egypt
| | - Amany A. Arafa
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, National Research Centre, Dokki, Egypt
| | - Gamil S. G. Zeedan
- Department of Parasitology and Animal Diseases, National Research Centre, Dokki, Egypt
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Galdames A, Ruiz-Rubio L, Orueta M, Sánchez-Arzalluz M, Vilas-Vilela JL. Zero-Valent Iron Nanoparticles for Soil and Groundwater Remediation. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17165817. [PMID: 32796749 PMCID: PMC7460444 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17165817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2020] [Revised: 08/07/2020] [Accepted: 08/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Zero-valent iron has been reported as a successful remediation agent for environmental issues, being extensively used in soil and groundwater remediation. The use of zero-valent nanoparticles have been arisen as a highly effective method due to the high specific surface area of zero-valent nanoparticles. Then, the development of nanosized materials in general, and the improvement of the properties of the nano-iron in particular, has facilitated their application in remediation technologies. As the result, highly efficient and versatile nanomaterials have been obtained. Among the possible nanoparticle systems, the reactivity and availability of zero-valent iron nanoparticles (NZVI) have achieved very interesting and promising results make them particularly attractive for the remediation of subsurface contaminants. In fact, a large number of laboratory and pilot studies have reported the high effectiveness of these NZVI-based technologies for the remediation of groundwater and contaminated soils. Although the results are often based on a limited contaminant target, there is a large gap between the amount of contaminants tested with NZVI at the laboratory level and those remediated at the pilot and field level. In this review, the main zero-valent iron nanoparticles and their remediation capacity are summarized, in addition to the pilot and land scale studies reported until date for each kind of nanomaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alazne Galdames
- Macromolecular Chemistry Group (LQM), Physical Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country, 48940 Leioa, Spain; (A.G.); (J.L.V.-V.)
| | - Leire Ruiz-Rubio
- Macromolecular Chemistry Group (LQM), Physical Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country, 48940 Leioa, Spain; (A.G.); (J.L.V.-V.)
- BCMaterials, Basque Center for Materials, Applications and Nanostructures, UPV/EHU Science Park, 48940 Leioa, Spain
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-94-6017-972
| | - Maider Orueta
- Iragaz Watin S.A., 20720 Azkoitia, Spain; (M.O.); (M.S.-A.)
| | | | - José Luis Vilas-Vilela
- Macromolecular Chemistry Group (LQM), Physical Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country, 48940 Leioa, Spain; (A.G.); (J.L.V.-V.)
- BCMaterials, Basque Center for Materials, Applications and Nanostructures, UPV/EHU Science Park, 48940 Leioa, Spain
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