Speech Entrainment in Adolescent Conversations: A Developmental Perspective

PURPOSE

Defined as the similarity of speech behaviors between interlocutors, speech entrainment plays an important role in successful adult conversations. According to theoretical models of entrainment and research on motoric, cognitive, and social developmental milestones, the ability to entrain should develop throughout adolescence. However, little is known about the specific developmental trajectory or the role of speech entrainment in conversational outcomes of this age group. The purpose of this study is to characterize speech entrainment patterns in the conversations of neurotypical early adolescents.

METHOD

This study utilized a corpus of 96 task-based conversations between adolescents between the ages of 9 and 14 years and a comparison corpus of 32 task-based conversations between adults. For each conversational turn, two speech entrainment scores were calculated for 429 acoustic features across rhythmic, articulatory, and phonatory dimensions. Predictive modeling was used to evaluate the degree of entrainment and relationship between entrainment and two metrics of conversational success.

RESULTS

Speech entrainment increased throughout early adolescence but did not reach the level exhibited in conversations between adults. Additionally, speech entrainment was predictive of both conversational quality and conversational efficiency. Furthermore, models that included all acoustic features and both entrainment types performed better than models that only included individual acoustic feature sets or one type of entrainment.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings show that speech entrainment skills are largely developed during early adolescence with continued development possibly occurring across later adolescence. Additionally, results highlight the role of speech entrainment in successful conversation in this population, suggesting the import of continued exploration of this phenomenon in both neurotypical and neurodivergent adolescents. We also provide evidence of the value of using holistic measures that capture the multidimensionality of speech entrainment and provide a validated methodology for investigating entrainment across multiple acoustic features and entrainment types.

The Impact of Social Network Site Use on Young Adult Development: Extending the Research Beyond Time Use and Considering the Role of Self-Disclosure Motivations

Young adults spend a good deal of time using social network sites (SNSs), and the consequences of this activity have come under considerable scrutiny in research. There is some evidence that SNSs offer a context for young adults to engage in self-disclosure, and that such behavior may contribute to their development. In the current study, self-disclosure motivations were explored as a moderator of the relationship between SNS time use and indicators of adjustment. It was hypothesized that the relationships between SNS time use and three indicators of young adult adjustment (belonging, self-concept clarity, and flourishing) would be moderated by self-disclosure motivations. Data were collected using a cross-sectional survey of 524 young adults aged 17-25 years (Mean age = 19.75; SD = 2.16) who used at least one social network site daily (Mean hours of daily use = 3.25; SD = 1.67). The relationships between SNS time use and both belonging and flourishing were moderated by self-disclosure motivations. Specifically, when participants were low or moderately motivated to self-disclose (for relationship maintenance or self-presentation purposes) SNS time use was negatively related to belonging and flourishing. Whereas when participants were highly motivated to self-disclose there was no significant relationship between SNS time use and belonging and SNS time use and flourishing. Additionally, there was no significant moderation of the relationship between SNS time use and self-concept clarity. Based on these findings, we recommend that in order for young adults to reap potential benefits of spending time online they should endeavor to use SNSs for purposes that promote positive self and relational development.

Adolescents’ Characteristics and Peer Relationships in Class: A Population Study

Background: This study aimed to investigate differences in adolescents’ social relationships with classmates of diverse gender, socioeconomic status, immigrant background, and academic achievement. Methods: A population of 10th-grade students (N = 406,783; males = 50.3%; M_age = 15.57 years, SD_age = 0.75) completed the Classmates Social Isolation Questionnaire (CSIQ), an instrument specifically designed to measure two distinct but correlated types of peer relationships in class: peer acceptance and peer friendship. To obtain reliable comparisons across diverse adolescent characteristics, the measurement invariance of the CSIQ was established by means of CFAs and then latent mean differences tests were performed. Results: Immigrant background, academic achievement, and socioeconomic status all proved to be important factors influencing relationships with classmates, while being a male or a female was less relevant. Being a first-generation immigrant adolescent appears to be the foremost risk factor for being less accepted by classmates, while having a low academic achievement is the greatest hindrance for having friends in the group of classmates, a finding that diverges from previous studies. Conclusions: This population study suggests that adolescent characteristics (especially immigrant background, socioeconomic status, and academic achievement) seem to affect social relationships with classmates.

Bidirectional associations between biased language exposure and school-based relationships across gender

Students often hear their peers use biased language regarding race, religion, sexual orientation, or disability status in the school setting. Prior research has indicated that biased language is related to school climate, and specifically to school-based relationships between peers and between students and their teachers. This study investigated the longitudinal associations among student-student relationships, teacher-student relationships, and being the target of or hearing biased language in middle school students. Students (N = 501; 46.5% White, 21.8% Hispanic, 13% African American, and 15% Multi-Racial; 48.7% female) reported on how much they were targeted or heard biased language related to race/religion, sexual orientation, and disability status. Students also reported on their relationships with their peers and teachers. Using a cross-lagged panel model with the overall sample, a negative unidirectional association from being the target of or hearing biased language and student-student relationships and teacher-student relationships was identified. Separate models for boys and girls identified unique patterns. For boys, biased-language exposure predicted more negative student-student relationships and teacher-student relationships, whereas for girls, biased-language exposure was not associated with school-based relationships. Implications include addressing language use and building positive student-student and teacher-student relationships.

Testing a Moderated Mediation Model of Social Withdrawal and Intimacy: The Roles of Interpersonal Distrust and Retrospective Bullying Victimization

Given that social withdrawal has been consistently linked to intimacy, an examination of the mediating effect of interpersonal distrust on the relationship between social withdrawal and intimacy could offer potential insights into a possible explanatory mechanism. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate interpersonal distrust as a mediator of the relationship between social withdrawal and intimacy, and whether retrospective bullying victimization moderates this mediation. Participants included 160 university students who completed measures of social withdrawal, interpersonal distrust, intimacy, and retrospective bullying victimization. Results indicated that interpersonal distrust mediated the relationship between social withdrawal and intimacy. Retrospective bullying victimization in primary school, however, did not moderate the mediation model. In light of these findings, appropriate implications and suggestions for interventions are discussed.

Developmental Associations Between Sympathy and Mutual Disclosure in Friendships From Mid-Adolescence to Early Adulthood

Sympathy is regarded as an important precursor to the development of emotional intimacy, including mutual disclosure. In turn, emotional intimacy is assumed to foster the development of sympathy. Yet, research has not examined how sympathy and mutual disclosure in generic friendships are mutually related to one another during mid-adolescence to early adulthood. Data came from three waves of the Swiss Survey of Children and Youth (COCON; N = 1,258). Bidirectional links between sympathy and mutual disclosure were tested with autoregressive cross-lagged panel analyses. Sympathy at age 15 was associated with mutual disclosure in friendships at 18, which in turn was associated with sympathy at 21. Multi-group models suggested that our model better describes these processes in females than in males.

Neural correlates of sex-related differences in attachment dimensions

The purpose of this study was to investigate sex-related differences in the electrophysiological response to socioemotional stimuli (positive, negative, and ambiguous) depicting couple interactions. The associations between anxiety and avoidance attachment dimensions (measured with the Experiences in Close Relationships–Revised questionnaire) and the strength of cortico-limbic circuit intensity was explored, recorded using a 256-Hydrocel Geodesic Sensor-Net. Event-related potentials (ERPs) and standardized low-resolution electromagnetic tomography (sLORETA) data were analyzed for a total sample of 74 participants. Regression analyses showed that the women presented increased brain intensity compared with that in men, and the avoidance score was positively associated with brain intensity, particularly in response to negative socioemotional stimuli. The interaction sex per avoidance was a significant predictor of intensity in many brain areas, with women displaying significantly more pronounced positive associations between avoidance and brain intensity than men. In conclusion, the findings of the present study showed that women appeared to be more emotionally involved during the socioemotional task. Avoidance was positively associated with intensity of the cingulate and prefrontal regions, and these associations were more pronounced in women than in men. These findings suggested that avoidance seems to represent two different socioemotional strategies, in which women appear to activate an avoidant strategy to modulate increased emotional involvement in relationships, whereas men appear to adopt avoidance with a more intense emotional suppression.

Adolescent Peer Relationship Qualities as Predictors of Long-Term Romantic Life Satisfaction

Adolescent-era predictors of adult romantic life satisfaction were examined in a multimethod, prospective, longitudinal study of 165 adolescents followed from ages 13 to 30. Progress in key developmental tasks, including establishing positive expectations and capacity for assertiveness with peers at age 13, social competence at ages 15 and 16, and ability to form and maintain strong close friendships at ages 16-18, predicted romantic life satisfaction at ages 27-30. In contrast, several qualities linked to romantic experience during adolescence (i.e., sexual and dating experience, physical attractiveness) were unrelated to future satisfaction. Results suggest a central role of competence in nonromantic friendships as preparation for successful management of the future demands of adult romantic life.

"It is OK to let them know you are human too": Mentor self-disclosure in formal youth mentoring relationships

This study aims to capture descriptive data on how mentors self-disclose to their adolescent mentees. Self-disclosure is a normative communication process that facilitates trust and closeness in interpersonal relationships. Despite being a relational intervention, little is known about self-disclosure in youth-mentoring relationships. A total of 54 mentors from 2 community-based mentoring programs in Auckland, New Zealand, participated in this mixed-methods study about their experiences of disclosing to mentees via an online questionnaire. In this sample, mentors disclosed about various topics, including hobbies, school and work, health, beliefs, self-esteem, substance use, emotions, sex, and money. Qualitative analysis identified themes regarding how mentors self-disclose, disclosure influencing positive relationship characteristics, the influence of mentoring programs, challenges with mentee interest and culture clashes, and the perceived effect of self-disclosure on mentees and the mentoring relationship. These mentors disclosed broadly and viewed generally self-disclosure in a positive way, but they also experienced challenges and complexities.

Quality and Stability of Cross-Ethnic Friendships: Effects of Classroom Diversity and Out-of-School Contact

Cross-ethnic friendships are linked to a range of positive outcomes in adolescence, but have been shown to be lower quality and less stable than same-ethnic friendships. The current study examined how classroom diversity and out-of-school contact contribute to these relational differences between cross-and same-ethnic friendships. Multilevel analyses were conducted on a sample of 9,171 classroom-based friends nested within 4,333 ethnically diverse sixth grade students (54% female; 32% Latino, 20% White, 14% East/Southeast Asian, 12% African American, 14% Multiethnic, 8% Other ethnic). Consistent with the hypotheses, lower ethnic diversity in classes shared by friends and lack of home contact (as opposed to electronic) contributed to relational differences between cross- and same-ethnic friendships. The findings suggest that while diverse classrooms enable youth to bond across ethnic groups, connecting outside of school is critical for the relational quality and longevity of cross-ethnic friendships.

Intimacy development in late adolescence: Longitudinal associations with perceived parental autonomy support and adolescents' self-worth

The present longitudinal study tested for the role of perceived parental autonomy-support and late adolescents' self-worth in their intimacy development. A sample of 497 Belgian late adolescents (M_age = 17.9, 43.5% girls) participated in this two-wave study. Results indicated that perceived autonomy-supportive parenting did not relate significantly to change in adolescents' experienced intimacy (in terms of closeness and mutuality), but was associated with a decrease in unmitigated agency (an excessive focus on the self) and unmitigated communion (an excessive focus on the other) across time. Adolescents' self-worth predicted an increase in experienced intimacy and a decrease in unmitigated agency and communion, and the initial level of experienced intimacy predicted an increase in self-worth. Finally, results suggested that adolescents' self-worth may mediate some of the longitudinal relations between perceived parental autonomy-support and adolescents' intimate functioning. No evidence was found for moderation by romantic involvement, gender or age.

Health Communication With Same-Sex and Other-Sex Friends in Emerging Adulthood

Objective We examined health-related communication between same-sex and other-sex friends and how communication was related to health-related behavior. Participants Data from 243 emerging adults attending college ( Mage = 18.96, SD = 1.43; 55.6% male) were analyzed. Methods Participants completed measures assessing the frequency in which they talked about and made plans to engage in exercise and nutrition-related behaviors with friends, as well as how often they engaged in exercise and nutrition-related behaviors. Results In general, participants reported more health-related communication with same-sex friends. Health-related communication with same-sex friends was positively related to health behaviors for men and women. However, the pattern of results differed for men and women depending on the topic of communication and the behavior being examined. Conclusion Our study extends the literature by examining the role of sex of friends in health communication and planning and how interactions with friends relate to health-promoting behavior.

A Two-Wave Study of Self-Monitoring Personality, Social Network Churn, and In-Degree Centrality in Close Friendship and General Socializing Networks

We examine the role of self-monitoring personality in shaping network change in two important types of social relationships. In a two-wave social network study, we find that individuals with higher levels of self-monitoring derive persistent personality-linked in-degree centrality benefits in the general socializing network but have fading benefits over time in the close friendship network. Simultaneous examination of the formation and dissolution of relationships over time (network churn) reveals that this pattern of network change is shaped by differential reactions of relationship partners to individuals based upon level of self-monitoring in the two network types. Overall, by incorporating the dynamic reactions of relationship partners, the findings contribute to the understanding of the complex relationship between personality and social network development.

Gender and the construction of intimacy among committed couples with children

This study began with curiosity regarding how long-term couples with children manage their relationships in view of changing societal demands and ideals. Couples interviewed for this study described the intersection of time and intimacy as a core issue. Thus, this analysis focused on how couples construct intimacy in shared time. The diverse sample included 17 heterosexual working and professional class couples in the United States who had been committed for at least 10 years and whose oldest child was aged 6-16. Analysis identified four types of shared time experiences: gender divided, elusive, growing, and emotionally connected. Four factors influenced these types: (a) negotiated gendered differences, (b) intentionality, (c) mutual attending, and (d) dyadic friendship. The most emotionally connected couples reported that time together reinforced satisfaction and pleasure from their relationships. Results help explain different ways couples successfully negotiate changing expectations for heterosexual relationships and why some couples struggle. Findings suggest that therapists help couples intentionally develop habits of friendship and mutual attending.

Do Men and Women Show Love Differently in Marriage?

In Western societies, women are considered more adept than men at expressing love in romantic relationships. Although scholars have argued that this view of love gives short shrift to men’s ways of showing love (e.g., Cancian, 1986; Noller, 1996), the widely embraced premise that men and women “love differently” has rarely been examined empirically. Using data collected at four time points over 13 years of marriage, the authors examined whether love is associated with different behaviors for husbands and wives. Multilevel analyses revealed that, counter to theoretical expectations, both genders were equally likely to show love through affection. But whereas wives expressed love by enacting fewer negative or antagonistic behaviors, husbands showed love by initiating sex, sharing leisure activities, and doing household work together with their wives. Overall, the findings indicate that men and women show their love in more nuanced ways than cultural stereotypes suggest.

Are RIASEC Interests Traits? Evidence Based on Self–Other Agreement

Two studies examined the conceptualization of career interests as traits using self–other agreement data. Study 1 participants were 114 college student–friend dyads, and Study 2 participants were 93 student–parent dyads. In each study, students provided interest (using Holland’s realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional [RIASEC] dimensions) and personality (using the Big Five factors) self-ratings, and friends/parents completed parallel measures on which they rated the students. Self–other agreement for interests was similar in magnitude to that for personality, providing support for a trait conceptualization. Student–parent dyads were in closer agreement regarding realistic than investigative or conventional interests, but among friends the degree of agreement across RIASEC interest dimensions did not differ. The magnitude of agreement between friends was comparable to that of student–parent dyads, but whereas one index of agreement between student–parent dyads was associated with students’ vocational identity, agreement with friends was unrelated to vocational identity. Implications for theory, intervention, and research are presented.

I'm outgoing and she's reserved: the reciprocal dynamics of personality in close friendships in young adulthood

Close college-age friendships provide differential opportunities for reinforcing dispositional tendencies and fostering accommodation or change. This finding was obtained from a cross-sectional study of 66 pairs of same-sex college-age friends (58% female). Each pair of friends was extreme and either very similar or different with regard to extraversion-introversion. Interviews with each friend were analyzed for references to each other's role in various friendship domains, including the setting of the friendship and position with regard to chatting, disclosing, expressing opinions about peers, and energizing the friendship. Matched friends mutually reinforced each other's similar dispositional tendencies. Friends with contrasting personalities showed patterns of personality accommodation as well as complementary reinforcement. Implications are discussed for embedding reciprocal theories of personality development in close friendships.

Coming of Age Online: The Developmental Underpinnings of Girls’ Blogs

Adolescent girls have emerged as the largest demographic of bloggers in the United States. In this study, the author interviewed 20 girls, aged 17 to 21, who had been blogging for 3 or more years. Consistent with previous studies involving youths’ online activities, the girls discussed their use of blogging for self-expression and peer interaction. They also observed that the content and style of their blog writing has changed considerably over the years. Their observations reflect key changes in self-development and peer relationships that typically occur during the transition from adolescence to emerging adulthood. Drawing on these findings, the author presents a conceptual framework that illustrates how developmental theory can illuminate our understanding of adolescents’ and emerging adults’ online behaviors.

Caught in the Act: How Extraverted and Introverted Friends Communally Cope with Being Recorded

This study explored how close friends who were similar or opposite on extraversion communally coped with being put on the spot to produce a recorded conversation. Participants were 50 pairs of same-sex college-age friends (54% female) who explicitly discussed the fact that their conversation was being recorded. The initial 'on-stage' episode emerged consistently earliest for extraverted dyads, and the majority of their episodes quickly diverted the on-stage moment. Dyads that included at least one introvert engaged in more extensive assortments of on-stage maneuvers, including research talk, soothing, and joking. In introvert-extravert dyads the extravert usually initiated and ended these episodes. Implications are discussed for understanding how personality is reciprocally implicated in managing shared everyday problems.

Gender Differences in Domain-Specific Self-Esteem: A Meta-Analysis

This meta-analysis examines gender differences in 10 specific domains of self-esteem across 115 studies, including 428 effect sizes and 32,486 individuals. In a mixed-effects analysis, men scored significantly higher than women on physical appearance ( d = 0.35), athletic ( d = 0.41), personal self ( d = 0.28), and self-satisfaction self-esteem ( d = 0.33). Women scored higher than men on behavioral conduct ( d = −0.17) and moral–ethical self-esteem ( d = −0.38). The gender difference in physical appearance self-esteem was significant only after 1980 and was largest among adults. No significant gender differences appeared in academic, social acceptance, family, and affect self-esteem. The results demonstrate the influence of reflected appraisals on self-esteem.