"It Is A Purposefully Ambiguous Term": Examining Emerging Adults' Definitions of Hooking Up and How They Vary by Sex/Gender and Educational Background

The majority of past work on hooking up among emerging adults uses a researcher-led definition and often uses college student samples. The purpose of this study was to qualitatively examine participant-led definitions of hooking up using a large sample (N = 701) of college-attending and non-college emerging adults. Most definitions included behaviors (91.7%), a partner type (64.3%), and references to commitment (69.2%). However, considerable variation in definitions within these categories was identified, in particular with reference to commitment. In our sample, definitions attended to what a hook "is" and "is not" as it relates to commitment. Hookup characteristics were also discussed in definitions, including frequency of hooking up, decision making, sexual health and safety, and purposes for hookups. Participants regularly referenced other common terms in relation to hooking up, including one-night stands, casual sex, no strings attached, and friends with benefits. For some, hookups were similar to these other types of casual sex experiences, whereas for others hooking up was distinct. We also quantitatively examined proportional differences in definitional categories and sub-categories based on sex/gender (men vs. women) and educational background (college-attending vs. non-college). Although some proportional differences were found, in general men and women and college-attending and non-college emerging adults defined hookups in similar ways. Programming focused on emerging adult romantic and sexual relationship education would benefit from addressing these subtle, but meaningful variations, as individuals enact hookup scripts based on how they define their encounters. Future opportunities for research to integrate both researcher-led and participant-led definitions of hooking up are discussed.

The Role of Feminism and Gender in Endorsement of Hookup Culture among Emerging Adults

Hookup culture has transformed the sexual behavior of emerging adults. Feminism, a movement that has advocated for liberating women from sexual repression, may be associated with hookup endorsement attitudes. This study explores the associations among multiple dimensions of feminism, gender, and hookup culture endorsement. Participants included 318 emerging adults (46% women; Mage = 22.2 years; 51% White, 27% Asian, 5% Hispanic/Latinx, 9% Black, 1% Middle Eastern, 1% American Indian, 6% Multiracial) from five Anglophone countries (62% U.S., 23% United Kingdom, 9% Canada, 5% Australia, 1% New Zealand), who completed the Feminist Beliefs and Behavior Scale and Endorsement of Hookup Culture Index via an anonymous, online survey. Participants were categorized according to their feminist identity label (feminist, non-feminist) and feminist belief system (hold feminist beliefs, hold non-feminist beliefs). A series of ANCOVAs was conducted, revealing that women who identified as feminist and/or held feminist beliefs reported significantly higher endorsement of hookup culture compared to non-feminist women with non-feminist beliefs. Neither dimension of feminism predicted hookup culture endorsement in men. When comparing feminist-identifying women and men, the gender disparity in hookup culture endorsement was eliminated. Together, these findings highlight how social movements, such as feminism, may be associated with young women's attitudes towards hookups, and may ultimately shape their sexual experiences.

A Fertile Ground for Ambiguities: Casual Sexual Relationships Among Portuguese Emerging Adults

Casual sexual relationships (CSRs) are frequent relationship experiences in young adulthood that provide opportunities for many to explore sexual relationships and to construct their sexual identity. Empirical research on casual sex is still lacking outside North-American countries, despite evidence pointing to the need to contextualize sexual interactions in their own sociocultural context. In order to better understand casual sexual relationships, these should be examined in with novel samples in other countries where a “hookup culture” as it is described in the North-American university campus is apparently absent. Through a qualitative study, we explored what casual sexual relationships consist of according to the perceptions of Portuguese college students (N = 35). The thematic analysis of eight focus group interviews resulted in the generation of six themes, three of which are presented here: (1) What CSRs are, regarding features and types of CSRs, (2) Why individuals engage in CSRs, focusing on positive and negative motivations, and (3) What one gets from CSRs, focusing on positive and negative outcomes of CSRs. Our findings showed that Portuguese emerging adults are familiarized with CSRs, particularly with one-night stand, friends with benefits and “curte”/hookup. Sexual interactions associated with other CSRs, such as booty call or fuck buddies, were mentioned but rarely associated with a distinctive label and established characteristics. Participants described the CSRs in a partially overlapping manner presenting some areas of ambiguity, such as with regard to sexual exclusivity and still-unlabeled sexual interactions. CSRs are generally evaluated as positively motivated and mainly beneficial. This study adds to the literature around casual sexual relationships by exploring and describing CSRs in a different sociocultural context, as well as indicating directions for future research in order to better prepare and empower young adults in their sexual and relational trajectories.

Hooking Up and Pairing Off: Correlates of College Students' Interest in Subsequent Hookups and Romantic Relationships With Other-Sex and Same-Sex Hookup Partners

Contrary to popular media claims that college hookup culture has made romantic relationships obsolete, research indicates many college students see hookups as a pathway to relationships. However, relatively few college hookups actually produce relationships. This study used a sex market framework to explore correlates of college students' interest in future hookups and relationships with hookup partners across other-sex and same-sex hookup markets. Using Online College Social Life Survey data (N = 10,141) we explored variables classified in the following contexts that may shape choices in a sex market: demographic characteristics, the hookup dyad, the hookup event, post-hookup reactions, attitudes toward hookup partners, and hookup opportunity structures. Logistic regression analyses indicated post-hookup reactions (e.g., satisfaction, emotional responses) explained the highest percentage of variance in interest in a subsequent hookup (56% to 61% across markets) and interest in a relationship (35% to 45% across markets). Although past research suggests there are different markets for other- and same-sex hookups, these findings suggest similarity in contexts that may shape interest in relationship formation among other-sex and same-sex hookup markets. Suggestions for fostering positive relationship development on campuses are discussed.

Meanings Ascribed to Sex and Commitment Among College-Attending and Non-College Emerging Adults: A Replication and Extension

The purpose of this study was to examine how meanings ascribed to sex and commitment vary based on educational background, gender, and other correlates using a large sample of college-attending and non-college emerging adults (ages 18-25; N = 669). Findings from our content analysis replicated previous research by identifying meanings focused on commitment (47.8%), flexibility (22.7%), and recreation (17.8%). We also found two additional meanings focused on finding a sexual connection (termed Connectors; 9.1%) and using sex to test relationship compatibility (termed Testers; 2.5%), which were not found in previous studies on sex and commitment. A greater proportion of women than men were in the Committers group, whereas a greater proportion of men than women were in the Recreationers group. A greater proportion of heterosexual than sexual minority participants were in the Committers group, whereas a greater proportion of sexual minority than heterosexual participants were in the Flexibles and Testers groups. A greater proportion of those in committed relationships than those in casual or no relationships were in the Committers group, whereas a greater proportion of those in casual relationships than those in committed or no relationships were in the Recreationers group. Those in the Recreationers group reported the greatest average number of hookup partners in the last 12 months (compared to all others), and those in the Recreationers and Testers groups reported the greatest average number of lifetime sexual partners (compared to all others). Implications for future research and sexual health education for emerging adults are discussed.

Are Perceptions of the Developmental Features of Emerging Adulthood and Endorsement of the Hookup Culture Associated with Number of Different Hookup Partners and Behaviors?

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between perceptions of each developmental feature of emerging adulthood and endorsement of each feature of the hookup culture with number of different hookup partners and hookup behaviors. Participants were 1219 college-attending emerging adults (ages 18-29 years) who completed an online survey about emerging adult experiences. After controlling for semester of data collection and known correlates of hooking up (e.g., age, sex, religiosity, and binge drinking experience), none of the developmental features of emerging adulthood were significantly associated with number of different hookup partners in the last 12 months. In addition, only one feature of the hookup culture was associated with number of different hookup partners: Hooking up is fun. In follow-up analyses among those who reported at least one hookup in the last 12 months (n = 807), some of the developmental features of emerging adulthood (e.g., experimentation/possibilities, negativity/instability) and features of the hookup culture (e.g., hooking up is fun, hooking up provides sexual freedom) helped differentiate reported involvement in various types of hookup behaviors. The most prominent and consistent correlate was number of different hookup partners in the last 12 months (increased likelihood of all behaviors, except deep kissing). Recommendations for understanding hooking up as a developmental and/or cultural experience are discussed.

Growing Up, Hooking Up, and Drinking: A Review of Uncommitted Sexual Behavior and Its Association With Alcohol Use and Related Consequences Among Adolescents and Young Adults in the United States

Hookups are uncommitted sexual encounters that range from kissing to intercourse and occur between individuals in whom there is no current dating relationship and no expressed or acknowledged expectations of a relationship following the hookup. Research over the last decade has begun to focus on hooking up among adolescents and young adults with significant research demonstrating how alcohol is often involved in hooking up. Given alcohol’s involvement with hooking up behavior, the array of health consequences associated with this relationship, as well as its increasing prevalence from adolescence to young adulthood, it is important to determine the predictors and consequences associated with alcohol-related hooking up. The current review extends prior reviews by adding more recent research, including both qualitative and experimental studies (i.e., expanding to review more diverse methods), research that focuses on the use of technology in alcohol-related hookups (i.e., emerging issues), further develops prevention and intervention potentials and directions, and also offers a broader discussion of hooking up outside of college student populations (i.e., expanding generalization). This article will review the operationalization and ambiguity of the phrase hooking up, the relationship between hooking up and alcohol use at both the global and event levels, predictors of alcohol-related hooking up, and both positive and negative consequences, including sexual victimization, associated with alcohol-related hookups. Throughout, commentary is provided on the methodological issues present in the field, as well as limitations of the existing research. Future directions for research that could significantly advance our understanding of hookups and alcohol use are provided.

How Do College Experience and Gender Differentiate the Enactment of Hookup Scripts Among Emerging Adults?

Empirical attention to "hooking up" has expanded over time, yet limited attention has been devoted to understanding the hookup experiences of emerging adults (ages 18-25) who have not attended college and how they may differ from those who have attended college. Guided by life course and scripting theories, we used a storytelling methodology to content analyze the hookup stories of a large sample of college-attending and non-college emerging adults (N = 407). We also compared stories based on gender, as several studies report gender differences but have yet to consider how hookup scripts may differ between men and women. Overall, we found that college-attending and non-college emerging adults reported using similar hookup scripts in their most recent hookup experience, as did emerging adult men and women. However, we found that greater proportions of non-college emerging adults reported sexual touch, meeting in an "other location," and positive reactions to their most recent hookup. Greater proportions of college-attending emerging adults reported their hookup occurred in a house/apartment. In terms of gender, greater proportions of women reported "having sex" and deep kissing, hooking up with an acquaintance, partner characteristics as a reason to hookup, and negative reactions to their most recent hookup. Greater proportions of men reported hooking up with a stranger, meeting at a bar/club, hooking up at a party, and hooking up at an "other location." Implications for future research and sexual health education and intervention are discussed.

A Qualitative Examination of the Sexual Possible Selves and Strategies of First-Semester College Students: How Sexual Possible Selves are Developed During the Transition to College

According to the possible selves theory, individuals have possible selves that they hope to attain, or feared selves they hope to avoid, in the proximal future. In addition, individuals may have strategies they use to help them attain these possible selves or avoid their feared selves. Recent work has applied this theory to the realm of sexuality (i.e., sexual possible selves; SPS) in the developmental period of emerging adulthood, as this period is considered a time of increased sexual identity development. The purpose of this study was to extend this research by conducting semi-structured qualitative interviews with a sample of first-semester college-attending emerging adults (N = 35) at a 4-year university. We examined the developmental influences on expected and feared SPS to better understand why various internalized expectations develop. Interviews were conducted during the first four weeks of the Fall 2016 semester and were analyzed using applied thematic analysis. Prominent themes that emerged within the expected SPS included: sex and commitment, taking a passive approach, delaying sex and relationships, plans for hooking up, and abstinence. Feared SPS themes that emerged included: non-committed sexual avoidance, sexual assault/coercion, reputation, and sexual health. Prominent influences on participants' SPS included: family, alcohol and parties, peers/friends, past experiences, changes in expectations, college culture, and religion. Implications for sexuality research, education, and intervention are discussed.