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Key AP, Powell SL, Cavalcante J, Frizzo A, Mandra P, Tavares A, Menezes P, Hood LJ. Auditory Neural Responses and Communicative Functioning in Children With Microcephaly Related to Congenital Zika Syndrome. Ear Hear 2024; 45:850-859. [PMID: 38363825 PMCID: PMC11178474 DOI: 10.1097/aud.0000000000001477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/18/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Children with microcephaly exhibit neurodevelopmental delays and compromised communicative functioning, yielding challenges for clinical assessment and informed intervention. This study characterized auditory neural function and communication abilities in children with microcephaly due to congenital Zika syndrome (CZS). DESIGN Click-evoked auditory brainstem responses (ABR) at fast and slow stimulation rates and natural speech-evoked cortical auditory evoked potentials (CAEP) were recorded in 25 Brazilian children with microcephaly related to CZS ( M age: 5.93 ± 0.62 years) and a comparison group of 25 healthy children ( M age: 5.59 ± 0.80 years) matched on age, sex, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. Communication abilities in daily life were evaluated using caregiver reports on Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales-3. RESULTS Caregivers of children with microcephaly reported significantly lower than typical adaptive functioning in the communication and socialization domains. ABR wave I latency did not differ significantly between the groups, suggesting comparable peripheral auditory function. ABR wave V absolute latency and waves I-V interwave latency were significantly shorter in the microcephaly group for both ears and rates. CAEP analyses identified reduced N2 amplitudes in children with microcephaly as well as limited evidence of speech sound differentiation, evidenced mainly by the N2 response latency. Conversely, in the comparison group, speech sound differences were observed for both the P1 and N2 latencies. Exploratory analyses in the microcephaly group indicated that more adaptive communication was associated with greater speech sound differences in the P1 and N2 amplitudes. The trimester of virus exposure did not have an effect on the ABRs or CAEPs. CONCLUSIONS Microcephaly related to CZS is associated with alterations in subcortical and cortical auditory neural function. Reduced ABR latencies differ from previous reports, possibly due to the older age of this cohort and careful assessment of peripheral auditory function. Cortical speech sound detection and differentiation are present but reduced in children with microcephaly. Associations between communication performance in daily life and CAEPs highlight the value of auditory evoked potentials in assessing clinical populations with significant neurodevelopmental disabilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra P. Key
- Department of Hearing and Speech Sciences, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA
| | - Sarah L. Powell
- Department of Hearing and Speech Sciences, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN
| | - Juliana Cavalcante
- Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Ana Frizzo
- São Paulo State University, Marília, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Patricia Mandra
- Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Adriana Tavares
- Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Pedro Menezes
- State University of Health Sciences of Alagoas, Maceio, Brazil
| | - Linda J. Hood
- Department of Hearing and Speech Sciences, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN
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Retsa C, Turpin H, Geiser E, Ansermet F, Müller-Nix C, Murray MM. Longstanding Auditory Sensory and Semantic Differences in Preterm Born Children. Brain Topogr 2023:10.1007/s10548-023-01022-2. [PMID: 38010487 DOI: 10.1007/s10548-023-01022-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023]
Abstract
More than 10% of births are preterm, and the long-term consequences on sensory and semantic processing of non-linguistic information remain poorly understood. 17 very preterm-born children (born at < 33 weeks gestational age) and 15 full-term controls were tested at 10 years old with an auditory object recognition task, while 64-channel auditory evoked potentials (AEPs) were recorded. Sounds consisted of living (animal and human vocalizations) and manmade objects (e.g. household objects, instruments, and tools). Despite similar recognition behavior, AEPs strikingly differed between full-term and preterm children. Starting at 50ms post-stimulus onset, AEPs from preterm children differed topographically from their full-term counterparts. Over the 108-224ms post-stimulus period, full-term children showed stronger AEPs in response to living objects, whereas preterm born children showed the reverse pattern; i.e. stronger AEPs in response to manmade objects. Differential brain activity between semantic categories could reliably classify children according to their preterm status. Moreover, this opposing pattern of differential responses to semantic categories of sounds was also observed in source estimations within a network of occipital, temporal and frontal regions. This study highlights how early life experience in terms of preterm birth shapes sensory and object processing later on in life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chrysa Retsa
- The Radiology Department, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.
- The Sense Innovation and Research Center, Lausanne and Sion, Lausanne, Switzerland.
- CIBM Center for Biomedical Imaging, Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Hélène Turpin
- The Radiology Department, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- University Service of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, University Hospital of Lausanne and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Eveline Geiser
- The Radiology Department, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - François Ansermet
- University Service of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, University Hospital of Lausanne and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, University Hospital, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Carole Müller-Nix
- University Service of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, University Hospital of Lausanne and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Micah M Murray
- The Radiology Department, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- The Sense Innovation and Research Center, Lausanne and Sion, Lausanne, Switzerland
- CIBM Center for Biomedical Imaging, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Department of Hearing and Speech Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
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Mendez AI, Tokish H, McQueen E, Chawla S, Klin A, Maitre NL, Klaiman C. A Comparison of the Clinical Presentation of Preterm Birth and Autism Spectrum Disorder: Commonalities and Distinctions in Children Under 3. Clin Perinatol 2023; 50:81-101. [PMID: 36868715 PMCID: PMC10842306 DOI: 10.1016/j.clp.2022.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/05/2023]
Abstract
Premature infants and infants later diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) share many commonalities in clinical presentations. However, prematurity and ASD also have differences in clinical presentation. These overlapping phenotypes can lead to misdiagnoses of ASD or missing a diagnosis of ASD in preterm infants. We document these commonalities and differences in various developmental domains with the hope of aiding in the accurate early detection of ASD and timely intervention implementation in children born premature. Given the degree of similarities in presentation, evidence-based interventions designed specifically for preterm toddlers or toddlers with ASD may ultimately aid both populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana I Mendez
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, 36 Eagle Row, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Marcus Autism Center, 1920 Briarcliff Road, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, 2015 Uppergate Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, 1405 Clifton Road Northeast, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Hannah Tokish
- Marcus Autism Center, 1920 Briarcliff Road, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, 2015 Uppergate Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, 1405 Clifton Road Northeast, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Emma McQueen
- Marcus Autism Center, 1920 Briarcliff Road, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, 2015 Uppergate Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, 1405 Clifton Road Northeast, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Shivaang Chawla
- Marcus Autism Center, 1920 Briarcliff Road, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, 2015 Uppergate Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, 1405 Clifton Road Northeast, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Ami Klin
- Marcus Autism Center, 1920 Briarcliff Road, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, 2015 Uppergate Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, 1405 Clifton Road Northeast, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Nathalie L Maitre
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, 2015 Uppergate Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, 1405 Clifton Road Northeast, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Cheryl Klaiman
- Marcus Autism Center, 1920 Briarcliff Road, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, 2015 Uppergate Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, 1405 Clifton Road Northeast, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
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Bagheri F, Miresmaeili Z, Mahmoodi-Bakhtiari B, Ahmadi A, Ahmadi ZZ. Effects of sex and gestational age on the auditory brainstem responses among two ears in moderate preterm infants. HEARING, BALANCE AND COMMUNICATION 2023. [DOI: 10.1080/21695717.2023.2176661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/24/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Fereshteh Bagheri
- Department of Audiology, School of Rehabilitation Sciences, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
| | | | | | - Akram Ahmadi
- Department of Speech Therapy, School of Rehabilitation, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
| | - Zohreh Ziatabar Ahmadi
- Department of Speech Therapy, School of Rehabilitation, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
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Key AP. Searching for a "Brain Signature" of Neurodevelopmental Disorders: Event-Related Potentials and the Quest for Biomarkers of Cognition. J Clin Neurophysiol 2022; 39:113-120. [PMID: 34366396 DOI: 10.1097/wnp.0000000000000727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
SUMMARY This review summarizes main applications of event-related potentials (ERPs) to the study of cognitive processes in persons with neurodevelopmental disorders, for whom traditional behavioral assessments may not be suitable. A brief introduction to the ERPs is followed by a review of empirical studies using passive ERP paradigms to address three main questions: characterizing individual differences, predicting risk for poor developmental outcomes, and documenting treatment effects in persons with neurodevelopmental disorders. Evidence across studies reveals feasibility of ERP methodology in a wide range of clinical populations and notes consistently stronger brain-behavior associations involving ERP measures of higher-order cognition compared with sensory-perceptual processes. The final section describes the current limitations of ERP methodology that need to be addressed before it could be used as a clinical tool and highlights the needed steps toward translating ERPs from group-level research applications to individually interpretable clinical use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra P Key
- Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Vanderbilt Kennedy Center, Nashville, Tennessee, U.S.A
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Bisiacchi P, Cainelli E. Structural and functional brain asymmetries in the early phases of life: a scoping review. Brain Struct Funct 2021; 227:479-496. [PMID: 33738578 PMCID: PMC8843922 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-021-02256-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2020] [Accepted: 03/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Asymmetry characterizes the brain in both structure and function. Anatomical asymmetries explain only a fraction of functional variability in lateralization, with structural and functional asymmetries developing at different periods of life and in different ways. In this work, we perform a scoping review of the cerebral asymmetries in the first brain development phases. We included all English-written studies providing direct evidence of hemispheric asymmetries in full-term neonates, foetuses, and premature infants, both at term post-conception and before. The final analysis included 57 studies. The reviewed literature shows large variability in the used techniques and methodological procedures. Most structural studies investigated the temporal lobe, showing a temporal planum more pronounced on the left than on the right (although not all data agree), a morphological asymmetry already present from the 29th week of gestation. Other brain structures have been poorly investigated, and the results are even more discordant. Unlike data on structural asymmetries, functional data agree with each other, identifying a leftward dominance for speech stimuli and an overall dominance of the right hemisphere in all other functional conditions. This generalized dominance of the right hemisphere for all conditions (except linguistic stimuli) is in line with theories stating that the right hemisphere develops earlier and that its development is less subject to external influences because it sustains functions necessary to survive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrizia Bisiacchi
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Via Venezia, 8, 35121, Padova, Italy. .,Padova Neuroscience Centre, PNC, Padova, Italy.
| | - Elisa Cainelli
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Via Venezia, 8, 35121, Padova, Italy
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Antinmaa J, Lapinleimu H, Salonen J, Stolt S, Kaljonen A, Jääskeläinen S. Neonatal brainstem auditory function associates with early receptive language development in preterm children. Acta Paediatr 2020; 109:1387-1393. [PMID: 31833585 PMCID: PMC7317215 DOI: 10.1111/apa.15136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2019] [Revised: 12/02/2019] [Accepted: 12/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
AIM To study whether auditory function measured with brainstem auditory evoked potential and brainstem audiometry recordings in the neonatal period associates with language development 1 year later in preterm infants. METHODS This retrospective study included 155 preterm infants (birthweight ≤1500 g and/or birth ≤32 gestational weeks) born between 2007 and 2012 at the Turku University Hospital. Auditory function was recorded in neonatal period. Information of language development was gathered at the mean corrected age of 1 year by using the Finnish version of the MacArthur Communicative Development Inventory. RESULTS Slower auditory processing (longer interpeak interval, IPI I-V) in the right ear in the neonatal brainstem auditory evoked potential recording associated with smaller receptive lexicon size at 1 year (P = .043). Infants with longer IPI I-V were more likely to have a deviant (≤17 words) receptive lexicon size (P = .033). The absence of a contralateral response with right ear stimulation increased the risk for deviant lexicon size (P = .049). CONCLUSION The results suggest that impaired auditory function in the neonatal period in preterm infants may lead to a poorer receptive language outcome 1 year later. Auditory pathway function assessment provides information for the identification of preterm children at risk for weak language development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaana Antinmaa
- Department of Clinical Neurophysiology Turku University Hospital and University of Turku Turku Finland
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine Turku University Hospital and University of Turku Turku Finland
- Department of Pediatrics The Hospital District of South Ostrobothnia Seinäjoki Finland
| | - Helena Lapinleimu
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine Turku University Hospital and University of Turku Turku Finland
| | - Jaakko Salonen
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Turku University Hospital Turku Finland
| | - Suvi Stolt
- Department of Psychology and Speech and Language Pathology (Logopedics) Faculty of Medicine University of Helsinki Helsinki Finland
| | - Anne Kaljonen
- Department of Biostatistics Faculty of Medicine University of Turku Turku Finland
| | - Satu Jääskeläinen
- Department of Clinical Neurophysiology Turku University Hospital and University of Turku Turku Finland
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8
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Burger C, Biermayr M, Posod A, Neubauer V, Pupp Peglow U, Kuenz K, Kiechl‐Kohlendorfer U, Griesmaier E. Amplitude-integrated electroencephalography shows alterations in children born preterm displaying poor literacy precursor skills. Acta Paediatr 2019; 108:1661-1668. [PMID: 30779217 PMCID: PMC6767598 DOI: 10.1111/apa.14755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2018] [Revised: 02/13/2019] [Accepted: 02/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
AIM To assess whether amplitude-integrated electroencephalography (aEEG) alterations in the newborn period are associated with poor precursor skills of literacy at five years of age in children born preterm. METHODS Between October 2007 and September 2011 248 preterm infants were eligible for the study at Innsbruck Medical University Hospital. aEEG was analysed for dominating background activity, calculation of the percentage of continuous activity, the Burdjalov scoring system, the minimum, mean and maximum amplitude. At the age of five years, we evaluated preterm born children by the Bielefelder screening (BISC) to assess for early diagnosis of reading problems and weak spelling and classified them as normal performers (n = 64) or poor performers (n = 20). Completion of testing was not possible for one infant. RESULTS The minimum amplitude was significantly lower in the poor BISC performance group as compared to the normal BISC performance group at postnatal week two. The percentage of continuous background activity was significantly higher in infants with normal BISC performance than in infants with poor BISC performance at postnatal week three. CONCLUSION Children with poor developed precursor skills of literacy showed alterations in aEEG signals. The aEEG could be useful in further diagnosing preterm infants at risk for developmental complications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Burger
- Department of Pediatrics II (Neonatology) Medical University of Innsbruck Innsbruck Austria
| | - Marlene Biermayr
- Department of Pediatrics II (Neonatology) Medical University of Innsbruck Innsbruck Austria
| | - Anna Posod
- Department of Pediatrics II (Neonatology) Medical University of Innsbruck Innsbruck Austria
| | - Vera Neubauer
- Department of Pediatrics II (Neonatology) Medical University of Innsbruck Innsbruck Austria
| | - Ulrike Pupp Peglow
- Department of Pediatrics II (Neonatology) Medical University of Innsbruck Innsbruck Austria
| | - Katrin Kuenz
- Department of Pediatrics II (Neonatology) Medical University of Innsbruck Innsbruck Austria
| | | | - Elke Griesmaier
- Department of Pediatrics II (Neonatology) Medical University of Innsbruck Innsbruck Austria
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Hartlaub AM, McElroy CA, Maitre NL, Hester ME. Modeling Human Brain Circuitry Using Pluripotent Stem Cell Platforms. Front Pediatr 2019; 7:57. [PMID: 30891437 PMCID: PMC6411708 DOI: 10.3389/fped.2019.00057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2018] [Accepted: 02/13/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Neural circuits are the underlying functional units of the human brain that govern complex behavior and higher-order cognitive processes. Disruptions in neural circuit development have been implicated in the pathogenesis of multiple neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and schizophrenia. Until recently, major efforts utilizing neurological disease modeling platforms based on human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs), investigated disease phenotypes primarily at the single cell level. However, recent advances in brain organoid systems, microfluidic devices, and advanced optical and electrical interfaces, now allow more complex hiPSC-based systems to model neuronal connectivity and investigate the specific brain circuitry implicated in neurodevelopmental disorders. Here we review emerging research advances in studying brain circuitry using in vitro and in vivo disease modeling platforms including microfluidic devices, enhanced functional recording interfaces, and brain organoid systems. Research efforts in these areas have already yielded critical insights into pathophysiological mechanisms and will continue to stimulate innovation in this promising area of translational research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annalisa M. Hartlaub
- Center for Perinatal Research, The Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Craig A. McElroy
- College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Nathalie L. Maitre
- Center for Perinatal Research, The Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Mark E. Hester
- Center for Perinatal Research, The Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH, United States
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Depoorter A, Früh J, Herrmann K, Zanchi D, Weber P. Predicting neurodevelopmental outcome in preterm born infants using auditory event-related potentials: A systematic review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2018; 89:99-110. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2017] [Revised: 02/05/2018] [Accepted: 02/13/2018] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Maitre NL, Chan J, Stark AR, Lambert WE, Aschner JL, Key AP. Effects of caffeine treatment for apnea of prematurity on cortical speech-sound differentiation in preterm infants. J Child Neurol 2015; 30:307-13. [PMID: 24939976 PMCID: PMC4269579 DOI: 10.1177/0883073814538500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Caffeine, standard treatment for apnea of prematurity, improves brainstem auditory processing. We hypothesized that caffeine also improves cortical differentiation of complex speech sounds. We used event-related potential methodology to measure responses to speech-sound contrasts in 45 intensive care neonates, stratified by cumulative exposure as no-, low-, and high-caffeine groups. Sound differentiation in the low-caffeine group and near-term no-caffeine infants was similar with repeated measures analysis of variance controlling for gestational and postnatal age. However, a generalized estimating equation approach demonstrated that, at equivalent postnatal age, differentiation was reduced in the high-caffeine (gestational age 25 weeks) compared to the low-caffeine group (gestational age 28 weeks), reflecting the importance of maturity at birth (Z = 2.77, P < .006). We conclude that caffeine improves measures of auditory processing associated with improved neurodevelopmental outcomes in preterm infants. However, current usage of caffeine for apnea of prematurity cannot fully compensate for the effects of brain immaturity on speech sound processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie L Maitre
- Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Jeremy Chan
- Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Ann R Stark
- Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Warren E Lambert
- Kennedy Center for Research on Human Development & Department of Hearing and Speech Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Judy L Aschner
- Department of Pediatrics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Alexandra P Key
- Kennedy Center for Research on Human Development & Department of Hearing and Speech Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
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