The role of the new "date rape drugs" in attributions about date rape

Experimental Effects of Substance Use Legality (Sober, Alcohol, Marijuana, Cocaine) and Sexual Crime (Indecent Exposure, Rape) on Attributions of Perpetrator Responsibility, Blame, and Punishment

Background: The perceived culpability of a sexual crime perpetrator may be attributed as a function of both the legality of the substance used when committing the crime and the severity of the sex crime. Objectives: The experiment applied attribution theory to examine the simultaneous impact of substance use legality and sexual crime severity on participants' perceptions of responsibility, blame, and punishment toward sexual crime perpetrators. Methods: Participants (N = 461) in this 4 (substance legality) × 2 (sexual crime severity) experimental design were randomly assigned to one of eight conditions to read a police report depicting a sexual offense. The independent variable of substance legality was manipulated as the perpetrator's usage of no substance (sober), alcohol (legal), marijuana (partially legal), or cocaine (illegal) at the time of the crime. The second independent variable of sexual crime severity was manipulated as the offense of indecent exposure (mild offense) or rape (severe offense) committed by the perpetrator. After reading the manipulated vignette, participants rated outcome measures involving the perpetrator's responsibility, blame (guilt attributions, external attributions, and mental element attributions), and punishment (punishment attitudes and punishment severity). Results: Factorial MANCOVA and ANCOVAs were performed. Participants tended to attribute greater responsibility and blame, but not punishment, toward the sober perpetrator compared to the perpetrator intoxicated with alcohol, marijuana, or cocaine. Additionally, participants attributed significantly greater responsibility, blame, and punishment toward the perpetrator of rape compared to indecent exposure. Conclusions: The experiment supported that both substance legality and sexual crime severity uniquely served as contextual factors that played roles in people's judgments about crimes. Findings offer drug policy information regarding how substance intoxication is perceived as a mitigating excuse in criminal justice systems for committing sexual offenses.

The Mirage of Upward Mobility: Conceptualization and Implications for Teen Dating Violence Prevention

Alcohol and drug abuse are recognized risk factors in scientific literature that can leave female adolescents vulnerable to experience teen dating violence (TDV) in their relationships. These risk factors are highlighted in prevention campaigns, empowering girls to proactively avoid or decline situations that may put them at risk of such violence. This study delves into an underexplored risk factor for TDV, the Mirage of Upward Mobility (MUM), and its connections to previously established elements: coercive discourse, peer pressure, and the pursuit of status. A total of 146 relevant studies on TDV, and factors related to it, have been reviewed. MUM is conceptualized as the erroneous belief that engaging in relationships with traditionally dominant and disrespectful partners increases social status and attractiveness, although in reality, what happens is that that status and that attractiveness decrease. The study discusses the existence and factors contributing to MUM and underscores its importance as a risk factor for experiencing TDV to include in prevention campaigns.

Perceptions of Common Rape: How Rape Myth Acceptance, Victim Gender, and Victim Resistance Affect Victim and Perpetrator Blame Attributions in Party Rape and Date Rape

Among rape perception studies, common types of male rape remain understudied. Using a randomized vignette design, I sampled 622 college students from a large Southwestern university to examine how victim gender and victim resistance influence blame attributions in party rape and date rape. Results revealed important interactions between victim gender, victim resistance, and rape type. Among other effects, resistance only affected victim blame in date rapes involving male victims. Results indicated that how respondents perceive victim and perpetrator responsibility, and which factors influence these perceptions, vary across rape type and victim gender. Implications for the rape perception literature are discussed.

Chinese University Students' Attitudes Toward Rape Myth Acceptance: The Role of Gender, Sexual Stereotypes, and Adversarial Sexual Beliefs

The present study constructs and tests models that examine the relations between variables of "gender," "sex role stereotyping," and "adversarial sexual beliefs" on rape myth acceptance. The sample is 975 Chinese university students from seven universities in China. Measures include Chinese Rape Myth Acceptance (CRMA), Sex Role Stereotyping (SRS) Scale, and Adversarial Sexual Beliefs (ASB). We use structural equation modeling to investigate whether gender directly affects the acceptance of rape myth, or that these influences are mediated by SRS and ASB, after controlling for several demographic characteristics. Results suggest that SRS and ASB have a direct effect on rape myth acceptance. Gender has no direct effect on rape myth acceptance in three out of the four models, but it significantly (β = -.02, p < .05) predicts the acceptance of rape-violence myth. We also discuss the implications and limitations of the study.

Are College Students' Attitudes Related to Their Application of Sanctions for Campus Sexual Assault Cases?

With growing attention to adjudication of campus sexual assault cases, more is known regarding students' views of sexual assault, but little the literature focuses on how students perceive "justice" in terms of assigning sanctions or guilt/responsibility for such cases. The present study focused on understanding whether college students' preformed attitudes and beliefs were associated with the severity of sanctions they applied across a range of sexual assault cases as well as their assignments of guilt and responsibility to the parties involved. To determine students' attitudes and beliefs mediating effects on sanction choices, five scales (i.e., rape myth acceptance, downplaying the severity of rape, sexism, just world beliefs, and right-wing authoritarianism) were adapted and used for this project. College students (n = 846) responded to one of four versions of a randomly distributed survey each containing eight vignettes varied to represent levels of 14 factors employed because of their relevance to campus sexual assault cases. Across all versions, sexism was associated with increased responsibility given to the victim. In addition, stronger endorsement of both downplaying significance of rape and rape myth acceptance scales were associated with giving a milder sanction to the perpetrator and increased responsibility and guilt assigned to the victim. Just world beliefs and right-wing authoritarianism associations were inconsistent across the four versions, suggesting these beliefs were situation-specific. Preformed attitudes that are more directly related to the context of sexual assault influenced the designation of sanctions applied to perpetrators and perceptions of guilt and responsibility. Findings are discussed in terms of implications for research and prevention programming.

Are All Substance-Involved Sexual Assaults Alike? A Comparison of Victim Alcohol Use, Drug Use, and Combined Substance Use in Sexual Assaults

Sexual assaults involving victim substance use at the time of the assault are common, but little is known about how different types of substances used at the time of the assault impact post-assault outcomes. The current study sought to compare victim alcohol use, drug use, and combined substance use in sexual assaults among a community sample of 693 victims. It was hypothesized that victims in the combined substance use assault type would report overall worse post-assault outcomes, more contextual and interpersonal traumas, and higher assault severity. Our results partially confirmed these hypotheses, but victims in the drug-involved assault type group overall reported higher assault severity and worse post-assault outcomes. These findings are probably partially attributed to the demographic characteristics of victims in the drug-only group (e.g. Black victims) who are more likely to experience a higher severity of violence. Implications for future research and policy regarding drug decriminalization are discussed.

Blaming the Victim of Acquaintance Rape: Individual, Situational, and Sociocultural Factors

Victims of rape are uniquely vulnerable for being blamed for their assault relative to victims of other interpersonal crimes and thus much research has been conducted to understand why this is the case. But the study of victim blaming in acquaintance rape cases is hindered by contradictory empirical results. Early investigations in victim blaming often treated acquaintance rapes and stranger rapes as synonymous and thus much of these data are suspect for drawing conclusions particular to acquaintance rape. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the research literature on victim blame in acquaintance rape cases, highlighting inconsistencies and drawing particular attention to areas of research in need of further exploration. Specifically, we review the commonly studied individual (perceiver) factors that influence victim blaming, as well as common situational (target) factors included or manipulated within sexual assault scenarios. Our review reveals many inconsistent findings and interactions between perceiver and scenario factors. In an effort to make sense of these complex interactions and inconsistent findings, we suggest a need for more transparency in describing the scenarios used in research on victim blaming in sexual assault cases and greater empirical attention to sociocultural factors that may influence blaming tendencies.

Bros Will Be Bros? The Effect of Fraternity Membership on Perceived Culpability for Sexual Assault

To examine the link between fraternity membership and sexual assault perpetration, we used an experimental design to assess the role of perceptions in an ambiguous sexual assault scenario. Undergraduates ( N = 408) were randomly assigned to either an experimental group where the perpetrator is a fraternity member or a control group where no fraternity information is given. Males rated perpetrators as less guilty and victims as more culpable when the perpetrator was a fraternity member, suggesting that sexual violence may be reinforced among fraternity members as they are both more likely to perpetrate sexual assault and less likely to be blamed.

The Influence of Gender Ideology, Victim Resistance, and Spiking a Drink on Acquaintance Rape Attributions

The current study examined observer's attributions about the victim and perpetrator of an alleged acquaintance rape. Participants included 504 college students from a public university in the northeastern United States who read a brief crime report and completed a series of questionnaires for course credit. While men tended to attribute more blame to the victim than women, gender ideology emerged as a stronger predictor of rape attributions, and some types of sexist beliefs were associated with greater victim blaming and others with less victim blaming. Endorsement of hostile sexism, rape myths, and heterosexual intimacy was generally associated with the attribution of greater victim culpability, as well as less perpetrator culpability, perpetrator criminality, and victim credibility. However, complementary gender differentiation was associated with greater perpetrator culpability and criminality, while protective paternalism was associated with greater victim credibility. Observers attributed lower victim culpability and greater perpetrator criminality when the victim's drink was spiked, and attributed greater perpetrator culpability when the victim verbally resisted the perpetrator's advances. Given the implications that observer attitudes can have on professional and personal support for survivors, as well as juror decision making, the ongoing examination of the complex interplay between the person and situational factors affecting attributions of rape is essential. Sexual assault prevention programs may also benefit from a psychoeducational component that targets reducing traditional gender ideology.

An experimental examination of alcohol consumption, alcohol expectancy, and self-blame on willingness to report a hypothetical rape

This study experimentally examined the role of victim alcohol intoxication, and self-blame in perceiving and reporting rape to the police using a hypothetical interactive rape scenario. Participants (N = 79) were randomly assigned to consume alcohol (mean BAC = 0.07%) or tonic water before they engaged in the scenario. Alcohol expectancy was manipulated, and participant beliefs about the beverage they thought they had consumed and their feelings of intoxication were measured. Alcohol consumption and expectancy did not affect the likelihood that the nonconsensual intercourse depicted in the scenario was perceived and would be reported as rape. Participants with higher levels of self-blame were less likely to say they would report the hypothetical rape. Self-blame levels were higher for participants who believed they had consumed alcohol, and were associated with increased feelings of intoxication. The implications are discussed.

Anogenital and Physical Injuries in Adolescent Sexual Assault Patients: The Role of Victim-Offender Relationship, Alcohol Use, and Memory Impairment

Prior research has documented high rates of anogenital and physical injuries among adolescent sexual assault patients. Although a number of factors related to rates of injury detection in adolescents have been identified, there may be additional features of the assault that are disclosed in the patient history that could be important indicators of injury risk. The purpose of the current study was to expand this literature by examining whether factors that are salient in sexual assaults committed against adolescents-victim-offender relationship, substance use, and memory impairment-are associated with documented anogenital and physical injury rates. Results indicated that victim-offender relationship, substance use, and assault memory are significantly related to the number of anogenital injuries and, particularly, the number of physical injuries detected in adolescent sexual assault patients. These results highlight the importance of a comprehensive patient history, including assessment of alcohol and drug use and memory impairment, to guide the medical forensic examination.

Rape Myth Consistency and Gender Differences in Perceiving Rape Victims: A Meta-Analysis

An overview discusses feminist analyses of oppression, attitudes toward rape victims, and previously studied predictors of individuals' attitudes toward rape victims. To better understand such attitudes, this meta-analysis examines the moderating influences of various rape victim, perpetrator, and crime characteristics' rape myth consistency on gender differences in individuals' perceptions of rape victims (i.e., victim responsibility and blame attributions and rape minimizing attitudes). Consistent with feminist theoretical predictions, results indicated that, overall, men perceived rape victims more negatively than women did. However, this sex difference was moderated by the rape myth consistency within the rape vignettes. Implications for research are discussed.

Children intoxications: what is abuse and what is not abuse

The curiosity and the natural tendency to explore the environment put young children at an increased risk of poisoning over older children and adults. Poisonings are a significant area of concern from 1 year of age and progressively contribute more to overall rates of morbidity and mortality until children reach adulthood. Particularly, the abuse of children by poisoning is also highly common with thousands of fatalities. A practical strategy is presented that aims to alert health, forensic, and law enforcement professionals to this problem and to demystify the preconception that it is a rare form of abuse or neglect. Compounds that are foreign to a living organism (xenobiotics) and those present within body (endobiotics), mainly involved in children intoxications and contextual examples related to exposure are also reviewed. Particular concern is given to concepts in the field of children poisoning. The described history and the clinical and toxicological evaluation are discussed, and harmonized protocols regarding correct procedures for sample collection to forensic toxicological analysis are proposed. Since children are particularly vulnerable to the toxic effects of high doses of xenobiotics and endobiotics, special consideration on the preparation of the environment that surrounds children in order minimize all possible risks will be also considered.

Mock juror sensitivity to forensic evidence in drug facilitated sexual assaults

Mock jurors' reactions to variations in the quality of toxicological evidence regarding the presence of drugs in a sexual assault trial were examined. In Study 1, participants received a trial summary in which a negative test result, a negative test result plus expert testimony, or no test result was presented. The time taken by the complainant to report the alleged sexual assault was manipulated. The negative test result influenced participants' judgments, but this effect was minimized by the presence of expert testimony. The complainant's delay in reporting had little impact on judgments. In Study 2, complainant time to report was again manipulated along with the outcome of the test result (negative finding and no result). Results revealed that men were less conviction prone when the negative test result was obtained early as opposed to late. In contrast, when the test result was unavailable, men were more conviction prone when the complainant reported late as oppose to early.

The Role of Gender Identity Threat in Perceptions of Date Rape and Sexual Coercion

We experimentally investigated the effects of gender identity threat on men’s and women’s perceptions of date rape and sexual coercion. Results showed that men whose masculinity was threatened responded by blaming the victim and exonerating the perpetrator more, while threatened women respond by blaming male perpetrators more and placing less blame on female victims. Men’s response to threats was more pronounced than women’s, an asymmetry we attribute to the cultural devaluation of femininity. Our findings highlight the significance of masculinity concerns in perceptions of sexual violence and, more generally, the importance of perceiver context in views of violence against women.

The role of alcohol and victim sexual interest in Spanish students' perceptions of sexual assault

Two studies investigated the effects of information related to rape myths on Spanish college students' perceptions of sexual assault. In Study 1, 92 participants read a vignette about a nonconsensual sexual encounter and rated whether it was a sexual assault and how much the woman was to blame. In the scenario, the man either used physical force or offered alcohol to the woman to overcome her resistance. Rape myth acceptance (RMA) was measured as an individual difference variable. Participants were more convinced that the incident was a sexual assault and blamed the woman less when the man had used force rather than offering her alcohol. In Study 2, 164 college students read a scenario in which the woman rejected a man's sexual advances after having either accepted or turned down his offer of alcohol. In addition, the woman was either portrayed as being sexually attracted to him or there was no mention of her sexual interest. Participants' RMA was again included. High RMA participants blamed the victim more than low RMA participants and were less certain that the incident was a sexual assault, especially when the victim had accepted alcohol and was described as being sexually attracted to the man. The findings are discussed in terms of their implications for the prevention and legal prosecution of sexual assault.

Ethical, legal and social issues related to alcohol and drug research

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To present some highlights and comments about ethical, legal and social issues related to alcohol and drug research.

RECENT FINDINGS

Alcohol and drug research has a lack of scientific production related to ethical, legal and social issues. Many papers simply describe summarily the informed consent process and other related issues.

SUMMARY

Informed consent process is one of the most important issues in research ethics. Obtaining a valid consent from a prospective research participant is always a challenge. We present many different ways to reach ethical, legal and social adequacy related to the informed consent process.

Alcohol use as a strategy for obtaining nonconsensual sexual relations: incidence in Spanish university students and relation to rape myths acceptance

This study analyzed the strategy of college men who give alcohol to girls to facilitate their acceptance when pursuing sexual relationships. It also studied the role of attitudes towards sexual assaults (rape myths) in the social perception of this practice; finally, this research examined how the fact that, in some cases, college women accept taking alcohol in their interactions with college men was perceived. Participants were 349 heterosexual students (154 men and 195 women) from the University of Granada. 28% of males reported having given alcohol to females in order to have sexual contacts with them, while 44% of females acknowledged having suffered this practice. Men, compared to women, were more favourable to this practice; however, this effect was moderated by their rape myths endorsements. It was also found that males and, in general, those participants who endorsed rape myths, tended to consider that girls who accept alcohol in their interactions with boys are promiscuous.

An imperfect feminist journey: Reflections on the process to develop an effective sexual assault resistance programme for university women

The work of feminist researchers to develop sexual assault resistance education programmes for women builds on the early work by feminist activists, self-defence instructors and other educators who stressed the importance of self-defence training for women. My research programme is strongly allied with this feminist herstory. My goals when I began were: to put feminist and social psychological theories into practice; to expand and reinforce young women’s knowledge and skills so that they are better able to defend themselves against sexual coercion and assault by known men; and to facilitate broader social change on sexual assault, at least on my own campus and city. There have been four major areas where anticipated and unanticipated conflicts or dilemmas between my feminist values and beliefs and my practice arose. These were: (1) keeping responsibility on male perpetrators while designing and offering programmes for women; (2) making male responsibility and female empowerment palatable to young women; (3) facing the limitations of an individual approach to a social problem; and (4) making the research conform to granting agency expectations. This article is my attempt to make visible the feminist struggles and successes that I encountered on the journey.

The involvement of gamma-hydroxybutyrate in reported sexual assaults: a systematic review

Over the past few years gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) has generated widespread media interest as a possible 'date rape drug'. Our goal was to examine the extent to which GHB is associated with drug-facilitated sexual assaults. Literature was searched systematically and 11 studies, published between 1961 and June 30, 2009, were identified dealing specifically with the role of GHB in sexual assaults. GHB was detected in 0.2-4.4% of reported sexual assaults. The results demonstrate that a wide range of drugs may be present in cases of sexual assault, and many of them are much more frequent than GHB. Our results do not support the widespread labelling of GHB as a date rape drug as the prevalence of GHB is much lower than of other substances used in sexual assaults. On the other hand, however, the possible risk of GHB in this regard should not be neglected. Nevertheless, over-sensitive and sensation seeking media reports focusing on the association of sex crime and GHB might be counterproductive and misleading as they turn the attention away from other substances that are often used in sexual assaults.

Area-level socioeconomic status in relation to outcomes in gamma-hydroxybutyrate intoxication

BACKGROUND

Area-level socioeconomic status (SES) may play an important role in drug abuse patterns, including related health outcomes. This may be particularly relevant for gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB), which is prototypical of "party" drug abuse.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed GHB-related cases reported to the California Poison Control System (CPCS; January 1, 1999 through June 30, 2007). We limited analysis to CPCS calls containing a residential zip code (ZC). The CPCS data were extracted for key case characteristics, including the residential ZC. We linked cases to corresponding 2000 U.S. Census data for area-level measures of SES and demographics. We used multiple logistic regression analysis to test the associations between area-level SES and GHB case severity, taking into account area-level demographics and individual-level GHB high-risk behaviors.

RESULTS

We analyzed 210 cases. Taking into account area-level demographics (age and racial mix; urbanicity) and GHB-related high-risk behaviors (use of GHB congeners; GHB-dependence; co-ingestion of other agents), we associated higher area-level SES with greater GHB case severity. There was 40% increased likelihood of major GHB adverse health outcomes for every $100,000 incremental increase in median home values (OR 1.41; 95% CI 1.1-1.8). For median annual household income (per $10,000), the association was similar (OR 1.39; 95% CI 1.0-1.9).

CONCLUSION

Higher area-level SES is associated with greater GHB-related case severity. This study may serve as a model using a geographic information system (GIS) approach to study the population-based correlates of drugs of abuse reported through poison control surveillance.

Forensic toxicology findings in deaths involving gamma-hydroxybutyrate

Concentrations of the illicit drug gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) were determined in femoral venous blood and urine obtained at autopsy in a series of GHB-related deaths (N = 49). The analysis of GHB was done by gas chromatography after conversion to gamma-butyrolactone and quantitation of the latter with a flame ionization detector. The cutoff concentration of GHB in femoral blood or urine for reporting positive results was 30 mg/L. The deceased were mainly young men (86%) aged 26.5 +/- 7.2 years (mean +/- SD), and the women (14%) were about 5 years younger at 21.4 +/- 5.0 years. The mean, median, and highest concentrations of GHB in femoral blood (N = 37) were 294, 190, and 2,200 mg/L, respectively. The mean urine-to-blood ratio of GHB was 8.8, and the median was 5.2 (N = 28). In 12 cases, the concentrations of GHB in blood were negative (<30 mg/L) when the urine contained 350 mg/L on average (range 31-1,100 mg/L). Considerable poly-drug use was evident in these GHB-related deaths: ethanol (18 cases), amphetamine (12 cases), and various prescription medications (benzodizepines, opiates, and antidepressants) in other cases. Interpreting the concentrations of GHB in postmortem blood is complicated because of concomitant use of other psychoactive substances, variable degree of tolerance to centrally acting drugs, and the lack of reliable information about survival time after use of the drug.

Sexual assault response teams' responses to alcohol-using victims

The purpose of this study was to examine sexual assault response team (SART) professionals' understanding of team protocols and procedures for responding to victims who report alcohol intoxication prior to the sexual assault, while highlighting important considerations that factor into medical, criminal justice, and victim advocacy professionals' decision making about responding to victims' alcohol use. Telephone surveys with 79 medical, criminal justice, and victim advocacy professionals involved with each of the three active SARTs in the state were conducted. The results show that most commonly mentioned responses of professionals to a victim's use of alcohol in a hypothetical case were to establish the facts of the case and validate that the victim's intoxication did not excuse the perpetrator's actions. However, professionals largely did not believe that there were systematic responses to victims reporting alcohol use at the time of the sexual assault, and risks associated with substance use or abuse were, for the most part, not addressed during the first response of SARTs to victims. Implications for practice and research are discussed within the context of study limitations.