The Red Zone Risk for College Sexual Assault: A Critical Review of the Literature

The term Red Zone refers to a period of time thought to be high risk for sexual victimization upon entering college in the United States, although empirical evidence for a defined Red Zone has not been established. This article critically reviews empirical research from the last 20 years that investigates the temporality of sexual assault reported by undergraduate women. A keyword search of three major sociopsychological databases was conducted, and articles were included if they reported original empirical results of the timing of sexual assault on campuses, if they directly compared different class years, or if they reported on sexual assault by class year. Ten articles meeting criteria were evaluated in light of methodological, definitional, and measurement issues to assess whether support for a Red Zone of risk exists. We posit that the current extant literature does not provide clear empirical support for the concept of a Red Zone at the beginning of a woman's entry into college and lasting for the first month or two. However, extending the potential time frame for a Red Zone to include college women's first and second years has some merit, although the usefulness of considering half of a woman's college career as high risk for sexual violence is questioned. Importantly, investigations into the temporality of campus sexual assault (CSA) would benefit from the inclusion of multiple other risk factors as potential mediators/moderators to understand whether identifying a particular time frame is useful or whether social contexts and risk factors explain the significance of an identified time frame.

How Does Green Dot Bystander Training in High School and Beyond Impact Attitudes Toward Violence and Sexism in a Prospective Cohort?

Bystander interventions are recognized as "promising" programming to reduce sexual violence. Gaps in current evaluations include limited follow-up post-training (beyond 24 months) and knowledge of additional bystander training during follow-up.In this prospective cohort study, nested in a cluster randomized controlled trial (RCT), three cohorts of high school (HS) seniors were recruited (Fall 2013-2015) and followed through Spring 2018 (n = 1,831). Training was based on their school cluster RCT assignment and receipt of additional Green Dot (GD) training after HS. Training was hypothesized to be associated with lower scores indicating less acceptance of violence or sexism.Sixty percent reported GD training after HS (68.7% of 986 in intervention and 50% of 845 in control conditions). No significant differences (p < .05) were observed by GD training for four of the five violence acceptance or sexism attitudinal measures at recruitment or final surveys. For "ambivalent sexism" alone was there a significant reduction in scale scores over time in the intervention versus control condition. Additional GD training after the RCT significantly reduced neither violence acceptance nor sexism scores over time.GD training does not appear to have a consistent longer-term impact on reducing violence acceptance and sexism.

Are College Students' Attitudes Related to Their Application of Sanctions for Campus Sexual Assault Cases?

With growing attention to adjudication of campus sexual assault cases, more is known regarding students' views of sexual assault, but little the literature focuses on how students perceive "justice" in terms of assigning sanctions or guilt/responsibility for such cases. The present study focused on understanding whether college students' preformed attitudes and beliefs were associated with the severity of sanctions they applied across a range of sexual assault cases as well as their assignments of guilt and responsibility to the parties involved. To determine students' attitudes and beliefs mediating effects on sanction choices, five scales (i.e., rape myth acceptance, downplaying the severity of rape, sexism, just world beliefs, and right-wing authoritarianism) were adapted and used for this project. College students (n = 846) responded to one of four versions of a randomly distributed survey each containing eight vignettes varied to represent levels of 14 factors employed because of their relevance to campus sexual assault cases. Across all versions, sexism was associated with increased responsibility given to the victim. In addition, stronger endorsement of both downplaying significance of rape and rape myth acceptance scales were associated with giving a milder sanction to the perpetrator and increased responsibility and guilt assigned to the victim. Just world beliefs and right-wing authoritarianism associations were inconsistent across the four versions, suggesting these beliefs were situation-specific. Preformed attitudes that are more directly related to the context of sexual assault influenced the designation of sanctions applied to perpetrators and perceptions of guilt and responsibility. Findings are discussed in terms of implications for research and prevention programming.

Identifying Invalid Responders in a Campus Climate Survey: Types, Impact on Data, and Best Indicators

Self-report surveys that are online, lengthy, and contain sensitive material greatly increase the probability of invalid responding (IR) on the instrument. Most research to inform our identification of invalid responders have not been able to test their methodologies where all these conditions are present. This study systematically adopted 10 IR indicators based on direct, archival, and statistic strategies to identify IR providing answers on a lengthy survey collecting campus climate/violence information that college students (N = 6,995) accessed online. Exploratory factor analysis indicated two internal factors (i.e., careless and extreme responding) underlying these IR indicators. Latent class analysis identified 4.8% of the sample as being invalid responders. Compared with honest responders, invalid responders were significantly more likely to report forms of victimization and a greater negative impact from physical abuse or sexual assault. Of importance, mean scores on victimization scales were significantly higher for invalid responders, illustrating the potential for IR data to skew prevalence rates. IR indicators differentially identified honest and invalid responders. The findings of this study contribute to the systematic investigation of IR with college students completing online and lengthy surveys that address sensitive material.

A Methodology Report for the Life's Snapshot Cohort Study to Investigate the Long-Term Efficacy of a Violence Intervention

Engaged bystander interventions are recognized as "promising" programming to reduce sexual violence (SV), yet little is known of the long-term (>12-month) impact of programming on SV and related forms of gender-based violence. Funded by NIH as a prospective cohort study, Life's Snapshot recruited and followed three waves of high school seniors who had participated in a large high-school cluster-randomized controlled trial to evaluate the effectiveness of the Green Dot bystander intervention. This report provides the study design, recruitment methodology, recruitment and retention rates, survey items, and psychometric properties of measures included in the initial and annual electronic surveys with 24-48 months follow-up.

A Campus Climate/Violence Survey's Psychometrics and Findings

Data from a campus climate/violence survey (CCS) include psychometric information for survey items/scales plus findings from a large state university to promote its usefulness for assessment of interpersonal violence/harassment. This CCS can thus be evaluated for its measurement and documented findings, allowing for benchmarking purposes. An innovative measurement strategy is introduced to comprehensively capture incidence of victimization types through streamlined questioning. Tables provide detailed data for 6,995 undergraduate and graduate/professional students over a 1-year period. Adding to published literature on existing CCSs, this article provides the range of information needed for universities to determine the potential usefulness of a CCS.

Frequency of Guns in the Households of High School Seniors

BACKGROUND

In 2013, President Obama lifted the federal ban on gun violence research. The current study provides one of the first reports to estimate household gun ownership as reported by youth.

METHODS

In this cohort study of 3006 high school seniors from 24 schools, we examined the frequency of household guns ownership.

RESULTS

About 65% reported having at least 1 gun in their household. White males were more likely to have a gun and to have more guns than other demographically characterized groups. After adjustment for race and sex, those of higher income, who lived in suburban or rural areas, identified as being exclusively attracted to the opposite sex, and in a romantic relationship, were more likely to have a gun in their household. Having a gun was not associated with increasing symptoms of depression or current poor physical or mental health.

CONCLUSIONS

Whereas we cannot determine gun types or reasons for having a gun, this research indicates that high school seniors are aware of and may have access to guns for use other than their intended purpose. Household gun ownership among students at higher risk for violence may pose safety challenges for communities and schools.

Intimate partner violence and women's cancer quality of life

PURPOSE

Because intimate partner violence (IPV) may disproportionately impact women's quality of life (QOL) when undergoing cancer treatment, women experiencing IPV were hypothesized to have (a) more symptoms of depression or stress and (b) lower QOL as measured with the Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy (FACT-B) and Functional Assessment of Chronic Illness Therapy-Spiritual Well-being (FACIT-SP) Scales relative to those never experiencing IPV.

METHODS

Women, aged 18-79, who were included in one of two state cancer registries from 2009 to 2015 with a recent incident, primary, invasive biopsy-confirmed cancer diagnosis were recruited and asked to complete a phone interview, within 12 months of diagnosis. This interview measured IPV by timing (current and past) and type (physical, sexual, psychological), socio-demographics, and health status. Cancer registries provided consenting women's cancer stage, site, date of diagnosis, and age.

RESULTS

In this large cohort of 3,278 women who completed a phone interview, 1,221 (37.3%) disclosed lifetime IPV (10.6% sexual, 24.5% physical, and 33.6% psychological IPV). Experiencing IPV (particularly current IPV) was associated with poorer cancer-related QOL defined as having more symptoms of depression and stress after cancer diagnosis and lower FACIT-SP and FACT scores than women not experiencing IPV and controlling for confounders including demographic factors, cancer stage, site, and number of comorbid conditions. Current IPV was more strongly associated with poorer QOL. When compared with those experiencing past IPV (and no IPV), women with cancer who experienced current IPV had significantly higher depression and stress symptoms scores and lower FACIT-SP and FACT-G scores indicating poorer QOL for all domains. While IPV was not associated with being diagnosed at a later cancer stage, current IPV was significantly associated with having more than one comorbid physical conditions at interview (adjusted rate ratio = 1.35; 95% confidence interval 1.19-1.54) and particularly for women diagnosed with cancer when <55 years of age.

CONCLUSIONS

Current and past IPV were associated with poorer mental and physical health functioning among women recently diagnosed with cancer. Including clinical IPV screening may improve women's cancer-related QOL.

Effects of Instructional Set and Personality Variables on the Use of Touching

The effects of demand characteristics and relevant personality variables on the use of touching were explored. Half of the 32 male and 32 female subjects received instructions discussing touching as one method of expressing emotions. All subjects pretended that an assistant was a friend with whom they roleplayed six emotional feelings. Subjects completed the Mosher Sex-guilt Scale and the Body Accessibility Questionnaire. Those subjects given additional instructions touched more but felt less comfortable with the assistant. Sex of the subject, sex of the assistant, amount of sex guilt, and degree of body accessibility did not have significant effects on touching. However, differential touching was produced by different emotional cues. The results contradict previous suggestions that touching is a function of a stable personality characteristic. Also, unlike clinical literature which suggests that touching produces intimacy and comfort, these findings suggested that instructional set can increase touching but decrease comfort.

Do Guns in the Home Predict Gender and Relationship Attitudes? An Exploratory Study

This study explores the potential relationship of guns in students' homes with attitudes indicative of tolerance of violence, negative attitudes toward women and their roles, and attitudes suggestive of myths regarding sexual assault. Seniors in Kentucky high schools whose families possessed guns (N=1749) produced higher scores on scales measuring these variables as well as on scales of relationship dependency and religious involvement than seniors whose families did not own guns (N=912). Students whose families owned more than 10 guns tended to score highest on these measures compared with students whose families owned no or a few guns. Because of lower effect sizes, these significant associations require further investigation.

Effects of Sex of Pressuring Group, Perception of Ability, and Sex of Communicator Influencing Perceived Ability on Conformity of Males and Females

This study assessed the differential effects of sex of pressuring confederates and perception of ability on conforming behavior of males and females. Varying male and female sources of the communication to influence subjects' views of their ability was expected to produce less conformity in females receiving the information from a male rather than a female. Data on undergraduates showed 64 females did not conform significantly more than 64 males, but male subjects conformed more in the presence of male confederates while females conformed significantly more when led to believe that males were more accurate on the task. Only the male source influencing females to believe they were superior on the task resulted in significantly less conformity in female subjects. Considering sex differences is essential due to the finding that the sexes responded to different variables present in most conformity experiments. The decrease in conformity produced in females when told by a male that females do better than males has implications for the use of male sources of communication to increase independent behavior of women.

Reviews

Career Counseling for Women, W. Bruce Walsh and Samuel H. Osipow (Eds.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1994. 385 pp. $34.50 (paper). ISBN 0-8058-1401–9.

It Could Happen to Anyone: Why Battered Women Stay, Ola W. Barnett and Alyce D. LaViolette. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1993. 184 pp. $38.00. ISBN: 0-8039-5310–0.

Empowering and Healing the Battered Woman, Mary Ann Dutton. New York: Springer, 1992. 202 pp. $28.95. ISBN: 0-8261-7130–3.

Breaking Destructive Patterns: Multiple Strategies for Treating Partner Abuse, Janet A. Geller. New York: Free Press, 1992. 182 pp. $27.95. ISBN: 0-02-911605–8.

Against Therapy, Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson. Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press, 1988/1994. 340 pp. $15.95. ISBN 1-56751-022–1.

Changing Our Minds: Lesbian Feminism and Psychology, Celia Kitzinger and Rachel Perkins. New York: New York University Press, 1993. 216 pp. $14.95. ISBN: 0-8147-4646–2.

Cultures of Organizations. Three Perspectives, Joanne Martin. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. 240 pp. $35.00. ISBN 0-19-507163–8.

Partner interfering behaviors affecting cancer quality of life

Objective

Because partners are an important and unpaid resource in cancer care, understanding how destructive, controlling or interfering partner behaviors influence women's cancer care may be particularly relevant for health care providers seeking to provide cancer care and enhance recovery. Using a new measure of partner interfering behaviors in cancer care (PIB‐C), we investigated whether women with a recent cancer diagnosis who additionally endorsed any PIB‐C would report (a) more symptoms of depression and stress, and (b) lower Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy (FACT‐G) and lower Functional Assessment of Chronic Illness Therapy‐Spiritual Well‐being (FACIT‐SP) scale scores indicating poorer quality of life (QOL).

Methods

Women aged 18–79 included in cancer registries as having an incident, primary, biopsy‐confirmed cancer in the past 12 months were eligible for this study. Consenting women completed a phone interview 9–12 months following cancer diagnosis between 2009 and 2015. Interviews provided data to measure outcomes (perceived stress and depressive symptoms, FACIT‐SP and FACT‐G scores), partner supportive and interfering behaviors, and other potentially confounding factors.

Results

Of the 2376 women in a relationship at cancer diagnosis, 14.7% endorsed one or more of 14 PIB‐C items. Women endorsing any PIB‐C item reported more symptoms of depression and stress and lower FACT‐G and FACIT‐SP scores than partnered women reporting no PIB‐C even when controlling for partner supportive behaviors and lifetime intimate partner violence. Increasing PIB‐C scores were also correlated, in a dose–response pattern, with these same outcomes.

Conclusions

Partner interfering behaviors during cancer care impact patients' QOL across multiple domains. © 2016 The Authors. Psycho‐Oncology Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Are Interpersonal Violence Rates Higher Among Young Women in College Compared With Those Never Attending College?

Estimates of sexual violence and partner violence rates among young women are generated primarily from college samples. Few studies have data to compare rates among similar-aged women attending college with those who never attended college. This study aims to estimate rates of partner violence by type (sexual, physical, and psychological) and severity (mild, moderate, severe), sexual harassment, and knowing or suspecting that someone put a drug in a drink (drugged drink) among a national sample of 959 young women aged 18 to 24 in an intimate relationship in the past 12 months who were either currently in college (college;n= 272) or never attended college (non-college;n= 687). After adjusting for demographic differences between these two groups, no significant differences were found in rates of sexual partner violence (28.4% non-college, 23.5% college), physical partner violence (27.9% non-college, 26.3% college), psychological partner violence (Mscore: 6.10 non-college, 5.59 college), sexual harassment (15.5% non-college, 14.1% college), or drugged drink (8.5% non-college, 7.8% college). Finding high rates of interpersonal violence among young women who are and are not currently attending college indicates the need to target all young adults with violence prevention interventions in educational, workplace, and other community-based settings.

Validity and psychometric properties of the measure of psychologically abusive behaviors among young women and women in distressed relationships

The Measure of Psychologically Abusive Behaviors (MPAB) was developed recently to improve on prior scales. Two nationally solicited samples of women were utilized to further validate the MPAB through the use of a criterion group, factor analysis, and designation of a threshold for accurate classification. MPAB scores were twice as high in the criterion group (M = 38.75 vs. M = 18.85; F = 22.17). Using a cutpoint of 1, the sensitivity and specificity for MPAB were .725 and .628, respectively. Cronbach's alpha was .97 for both samples. These data provide additional evidence for the MPAB as valid and internally consistent.

From Blue to Green: The Development and Implementation of a Therapeutic Horticulture Program for Residents of a Battered Women's Shelter

The delivery of therapeutic services to clients is influenced by service providers' understanding of the "fit" of a specific program with their service mandate as well as their perceptions of the potential benefits of the program. This article discusses the development and implementation of a therapeutic horticulture (TH) program at a battered women's shelter that serves 17 counties in Central Kentucky. Through semistructured interviews, we gauge the shelter staff's perceptions of the relationship of the TH program to the shelter's overall mission; their sense of the program's benefits for residents, for the shelter as a community organization, and for themselves; and their concerns about the TH program. We consider how these findings may impact future programming at the shelter, and we discuss plans for further evaluation of the TH program in terms of its impact on shelter residents' long-term outcomes.

The nature and prevalence of partner psychological abuse in a national sample of adults

A detailed analysis of the occurrence of serious psychological abuse (PSYAB) in one's "worst relationship" was solicited from a nationwide sample of adults in the United States. To designate that they experienced any of the psychologically abusive behaviors, respondents had to have perceived malignant intent by the perpetrator. Respondents reported significant rates of the presence and frequency for 14 specified categories of serious PSYAB as well as for the 42 individual behaviors constituting these categories (i.e., 3 per category). The 3 behaviors within each category frequently co-occurred even though they represented distinct manifestations and increasing levels of severity for that type of PSYAB. Only some of the behaviors demonstrated a relationship between frequency of that behavior in a relationship and subsequent emotional and behavioral impact. Neither demographics nor social desirability were strongly related to report of partner PSYAB.

A measure of severe psychological abuse normed on a nationally representative sample of adults

A psychological abuse scale representing truly egregious psychological actions that could occur between adult intimate partners was constructed. To insure that the component behaviors would be viewed as highly problematic, the likely malignant intent of the actions was included in item descriptions. Fourteen categories of psychological abuse were devised as relatively independent forms of destructive behaviors, and, within each category, 3 items were devised to represent increasingly severe psychological actions. A nationally representative sample of adults (N = 614) responding to an online survey rated the perceived severity of the 42 aversive behaviors. Reliability and validity indicators, along with descriptive data, are presented. The ratings of the sample basically established the items as egregious in nature, the categories as distinct from each other, and the items within categories as varying in expected directions in terms of severity. Except for gender, demographics had little effect on participants' ratings. Social desirability and dimensions of attachment showed weak relationships with participants' ratings.

The impact of psychological aggression on women's mental health and behavior: the status of the field

Potential effects of psychological aggression have been investigated in terms of mental health disorders/symptoms, physical manifestations, personality traits, increases in physical and psychological aggression, and relationship changes and cessation. Probably because of methodological difficulties inherent in assessing this complex phenomenon, even the most commonly assessed outcome variables have produced contradictory results, with the exception of leaving or desiring to leave the psychologically abusive relationship. Some of the significant findings require more corroboration due to the small number of studies addressing them. The relative role of physical abuse in relation to psychological abuse has yet to be disentangled. Mediator/moderator variables are likely extremely important for explaining why particular consequences do not consistently result from psychological aggression. Although the hypothesized consequences/outcomes seem appropriate for further study, the most significant contribution may lie in intensive investigation of long-term, enduring psychological abuse that produces major personality and affective shifts in the recipient.

A representative measure of psychological aggression and its severity

Surveys of psychological aggression have been plagued by a variety of conceptual and measurement problems. A new measure was devised to more systematically cover a full range of psychologically aggressive actions; to include items for each dimension/category at a milder, moderate, and severe level; to be applicable to dating as well as marital relationships; and to utilize items that were broader in nature to capture all instances of particular types of psychological aggression. Three hundred and eighty-three college students rated the 51 items as to their degree of "psychological abusiveness." The 17 categories were rated as mostly distinct from each other; almost every category had statistically distinct mild, moderate and severe items; the overall scale yielded basically normal psychometric properties; and the total score, as well as the scores for the mild, moderate, and severe items, all had very high internal consistency. Ratings of these items appear to be distinct from social desirability as well as from a number of attitudinal response sets, and only sex of the participant was significantly, although weakly, correlated with overall ratings of the psychological aggression items. This measure may provide for more systematic investigation into the concept of psychological aggression.

Lay persons' versus psychologists' judgments of psychologically aggressive actions by a husband and wife

Literature assessing knowledge of and attitudes toward social issues has demonstrated that mental health professionals and lay persons often differ greatly. To add to the normative information in the field of psychological abuse and to determine whether the differences previously found between mental health professionals and lay persons extend to this field, a sample from each group rated psychologically aggressive items by a husband toward his wife. For the 102 items, psychologists were more likely to label the behaviors as "psychological abuse," but this tendency was due to psychologists considering the behaviors as either "always" or "possibly" abusive, whereas lay persons demonstrated a bimodal response pattern of rating the behaviors as "always" or "never" psychological abuse. Lay persons were much more likely than psychologists to rate items high in terms of severity level, however. The two groups used different contextual factors for determining that a behavior was psychological abuse when they initially were uncertain that it was abusive.

Psychologists' judgments of psychologically aggressive actions when perpetrated by a husband versus a wife

Research literature suggests that clinical judgments of men's versus women's behavior and symptoms typically rate the men as more pathological and dangerous. To determine whether this view would extend to assessments of psychologically aggressive actions, two separate versions of a survey listing potentially psychologically abusive behaviors perpetrated by either a wife toward her husband or the identical actions perpetrated by a husband toward his wife were sent to a nationwide sampling of practicing psychologists. Results indicated that psychologists, irrespective of demographics, rated the husband's behavior as more likely to be psychologically abusive and more severe in nature than the wife's use of the same actions. Psychologists did not differentially rely on any of the three contextual factors (i.e., frequency/duration, intent of the perpetrator, and perception of the recipient) to influence their determination that a behavior was "psychological abuse" dependent upon whether the initiator of the psychological actions was the husband or the wife. Future research could assess more directly the rationale for the psychologists' differing views of male versus female behavior. In addition, more normative information is needed to inform mental health professionals as to the prevalence and severity of psychologically aggressive actions in the general population.

Group therapy for incarcerated women who experienced interpersonal violence: a pilot study

This study evaluated effectiveness of group therapy for incarcerated women with histories of childhood sexual and/or physical abuse. The intervention was based on a two-stage model of trauma treatment and included Dialectical Behavior Therapy skills and writing assignments. We randomly assigned 24 participants to group treatment (13 completed) and 25 to a no-contact comparison condition (18 completed). We evaluated treatment effects, using the Beck Depression Inventory, Inventory of Interpersonal Problems, and Trauma Symptom Inventory. The data demonstrate significant reductions in PTSD, mood, and interpersonal symptoms in the treatment group.

A model for predicting dating violence: anxious attachment, angry temperament, and need for relationship control

Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to test a model incorporating anxious attachment, angry temperament, and attempts to control one's partner as predictors of the severity and frequency of dating violence. To date, these concepts have not been clearly established as having direct or indirect effects on dating violence. It was hypothesized that anxious attachment and angry temperament would influence the need for and attempts to control one's partner which, in turn, would predict a person's actual use of force. College students (213 males; 199 females) completed measures assessing these constructs. Cross-validation was accomplished through using two successive freshmen samples. Statistics indicated the application of the model fit well to both samples. All specified paths were significant except for the direct path from anxious attachment to need for control in the second sample. While exploratory, this model seemed satisfactory for explaining potentially causal relationships of attachment, anger, and attempts to control one's partner leading to dating violence.

Justifiability, sympathy level, and internal/external locus of the reasons battered women remain in abusive relationships

Reasons why battered women remain in abusive relationships were rated by college students as to the degree of sympathy the reasons engendered, the degree to which the reasons seemed to justify the woman remaining, and whether the reasons appeared more within the woman's control (internal) or imposed upon her (external). Four clusters of reasons emerged that varied on the sympathy and justifiability ratings: Physical Restraint/Lack of Resources; Maintenance of the Relationship; Personal Deficits; and Loss of Resources. Sympathy for the individual reasons was correlated with viewing these reasons as more justifiable for keeping her in the relationship. Both sympathy and justifiability ratings were higher if the reasons were seen as externally imposed on the woman. The more the participants viewed the battered woman as possessing socially desirable traits, the more they had sympathy for the reasons she stayed and viewed them as justifiable. Gender and ethnicity differences on the ratings were also found. Implications for future research and application of the findings are discussed.

Utilizing disclosure in the treatment of the sequelae of childhood sexual abuse: a theoretical and empirical review

Although disclosure is a component of many therapeutic approaches to treating the long-term symptoms associated with child sexual abuse (CSA), the ameliorative mechanisms of this approach are still unclear. This review investigates the expected benefits of disclosure in therapy by looking at the theoretical and empirical support for its effectiveness in treating the specific psychopathological sequelae associated with a history of CSA. In order to accomplish this task, a core group of sequelae associated with sexual abuse are presented. The components of disclosure as a therapeutic process are divided into three processes: disclosure-through-description, disclosure-through-rethinking, and disclosure-in-relationship. The review describes the ways in which these elements of disclosure are used within different therapeutic approaches. The treatment outcome literature is then reviewed in terms of the elements of disclosure included in the treatment approaches and the symptoms improved by treatment. In conclusion, implications are presented concerning the appropriate uses of disclosure in psychotherapy directed at alleviating the long-term sequelae associated with a history of CSA.

Violence in lesbian and gay relationships: theory, prevalence, and correlational factors

This article reviews and critiques the existing empirical literature examining interpersonal violence in lesbian and gay relationships. Studies assessing psychological, physical, and nonconsenting sexual forms of violence in intimate, same-sex relationships are reviewed, and their findings are integrated with what is known about partner abuse in heterosexual relationships. Nineteen studies are described and categorized according to the specific questions being addressed. This body of literature suggests that prevalence rates of same-sex partner abuse are high and its correlates show many similarities to those identified in incidents of heterosexual partner abuse. This article addresses the need for substantially increased efforts in this field of study in terms of well-controlled and theory-driven research design. In terms of other implications of this body of literature, the high prevalence rate of partner abuse among lesbian and gay populations needs to be recognized by providers of both physical and mental health services who potentially treat victims, so that they can more accurately identify appropriate interventions. More research is warranted, not only in the general area of lesbian and gay partner abuse, but in examining various treatment modalities and their effectiveness in helping perpetrators to end the cycle of violence.

Risk factors and correlates of dating violence: the relevance of examining frequency and severity levels in a college sample

To determine whether categorizing levels of violence along dimensions of frequency and severity would result in informative distinctions among individuals using dating violence, reported use of physical violence, along with variables theorized to be related to use of force in intimate relationships, was assessed in a sample of 617 college students (males = 290; females = 327). When participants' scores were analyzed by dichotomizing them along the lines of ever versus never using dating violence, numerous past findings were replicated. However, participants using a higher frequency of force were distinguished by needing to control their partner and by less inhibition in expressing their anger. Higher severity of force by an individual was predicted only by a need to control his/her dating partner. Implications for these findings were discussed.

Mental health professionals and suspected cases of child abuse: an investigation of factors influencing reporting

The prevalence and effects of child abuse have been reported in numerous studies. Although mandatory reporting laws require professionals to report suspected cases of child abuse, studies have indicated that large percentages of mental health professionals report selectively. The present study investigates professionals' tendency to report and attribution of responsibility for child abuse. One-hundred and one mental health clinicians working within three community mental health centers (CMHCs) completed experimentally controlled vignettes manipulating victim age, type of abuse, and victim reactions during an interview. Results indicated 81% of the clinicians tended to report the presented case of child abuse. Clinicians' tendency to report depended on the level of certainty they had that abuse was occurring. Professionals' attribution of responsibility to the father and mother varied as a function of the type of abuse occurring. The impact of victim characteristics on clinicians' reporting is discussed.

Sex fantasies revisited: an expansion and further clarification of variables affecting sex fantasy production

Findings of prior research which indicated both external factors (experimental response cues) and internal factors (sex guilt) influencing subjects' writing of their sexual fantasies were expanded. University males (N = 88) and females (N = 122) were studied. They read sex fantasy examples varying in conventionality of the sexual activity and the relationship context before reporting their own fantasies. Sex guilt level of all subjects was measured as well as their subjective responses to writing the fantasies. The data were analyzed to determine whether varying response cues along certain dimensions could influence subjects to write parallel fantasies. Sex guilt levels and sex of the subject were the best predictors of the length, explicitness, and variety of content of subjects' reported fantasies. Males wrote longer, more explicit and varied fantasies but were affected similarly by sex guilt levels as females. High sex guilt subjects in general produced more restricted content and shorter fantasies. They also experienced more embarrassment and less arousal. Females were more likely to have high levels of guilt about sex than males. The varying dimensions of the fantasy examples had little effect on the types of fantasy material revealed and therefore the erotic/explicit aspect of the examples found in the prior research seems to be the factor that produces effects on fantasy production. Comparing the two studies, females may respond with longer, more explicit fantasies when given erotic but more traditional sexual examples.

Naturalistic observation in assessment of behavioral marital therapy

The purpose of the present study was to gather preliminary naturalistic observations on the effects of behavioral marital therapy. A second purpose was to gather preliminary data on the importance of the sequence of components of a behavioral marital treatment involving communication training and training in negotiation and contracting. Marital satisfaction of seven couples participating in a marital intervention program was assessed with questionnaires and home observations during a baseline period, after a didactic education phase, after training in communication, and after training in negotiation and contracting. Four couples received communication skills training prior to training in negotiation and contracting; three couples received these components in the reverse order. A 1-yr. follow-up of marital satisfaction was also conducted. Significant increases were noted in self-reported marital satisfaction throughout the program although there was no significant relationship between outcome and the sequence of the two main treatment components. Data from naturalistic observation showed decreases in the rate of both negative and positive behaviors in marital interaction over the course of therapy.

Psychological factors that predict reaction to abortion

Investigated demographic and psychological factors related to positive or negative reactions to legal abortions performed during the first trimester of pregnancy in 62 females in an urban southern community. Results suggest that the social context and the degree of support from a series of significant persons rather than demographic variables were most predictive of a positive reaction.

Male aggression toward females as a function of traditional vs nontraditional cues and visibility of the target

An aggression paradigm, disguised as a competitive reaction time task, was designed to investigate aggression by males toward a female who deviated from traditionally expected properties of a female target. 33 male subjects, exposed to a female varying in traditional vs non-traditional appearance and attitudes, did not set differential shock levels for their target. The surprisingly high shock levels which subjects set for the female, however, resulted in an additional experimental condition to compare the visibility of the opponent in the design with the non-visibility of female opponents in previous studies demonstrating low aggression against females. Seven subjects with a non-visible target shocked their opponent significantly less than in all other conditions where males had contact with the female opponent. This finding suggests that studies using non-visible female targets cannot legitimately be generalized to real-life situations and that males may not be inhibited from aggressing against females as previously thought.

Effects of a marathon group on self-actualization and attitudes toward women

This study investigated the impact of a 16-hour marathon session on levels of self-actualization and attitudes toward women both 1 day and 5 weeks after the group experience. Female undergraduates were assigned randomly to one of two marathon groups or to a no-treatment control group. Ss in both marathon groups experienced a significant shift toward increased independence or self-supportedness on both posttests. However, a differential group effect was found from separate comparisons of each marathon group with the control group reflected significantly shifts in attitudes toward women; Ss in one marathon group reflected significantly greater agreement with profeminist attitudes on the first posttest and experienced an even greater shift in that direction on the second posttest, while Ss in the other marathon group did not differ significantly from the control Ss on either posttest.