Long-acting injectable antipsychotics: evidence of effectiveness and use

Risk of Cardiovascular Events in Schizophrenic Patients Treated with Paliperidone Palmitate Once-Monthly Injection (PP1M): A Population-Based Retrospective Cohort Study in Taiwan

BACKGROUND

Schizophrenia is one of the leading causes of disability. Paliperidone palmitate once-monthly injection (PP1M) was developed to provide consistent drug delivery and improve medication adherence for maintenance treatment. It is well known that patients with schizophrenia have higher cardiovascular risks, however little is known about the cardiovascular risks of patients with schizophrenia treated with PP1M in Asia.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to estimate the incidence of cardiovascular events after initiating PP1M treatment and evaluate the cardiovascular risk associations compared with oral second-generation antipsychotics (SGAs).

METHODS

Data from Taiwan's National Health Insurance Research Database were used to identify a cohort of adult patients with schizophrenia who received any SGAs from 1 March 2012 to 31 December 2018. Patients who initiated PP1M treatment were enrolled for descriptive analysis of incidence rates. PP1M patients were propensity matched 1:1 to patients initiating a new oral SGA, for comparative analysis based on demographics, clinical characteristics and treatment history at baseline, in three-step matching procedures, following the prevalent new-user design to enhance comparability. Follow-up ended at the end of the treatment episode of index drug, death, last record available, or end of the study (31 December 2019). Study endpoints included serious cardiovascular events (including severe ventricular arrhythmia and sudden death), expanded serious cardiovascular events (which further included acute myocardial infarction and ischemic stroke), and cardiovascular hospitalizations. Risks of study endpoints between matched cohorts were compared using Cox regression.

RESULTS

Overall, 11,023 patients initiating PP1M treatment were identified (49.5% were females; mean age of 43.2 [12.2] years). Overall incidences for serious cardiovascular events, expanded serious cardiovascular events, and cardiovascular hospitalizations were 3.92, 7.88 and 51.96 per 1000 person-years, respectively. In matched cohort analysis (N = 10,115), the hazard ratios (HRs) between initiating PP1M and a new oral SGA for serious cardiovascular events, expanded serious cardiovascular events, and cardiovascular hospitalizations were 0.86 (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.55-1.36), 0.88 (95% CI 0.63-1.21), and 0.78 (95% CI 0.69-0.89), respectively.

CONCLUSION

This study reported the population-based incidence of cardiovascular events in schizophrenic patients initiating PP1M treatment. PP1M was not associated with increased risks of serious cardiovascular events but was potentially associated with lower risks of cardiovascular hospitalizations compared with oral SGAs.

Effectiveness and Safety of Switching from Oral Antipsychotics to Once-Monthly Paliperidone Palmitate (PP1M) in the Management of Schizophrenia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

Considering the improvement in adherence and convenience, once-monthly paliperidone palmitate (PP1M) has been increasingly used in the treatment of schizophrenia. However, the outcomes for patients who switch from oral antipsychotics (OAPs) to PP1M have not been reliably assessed. The objective of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to investigate the efficacy and safety of PP1M in the management of patients with schizophrenia with a prior history of OAP use.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic search in PubMed, EMBASE, and the Cochrane Library on 19 July 2022 to identify eligible studies. All studies that examined the effectiveness and safety of switching from OAPs to PP1M in patients with schizophrenia were included. The primary outcomes were relapse rate, hospitalisation rate, and the change from baseline in the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) total score. The secondary outcomes included the changed number of inpatient visits, changed length of stay hospitalisation, change from baseline in the Clinical Global Impressions-Severity (CGI-S) score and the personal and social performance (PSP) total score, response rate, proportion of treatment discontinuation, and adverse events. We included randomised-controlled trials (RCTs), single-arm studies, and observational studies. Case reports, case series, and reviews were excluded. The quality assessment of included studies was performed using the Revised Cochrane risk-of-bias tool for randomised trials (RoB2), the 9-point Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) instrument for non-randomised studies and cohort studies, and the 12-item National Institutes of Health (NIH) quality assessment tool for before-after (Pre-Post) study without control group. Follow-up times were reported as short- (≤ 13 weeks), medium- (14-26 weeks), and long term (≥ 27 weeks). Data were pooled using meta-analysis.

RESULTS

Fifteen studies with a total of 4740 patients were included. The long-term relapse rates and hospitalisation rates were 12% (95% CI 0.07-0.18) and 18% (95% CI 0.15-0.20), respectively. The short-, medium-, and long-term change in PANSS total score was - 21.69 (95% CI - 30.02 to -13.36), - 14.98 (95% CI - 21.45 to - 8.51) and - 17.88 (95% CI - 31.94 to -3.82), respectively. Approximately 50% of patients reported at least a 30% reduction in the PANSS score at the short-term follow-up. Improvements in CGI-S and PSP score were observed during various periods. There was a reduction in the length of stay hospitalisation and the number of inpatient visits at the medium- and long-term follow-ups. Low discontinuation and adverse event rates were reported.

CONCLUSION

Based on our findings, this study may support the efficacy and safety of switching from OAPs to PP1M for the treatment of patients with schizophrenia. Future large-scale studies are warranted to confirm our findings.

Pharmacist Administration of Long-Acting Injectable Antipsychotics to Community-Dwelling Patients: A Scoping Review

Long-acting injectable antipsychotics (LAIAs) have demonstrated positive outcomes for people with serious mental illnesses. They are underused, and access to LAIAs can be challenging. Pharmacies could serve as suitable environments for LAIA injection by pharmacists. To map and characterize the literature regarding the administration of LAIAs by pharmacists, a scoping review was conducted. Electronic-database searches (e.g., PsycINFO, Ovid Medline, Scopus, and Embase) and others including ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global and Google, were conducted. Citation lists and cited-reference searches were completed. Zotero was used as the reference-management database. Covidence was used for overall review management. Two authors independently screened articles and performed full-text abstractions. From all sources, 292 studies were imported, and 124 duplicates were removed. After screening, 13 studies were included for abstraction. Most articles were published in the US since 2010. Seven studies used database and survey methods, with adherence and patient satisfaction as the main patient-outcomes assessed. Reporting of pharmacists' and patients' perspectives surrounding LAIA administration was minimal and largely anecdotal. Financial analyses for services were also limited. The published literature surrounding pharmacist administration of LAIAs is limited, providing little-to-no guidance for the development and implementation of this service by others.

Real-World Utilization Patterns of Long-Acting Injectable Antipsychotics in Canada: A Retrospective Study

Objective: The objective of this study was to analyze the real-world prevalence of long-acting injectable (LAI) antipsychotic use and determine when LAIs are being used in sequencing of antipsychotic medications among Canadian patients with schizophrenia. Methods: This was a retrospective, longitudinal cohort study using Canadian pharmacy prescription data between August 2005 and June 2017. Patients with inferred schizophrenia spectrum disorder were indexed on the date of their first antipsychotic prescription and analyzed for minimum 12 months to track lines of antipsychotic therapy and LAI utilization. Results: A total of 16,300 patients were identified for analysis. 48.2% and 46.0% of index antipsychotic prescriptions were prescribed by a general practitioner/family medicine doctor and psychiatrist, respectively. 1,062 (6.5%) patients used an LAI during the study period. Of those patients, 789 used an LAI within two years of index (74.3% of LAI users; 4.8% of all patients). The majority of LAI use (62.0%) occurred in the third line of therapy or later. 65.0% of patients had tried at least two therapy lines, and most patients reported gaps of six months to one year between treatment lines. Conclusion: Despite their potential to reduce relapse in schizophrenia by improving treatment adherence, this study shows LAIs continue to be under-utilized in Canada. When used, LAIs are positioned late in sequencing of antipsychotic medications, often not initiated until years after diagnosis. Continued preference for oral APs with poor adherence may be negatively impacting prognosis and exacerbating burden of schizophrenia. Efforts should be invested to understand barriers to LAI uptake and advocate for earlier, widespread use of LAIs.

Treatment Resistance: A Time-Based Approach for Early Identification in First Episode Psychosis

Although approximately 1/3 of individuals with schizophrenia are Treatment Resistant (TR), identifying these subjects prospectively remains challenging. The Treatment Response and Resistance in Psychosis working group defines <20% improvement as an indicator of TR, though its utility in First Episode Schizophrenia (FES) remains unknown. In a prospective cohort of FES (n = 129) followed up for 5 years, we evaluated two improvement thresholds for ‘probable TR’; <20% and <50% based on positive, negative, and total symptoms. We ascertained (1) the ecological validity (i.e., the ability to identify an expected subgroup of 1/3rd of patients); (2) the predictive validity (i.e., ability to predict poor global functioning) and (3) the clinical utility (association with clozapine use at the 5th year). Using the criteria of a total symptom reduction of <50% or negative symptom reduction of <20% resulted in ‘probable TR’ rates of 37% and 33%, respectively. Using <20% positive or total symptoms criteria resulted in very low rates, indicating minimal utility in FES. <50% total symptom criterion best predicted the global functioning over 5 years. Clozapine use was only predicted by positive symptom criterion. Prospective characterization of TRS is possible at 6 months after FES through a time-based approach using a 50% threshold for symptom change in treatment-adherent patients.

The Role of Board-Certified Psychiatric Pharmacists in Expanding Access to Care and Improving Patient Outcomes

Although approximately 20% of adults in the United States experience a mental health condition annually, there continues to be a gap in the provision of care because of a shortage of behavioral health providers. The National Council for Behavioral Health Medical Director Institute has recommended that the number of board-certified psychiatric pharmacists (BCPPs), who are clinical pharmacists with advanced specialized training and experience in the treatment of patients with psychiatric and substance use disorders, be expanded to help meet this need. Although BCPPs currently assist in expanding care access, improving medication-related outcomes, and reducing health care costs by working collaboratively with physicians and other health care providers, BCPPs are often underutilized. This lack of utilization results in lost opportunity to better address the needs of persons with psychiatric or substance use disorders and to meet these needs in a timely manner. Here, the authors bring attention to five key areas-opioid use disorder, antipsychotic use among children, long-acting injectable antipsychotics, clozapine use, and transitions of care and care coordination-in which BCPPs, along with other pharmacists, provide evidence-based care and could be more extensively used as a collaborative solution to the mental health and substance use disorder crisis in the United States.

A systematic review of longitudinal studies investigating the impact of cannabis use in patients with psychotic disorders

Introduction: Research has established a link between cannabis use and adverse psychotic outcomes in psychosis patients. However, we have yet to determine if this relationship is maintained when controlling for important confounding variables. The following systematic review aims to investigate if the association between cannabis use and psychotic outcomes is preserved when accounting for important confounders, and if discontinued use mitigates any potential negative impacts.Areas covered: The authors conducted an exhaustive search of the MEDLINE database and Google Scholar to identify articles pertaining to the systematic review. Thirty-three articles were retained for meeting the eligibility criteria.Expert opinion: The evidence confirms an overarching pattern of negative psychotic outcomes of cannabis intake in psychosis populations, even when accounting for crucial confounders. Psychosis patients should be informed with evidence-based health information regarding the effects of cannabis use. Clinicians should systematically evaluate cannabis intake patterns in psychosis patients and offer intervention services geared toward reducing problematic consumption. Researchers should record confounding factors in a more systematic manner in future longitudinal investigations while paying careful attention to the potency and dose-response effects of the ingested cannabis. Deciders will need to investigate the impact of cannabis regulations on psychosis populations.

Patient subjective experience of treatment with long-acting injectable antipsychotics: a systematic review of qualitative studies

ABSTRACT Objective: To gain a better understanding of how long-acting injectable antipsychotic (LAI) therapy is perceived by patients. Methods: A search for qualitative studies has been carried out on PubMed, Google Scholar, PsycINFO and PsycArticles, yielding 11 studies suitable for a review of qualitative studies. The reporting approach chosen was meta-ethnography, following the ENTREQ statement recommendations. Key concepts common to the different studies were extrapolated and then analysed in a systematic and comparative way. Results: Some recurrent issues were associated with LAIs, such as fear of coercion, fear of needles and lack of knowledge about depot therapy. These topics are linked to each other and the patients most concerned about the disadvantages of LAIs are those who are less informed about them, or who have experienced coercion and trauma during hospitalisation. On the other hand, patients who had already received LAIs, and those who had a good therapeutic relationship with their healthcare providers expressed satisfaction with this form of treatment and its continuation. Conclusion: Long-acting injectable antipsychotics are a tool in the management of mental disorders, and a viable alternative to oral medication. Patients show curiosity towards this method of administration, but lack of knowledge is a common finding. Shared decision making about the use of LAIs antipsychotics requires that patients receive accurate information and support for their decision regarding medication.

Trends in the Use of Long-Acting Injectable Antipsychotics in the Province of Manitoba, Canada

BACKGROUND

Long-acting injectable antipsychotics (LAIAs) have advantages over oral antipsychotics but are not widely used. We aimed to evaluate the impact of market entry of second-generation LAIAs on prescribing trends.

METHODS

We used administrative health databases to describe trends in LAIA use from 1995 to 2015 in the Canadian province of Manitoba. Age- and sex-specific incident and prevalent use were determined using prescription dispensation records for the entire population. We used interrupted time series analysis with Poisson regression to estimate change in LAIA use attributable to the market entry of the second-generation LAIA risperidone.

RESULTS

We observed 3380 prevalent LAIA users and 2375 incident users in our cohort. Long-acting injectable antipsychotic use was higher in males. Incidence proportions declined from 21.5 users per 100,000 in 1996 to 4.8 in 2004 and then climbed to 14.7 by 2015. First-generation LAIA use peaked at 94.6 prevalent users per 100,000 in 1998 but fell to 40.9 in 2015. Long-acting injectable antipsychotic use increased 1.4% per quarter after the market entry of risperidone long-acting injectable.

CONCLUSIONS

Risperidone risperidone long-acting injectable market entry had a positive impact on LAIA prescribing.

Real-World Analysis of Switching Patients with Schizophrenia from Oral Risperidone or Oral Paliperidone to Once-Monthly Paliperidone Palmitate

PURPOSE

Reducing the dosing frequency of antipsychotics (APs) with long-acting injectables (LAIs) such as once-monthly paliperidone palmitate (PP1M) can improve adherence and clinical outcomes for schizophrenia patients. This US study compared physical and psychiatric comorbidity-related outcomes, AP adherence, healthcare resource utilization (HRU), and costs pre- and post-transition to PP1M among schizophrenia patients treated with oral risperidone/paliperidone pre-PP1M transition.

METHODS

Health insurance claims from the IQVIA™ PharMetrics Plus database (01/01/2012-07/31/2018) were used to identify adults with ≥ 2 schizophrenia diagnoses, ≥ 1 claim for PP1M, and ≥ 30 days of treatment with oral risperidone/paliperidone in the 60 days before the first PP1M claim (i.e., the index date). Comorbidity-related outcomes, adherence to APs (measured via the proportion of days covered [PDC]), all-cause per-patient-per-month (PPPM) HRU, and all-cause PPPM medical, pharmacy, and total costs (i.e., sum of medical and pharmacy costs) during the 6-month periods pre- and post-transition to PP1M were compared using generalized estimating equation models adjusted for repeated measurements. Analyses were replicated in the subset of patients with ≥ 1 all-cause inpatient stay pre-PP1M transition.

FINDINGS

Among 427 schizophrenia patients transitioning from oral risperidone/paliperidone to PP1M, the mean age was 41.1 years and 37.9% were female. Following the PP1M transition, patients were less likely to have claims with a diagnosis for psychoses (odds ratio [OR] 0.41; P < 0.001), hypertension (OR 0.80; P = 0.011), depression (OR 0.70; P < 0.001), drug abuse (OR 0.60; P < 0.001), substance-related and addictive disorders (OR 0.73; P = 0.003), bipolar and related disorders (OR 0.59; P < 0.001), sleep-wake disorders (OR 0.68; P = 0.017), anxiety disorders (OR 0.78; P = 0.034), and other conditions that may require a focus of clinical attention (OR 0.58; P < 0.001). Mean PDC by APs was higher post-PP1M (mean = 0.81) versus pre-PP1M (mean = 0.68) transition. Post-PP1M, patients were less likely to have an all-cause emergency room visit (OR 0.51; P < 0.001) or inpatient stay (OR 0.39; P < 0.001) compared to pre-PP1M. All-cause total healthcare costs remained similar post- versus pre-transition to PP1M (mean monthly cost difference [MMCD] = $228; P = 0.260). Pharmacy costs increased post-PP1M (MMCD = $960; P < 0.001), but were offset by decreasing medical costs (MMCD = - $732; P < 0.001), largely driven by lower costs related to inpatient stays (MMCD = - $695; P < 0.001) and emergency room visits (MMCD = - $63; P < 0.001). For patients with ≥ 1 all-cause inpatient stay pre-PP1M transition (N = 177), a more pronounced improvement in comorbidity-related outcomes, a more pronounced reduction in HRU, and a reduction in total healthcare costs (MMCD = - $1308; P < 0.001) were observed post-transition to PP1M.

IMPLICATIONS

Among schizophrenia patients in the US, transitioning to PP1M following oral risperidone/paliperidone treatment was associated with improved comorbidity-related outcomes, higher adherence, and a reduction in HRU, while remaining cost neutral. Furthermore, patients with ≥ 1 all-cause inpatient stay pre-PP1M transition had significantly lower total healthcare costs post-PP1M transition.

Attitude and perceptions of patients towards long acting depot injections (LAIs)

BACKGROUND

Despite the well-established efficacy of the long acting depot injectable (LAIs) antipsychotics, these are significantly underused and underutilized by the mental health professionals, with a belief that patients will not accept the same.

AIMS & OBJECTIVES

To explore the acceptability and perception of patients towards various psychiatric treatments, with specific focus on LAIs. Additionally the study aimed to compare the acceptability of various types of treatments including LAIs between patients with severe mental disorders (Psychotic disorders and Bipolar disorder) and those with Common mental disorders (Anxiety, neurotic and depressive disorders).

METHODOLOGY

A self-designed semi-structured questionnaire was used to evaluate the preferred treatment options of all the new patients attending the psychiatry outpatient clinic of a tertiary care hospital. Depending on the response, they were further probed for the reasons for accepting or rejecting the LAIs.

RESULTS

2659 patients were interviewed who were divided into two groups (Group I - 321 subjects with psychotic disorders and 120 subjects with bipolar affective disorder (BPAD) and Group II - 2218 subjects with neurotic, stress-related and unipolar depressive disorders). More than three-fourth (78.8%) of the participants in the whole study sample opted for tablets only as their first preferred choice and injectables were opted by about 5% of the participants only, with no significant difference between the 2 groups. After being explained about LAIs, one fourth of the participants (24.9%) reported that they may consider LAIs, without any significant difference between the 2 groups. Among those who refused to take LAIs even after explanation, the commonly reported reasons were difficulty in visiting hospital frequently for the injectables (41.69%), injectables being painful (19.41%), fear of injections (13.96%), no need to take LAIs (12.45%) and preference to take some other types of medicines (8.52%).

CONCLUSIONS

Considering the fact that LAIs are highly underused in patients with severe mental disorders and there is lack of awareness about LAIs among patients with severe mental disorders, the present study findings suggest that there is reasonable level of acceptance of LAIs among patients with severe mental disorders when explained about the same.

Comparative Efficacy and Safety of Long-acting Injectable and Oral Second-generation Antipsychotics for the Treatment of Schizophrenia: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

We aimed to compare the efficacy and safety of long-acting injectable (LAI) and oral second-generation antipsychotics (SGAs) in treating schizophrenia by performing a systematic review and meta-analysis. MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO, CINAHL, and the Cochrane Library, as well as five Korean databases, were systemically searched to identify studies published from 2000 to 16 April 2015, which compared the efficacy and safety of LAI and oral SGAs. Using data from randomized controlled trials (RCTs), meta-analyses were conducted. In addition, the GRADE (the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation) approach was applied to explicitly assess the quality of the evidence. A total of 30 studies including 17 RCTs and 13 observational studies were selected. The group treated with LAI SGAs was characterized by significantly lower relapse rates, longer times to relapse and fewer hospital days, but also by a higher occurrence of extrapyramidal syndrome and prolactin-related symptoms than that in the group treated with oral SGAs. Our findings demonstrate that there is moderate to high level of evidence suggesting that in the treatment of schizophrenia, LAI SGAs have higher efficacy and are associated with higher rates of extrapyramidal syndrome and prolactin-related symptoms. Additionally, the use of LAI SGAs should be combined with appropriate measures to reduce dopamine D₂ antagonism-related symptoms.

The current data on the 3-month paliperidone palmitate formulation for the treatment of schizophrenia

INTRODUCTION

A three-month injection of paliperidone palmitate (PP3M) has been gradually introduced in the market since 2015. Recently, and due to different reasons, there is an increase in the LAIAs prescription rates, including patients in early phases of psychotic disorders. Areas covered: The following article provides an overview of the antipsychotic market before providing the reader with an overview of the efficacy and tolerability data of the 3-month paliperidone palmitate formulation for the treatment of schizophrenia. The authors take into account the current state of knowledge, as well as the needs not covered by other therapeutic tools at our disposal at this time. Expert opinion: PP3M offers a substantially longer dosing interval than other options, which may be a potential advancement to reduce nonadherence in some patients. Future research, both from randomized controlled trials and large pragmatic studies in real-world settings, will identify which subpopulation and disease stages may obtain greater benefit from this new formulation.

Predictive factors of overall functioning improvement in patients with chronic schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder treated with paliperidone palmitate and aripiprazole monohydrate

BACKGROUND

Long-acting injectable (LAI) antipsychotics can improve medication adherence and reduce hospitalisation rates compared with oral treatments. Paliperidone palmitate (PAL) and aripiprazole monohydrate (ARI) LAI treatments were associated with improvements in global functioning in patients with schizophrenia.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to assess the predictive factors of better overall functioning in patients with chronic schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder treated with PAL and ARI.

METHOD

Enrolled were 143 (97 males, 46 females, mean age 38.24 years, SD = 12.65) patients with a diagnosis of schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder, whom we allocated in two groups (PAL and ARI treatments). We assessed global functioning, amount of oral medications, adherence to oral treatment, and number of hospitalisations before LAI introduction and at assessment time point.

RESULTS

Longer treatment time with LAIs (p < .001), lower number of oral drugs (p < .001), and hospitalisations (p = .002) before LAI introduction, and shorter duration of illness (p = .038) predicted better Global Assessment of Functioning scores in the whole sample (R²  = 0.337).

CONCLUSION

Early administration and longer duration of ARI or PAL treatments could play a significant role in improving global functioning of patients with schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. Better improvement in functioning could be achieved with ARI in young individuals with recent illness onset and PAL in patients at risk for recurrent hospitalisations.

Comparison of the G and V methods for ventrogluteal site identification: Muscle and subcutaneous fat thicknesses and considerations for successful intramuscular injection

The ventrogluteal site is increasingly recommended for long-acting antipsychotic intramuscular injections; however, it remains infrequently utilized due to nurses' lack of confidence in site identification. The more recent G (geometric) method of ventrogluteal site identification is less subjective and likely more reliable than the V method for successful intramuscular injection outcomes. Knowledge of muscle and subcutaneous fat thicknesses, and the influence of sex and anthropometry on theoretical injection outcome, is necessary to support evidence-based use of the ventrogluteal site. In the presents study, we compared the V and G methods for injection site subcutaneous fat, muscle, and total tissue thicknesses, and theoretical injection outcome (bone injury, intramuscular or subcutaneous), and determined anthropometric predictors of injection outcome. Subcutaneous fat and muscle thicknesses were measured via ultrasound, bilaterally at V and G method sites (28 males, 32 females). Muscle and total tissue were significantly thicker, and successful intramuscular injection significantly more likely, using the G versus V method (75% versus 57%). Females had significantly thicker subcutaneous fat than males at both sites. Even using the G method, 92% of males but only 59% of females, would have a successful intramuscular injection, with remaining females at risk of bone injury (16%) or subcutaneous injection (25%). The G method site is more reliable for successful intramuscular injection, with less risk of bone injury than the V method site. Appropriate needle-length selection is essential for females with a body mass index (BMI) <23 kg m^-2 and weight <60 kg (to avoid bone injury), and BMI >30 kg m^-2 and hip >90 cm (to avoid subcutaneous injection).

Guidelines for the Pharmacotherapy of Schizophrenia in Adults

OBJECTIVE

The present guidelines address the pharmacotherapy of schizophrenia in adults across different stages, phases, and symptom domains.

METHOD

Guidelines were developed using the ADAPTE process, which takes advantage of existing guidelines. Six guidelines were identified for adaptation, with recommendations extracted from each. For those specific to the pharmacotherapy of schizophrenia in adults, a working group selected between guidelines and recommendations to create an adapted guideline.

RESULTS

Recommendations can be categorized into 6 areas that include 1) first-episode schizophrenia, 2) acute exacerbation, 3) relapse prevention and maintenance treatment, 4) treatment-resistant schizophrenia, 5) clozapine-resistant schizophrenia, and 6) specific symptom domains. For each category, recommendations are made based on the available evidence, which is discussed and linked to other established guidelines.

CONCLUSIONS

In most cases, evidence-based recommendations are made that can be used to guide current clinical treatment and decision making. Notably, however, there is a paucity of established evidence to guide treatment decision making in the case of clozapine-resistant schizophrenia, a subsample that represents a sizable proportion of those with schizophrenia.

Aripiprazole Once-Monthly in the Treatment of Acute Psychotic Episodes in Schizophrenia: Post Hoc Analysis of Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale Marder Factor Scores

BACKGROUND

Long-acting injectable antipsychotics are treatment options for acute and long-term treatment of patients with schizophrenia. In a previously published 12-week randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial of patients with schizophrenia experiencing an acute psychotic episode, aripiprazole once-monthly 400 mg (AOM 400) produced significantly greater improvement than placebo on the primary endpoint, Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) total score at week 10.

METHODS

To examine the efficacy of AOM 400 across a broader representation of schizophrenia symptoms, including agitation, a post hoc analysis of this trial was carried out to assess the change in PANSS Marder factor domains (positive symptoms, negative symptoms, disorganized thought, uncontrolled hostility/excitement, and anxiety/depression) and the PANSS excited component (equivalent to Marder factor domain uncontrolled hostility/excitement plus the tension item) by comparing differences in change from baseline between AOM 400 and placebo using a mixed model for repeated measures.

RESULTS

The differences between treatment and placebo for all factors were statistically significant, with improvements seen as early as week 1 or 2, and maintained through week 12. Thus, AOM 400, supplemented with oral aripiprazole in the first 2 weeks, showed significantly greater efficacy versus placebo in acutely ill patients with schizophrenia in all 5 Marder illness domains, as well as in agitation as conceptualized by the PANSS excited component score.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings indicate that AOM 400 is efficacious across the spectrum of schizophrenia symptoms in acutely ill patients, with implications for both short-term and, by extension, long-term patient outcomes.

Bimatoprost Sustained-Release Implants for Glaucoma Therapy: 6-Month Results From a Phase I/II Clinical Trial

PURPOSE

To evaluate the safety and intraocular pressure (IOP)-lowering effect of a biodegradable bimatoprost sustained-release implant (Bimatoprost SR).

DESIGN

Phase I/II, prospective, 24-month, dose-ranging, paired-eye controlled clinical trial.

METHODS

At baseline following washout, open-angle glaucoma patients (n = 75) were administered Bimatoprost SR (6 μg, 10 μg, 15 μg, or 20 μg) intracamerally in the study eye; the fellow eye began topical bimatoprost 0.03% once daily. Rescue topical IOP-lowering medication or a single repeat treatment with implant was allowed. The primary endpoint was IOP change from baseline. The main safety measure was adverse events. Results through month 6 are reported.

RESULTS

Bimatoprost SR provided rapid, sustained IOP lowering. Overall mean IOP reduction from baseline through week 16 in study eyes was 7.2, 7.4, 8.1, and 9.5 mm Hg with the 6-μg, 10-μg, 15-μg, and 20-μg dose strengths of implant, respectively, vs 8.4 mm Hg in topical bimatoprost-treated pooled fellow eyes (data censored at rescue/retreatment). Rescue/retreatment was not required in 91% and 71% of study eyes up to week 16 and month 6, respectively. Adverse events in study eyes usually occurred within 2 days after the injection procedure and were transient. Conjunctival hyperemia with onset later than 2 days after the injection procedure was more common with topical bimatoprost than Bimatoprost SR (17.3% vs 6.7% of eyes).

CONCLUSIONS

Bimatoprost SR demonstrated favorable efficacy and safety through 6 months. All dose strengths were comparable to topical bimatoprost in overall IOP reduction through week 16. A single administration controlled IOP in the majority of patients for up to 6 months.

Adherence to antipsychotic medication among homeless adults in Vancouver, Canada: a 15-year retrospective cohort study

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to investigate the level of adherence to antipsychotic prescription medication in a well-defined homeless cohort over a 15-year period. We hypothesized that adherence would be well below the recommended threshold for clinical effectiveness (80 %), and that it would be strongly associated with modifiable risk factors in the social environment in which homeless people live.

METHOD

Linked baseline data (including comprehensive population-level administrative prescription records) were examined in a subpopulation of participants from two pragmatic-randomized trials that investigated Housing First for homeless and mentally ill adults. Adherence to antipsychotic medication was operationalized using the medication possession ratio. Multivariable logistic regression was used to estimate effect sizes between socio-demographic, homelessness-related and illness factors, and medication possession ratio.

RESULTS

Among the 290 participants who met inclusion criteria for the current analysis, adherence to antipsychotic prescription was significantly associated with: history of psychiatric hospitalization; receipt of primary medical services; long-acting injectable antipsychotic formulations; and duration of homelessness. Mean medication possession ratio in the pre-randomization period was 0.41. Socio-demographic characteristics previously correlated with antipsychotic non-adherence were not significantly related to medication possession ratio.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first study to quantify the very low level of adherence to antipsychotic medication among homeless people over an extended observation period of 15 years. Each of the four factors found to be significantly associated with adherence presents opportunities for intervention. Strategies to end homelessness for this population may represent the greatest opportunity to improve adherence to antipsychotic medication.

Clinical Decision-Making in the Treatment of Schizophrenia: Focus on Long-Acting Injectable Antipsychotics

The purpose of this study was to identify clinician characteristics associated with higher prescription rates of long-acting injectable (LAI) antipsychotics, as well as the sources that influence medical decision-making regarding the treatment of schizophrenia. We surveyed 202 psychiatrists during six regional French conferences (Bordeaux, Lyon, Marseille, Nice, Paris, and Strasbourg). Data on the characteristics of practice, prescription rates of antipsychotic, and information sources about their clinical decisions were collected. Most psychiatrists used second-generation antipsychotics (SGAs), and preferentially an oral formulation, in the treatment of schizophrenia. LAI SGAs were prescribed to 30.4% of schizophrenic patients. The duration and type of practice did not influence the class or formulation of antipsychotics used. The clinicians following the higher percentage of schizophrenic patients were associated with a higher use of LAI antipsychotics and a lower use of oral SGAs. Personal experience, government regulatory approval, and guidelines for the treatment of schizophrenia were the three main contributing factors guiding clinicians’ decision-making regarding the treatment of schizophrenia. The more clinicians follow schizophrenic patients, the more they use LAI antipsychotics. The development of specialized programs with top specialists should lead to better use of LAI antipsychotics in the treatment of schizophrenia.

Treatment Patterns and Antipsychotic Medication Adherence Among Commercially Insured Patients With Schizoaffective Disorder in the United States

This study assessed real-world treatment patterns and antipsychotic (AP) medication adherence among commercially insured US patients with schizoaffective disorder (SCA). Continuously insured adults aged 18 years or older with a diagnosis of SCA from January 1, 2009, to December 31, 2012, were identified from the Clinformatics Data Mart database. Patients were categorized into 2 cohorts: incident or prevalent SCA. Demographics and clinical characteristics were evaluated during the baseline period. Use of psychiatric medications and adherence to AP medications were evaluated during a 12-month follow-up period after index diagnosis of SCA. Of the overall study population (N = 2713; mean age, 40.2 y; 52.7% female), 1961 patients (72.3%) (mean age, 38.7 y; 51.3% female) had incident SCA, and 752 patients (27.7%) (mean age, 43.9 y; 56.5% female) had prevalent SCA. Antipsychotics were used by 74.8% of patients in the overall study population during the follow-up period. The most commonly prescribed oral AP was risperidone (23.9%), followed by quetiapine (21.4%) and aripiprazole (20.4%). Use of any long-acting injectable APs in the overall study population during the follow-up period was less than 3%. A total of 49.0% and 38.0% of the overall study population had medication possession ratios and proportion of days covered for APs of 80% or greater, respectively. Overall use of long-acting injectable APs for the treatment of SCA is low, and adherence to AP medications, measured by both medication possession ratio and proportion of days covered, is suboptimal among patients with SCA in the real-world setting.

Clinical benefits and impact of early use of long-acting injectable antipsychotics for schizophrenia

AIM

Results from clinical trials support the use of oral antipsychotics for treatment of early or first-episode psychosis in patients with schizophrenia. This paper will review literature on the advantages of early initiation of treatment for schizophrenia and the clinical benefits of early use of long-acting injectable antipsychotics (LAIs).

METHOD

A comprehensive literature review was conducted to identify published literature on the use of LAIs early in the treatment of schizophrenia.

RESULTS

Although there is a higher response rate to initial antipsychotic treatment for a first-episode of schizophrenia than with subsequent antipsychotic treatment, we have not effectively addressed this issue. Poor adherence to treatment is a primary cause of relapse and rehospitalization in subsequent years and was associated with higher relapse rates resulting in devastating effects and substantial economic burden. The costs of nonadherence were estimated to be $1.48 billion. Thus, a major challenge with the treatment of schizophrenia is changing poor adherence to persistence with antipsychotic therapy. LAIs are known to be at least as effective as oral antipsychotics for treating schizophrenia, and yet are underutilized. Further, LAIs address many of the problems associated with adherence to oral therapy. Recent evidence suggests that LAIs are effective for treating first-episode psychosis and for early initiation of treatment for schizophrenia.

CONCLUSION

Although consistent antipsychotic treatment represents a critical part of treatment, a person-centred approach to treating schizophrenia is essential for all aspects of care, including establishing and maintaining a therapeutic alliance, strengthening shared decision-making and adherence, and achieving long-lasting recovery.

A Pharmacovigilance Study in First Episode of Psychosis: Psychopharmacological Interventions and Safety Profiles in the PEPs Project

BACKGROUND

The characterization of the first episode of psychosis and how it should be treated are principal issues in actual research. Realistic, naturalistic studies are necessary to represent the entire population of first episode of psychosis attended in daily practice.

METHODS

Sixteen participating centers from the PEPs project recruited 335 first episode of psychosis patients, aged 7 to 35 years. This article describes and discusses the psychopharmacological interventions and safety profiles at baseline and during a 60-day pharmacovigilance period.

RESULTS

The majority of first episode of psychosis patients received a second-generation antipsychotic (96.3%), orally (95%), and in adjusted doses according to the product specifications (87.2%). A total of 24% were receiving an antipsychotic polytherapy pattern at baseline, frequently associated with lower or higher doses of antipsychotics than the recommended ones. Eight patients were taking clozapine, all in monotherapy. Males received higher doses of antipsychotic (P=.043). A total of 5.2% of the patients were being treated with long-acting injectable antipsychotics; 12.2% of the patients received anticholinergic drugs, 12.2% antidepressants, and 13.7% mood stabilizers, while almost 40% received benzodiazepines; and 35.52% reported at least one adverse drug reaction during the pharmacovigilance period, more frequently associated with higher antipsychotic doses and antipsychotic polytherapy (85.2% vs 45.5%, P<.001).

CONCLUSIONS

These data indicate that the overall pharmacologic prescription for treating a first episode of psychosis in Spain follows the clinical practice guideline recommendations, and, together with security issues, support future research of determinate pharmacological strategies for the treatment of early phases of psychosis, such as the role of clozapine, long-acting injectable antipsychotics, antipsychotic combination, and the use of benzodiazepines.

Systematic Literature Review of the Methods Used to Compare Newer Second-Generation Agents for the Management of Schizophrenia: A focus on Health Technology Assessment

BACKGROUND

The challenges of comparative effectiveness to support health technology assessment (HTA) agencies are important considerations in the choices of antipsychotic medications for the treatment of schizophrenia.

OBJECTIVES

Our aim was to assess the study methods used and outcomes reported in the published literature to address the question of comparative effectiveness of newer antipsychotic agents and the adequacy and availability of evidence to support HTA agencies.

DATA SOURCE

A systematic search of the PubMed database from 1 January 2009 to 30 September 2013 was conducted to identify studies evaluating new atypical antipsychotics reporting on comparative effectiveness.

STUDY SELECTION

The systematic review comprised of studies on schizophrenia patients where at least two drugs were being compared and at least one treatment group received one of the following second-generation antipsychotics: risperidone, olanzapine, aripiprazole, paliperidone, asenapine, iloperidone, lurasidone, and quetiapine. The included studies were also required to have an efficacy, safety or economic outcome, such as Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) score, weight gain, resource utilization, or costs.

STUDY APPRAISAL AND SYNTHESIS METHODS

Two reviewers (BW and GK) independently applied the inclusion criteria. Disagreements between reviewers were resolved by consensus, referring to the original sources. Information on the methodology and outcomes was collected for each included study. This included study description, head-to-head drug comparison, patient population, study methodology, statistical methods, reported outcomes, study support, and journal type.

RESULTS

A total of 198 studies were identified from electronic search methods. The largest category of studies was randomized controlled trials [RCTs] (N = 73; 36.9%), which were largely directed at the regulatory endpoint. Fewer studies were undertaken for HTA-purposes cohort studies (N = 53; 26.8%), meta-analyses (N = 32; 16.2%), economic studies (N = 14; 7.1%), and cross-sectional studies (N = 13; 6.6%). Direct head-to-head comparisons preferred by HTA were dominated by the comparison involving olanzapine and risperidone, representing 149 (75.3%) and 119 (60.1%) studies, respectively. RCTs, which are the primary study type for regulatory submissions, showed a lack of bias. Studies aimed at HTA were not as well performed. Cohort studies suffered from bias in the selection of comparison groups, lack of control for confounders, and differential dropout rates. As a group, cross-sectional studies scored poorly for bias, with a primary failure to identify a representative sample. Economic studies showed highly variable bias, with bias in the representation of effectiveness data, model assumptions without validation, and lack of sensitivity analyses.

LIMITATIONS

One limitation of this systematic review is that it only included studies from 2009 to 2013, potentially excluding some earlier comparator studies, particularly those involving first-generation antipsychotics.

CONCLUSIONS

This review of comparative effectiveness studies of second-generation antipsychotic agents for schizophrenic patients revealed a wide range of study types, study methodologies, and outcomes. For traditional efficacy outcomes and select safety outcomes, there is strong evidence from many well-conducted studies; however, there are fewer studies of types preferred by HTA with limited head-to-head comparisons and a higher risk of bias in the execution of these studies.

The Use of Continuous Treatment Versus Placebo or Intermittent Treatment Strategies in Stabilized Patients with Schizophrenia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials with First- and Second-Generation Antipsychotics

BACKGROUND

Although continuous treatment with antipsychotics is still recommended as the gold standard treatment paradigm for all patients with schizophrenia, some clinicians question whether continuous antipsychotic treatment is necessary, or even justified, for every patient with schizophrenia who has been stabilized on antipsychotics.

OBJECTIVE

The primary objectives of this systematic review and meta-analysis were (i) to compare relapse/hospitalization risks of stabilized patients with schizophrenia under active versus intermittent or placebo treatment conditions; (ii) to examine the role of several study characteristics, possibly intervening in the relationship between relapse risk and treatment condition; and (iii) to examine whether time to relapse is associated with antipsychotic treatment duration.

METHODS

A systematic literature search, using the MEDLINE database (1950 until November 2014), was conducted for English-language published randomized controlled trials, covering a follow-up time period of at least 6 months, and investigating relapse/rehospitalization and/or time-to-relapse rates with placebo or intermittent treatment strategies versus continuous treatment with oral and long-acting injectable first- or second-generation antipsychotics (FGAs/SGAs) in stabilized patients with schizophrenia. Additional studies were identified through searches of reference lists of other identified systematic reviews and Cochrane reports. Two meta-analyses (placebo versus continuous and intermittent versus continuous treatment) were performed to obtain an optimal estimation of the relapse/hospitalization risks of stabilized patients with schizophrenia under these treatment conditions and to assess the role of study characteristics. For time-to-relapse data, a descriptive analysis was performed.

RESULTS

Forty-eight reports were selected as potentially eligible for our meta-analysis. Of these, 21 met the inclusion criteria. Twenty-five records, identified through Cochrane and other systematic reviews and fulfilling the inclusion criteria, were added, resulting in a total of 46 records. Stabilized patients with schizophrenia who have been exposed for at least 6 months to intermittent or placebo strategies, respectively, have a 3 (odds ratio [OR] 3.36; 95% CI 2.36-5.45; p < 0.0001) to 6 (OR 5.64; 95% CI 4.47-7.11; p < 0.0001) times increased risk of relapse, compared with patients on continuous treatment. The availability of rescue medication (p = 0.0102) was the only study characteristic explaining systematic differences in the OR for relapse between placebo versus continuous treatment across studies. Studies reporting time-to-relapse data show that the time to (impending) relapse is always significantly delayed with continuous treatment, compared with placebo or intermittent treatment strategies. Although the interval between treatment discontinuation and symptom recurrence can be highly variable, mean time-to-relapse data seem to indicate a failure of clinical stability before 7-14 months with intermittent and before 5 months with placebo treatment strategies. For all reports included in this systematic review, median time-to-relapse rates in the continuous treatment group were not estimable as <50% of the patients in this treatment condition relapsed before the end of the study.

CONCLUSIONS

With continuous treatment, patients have a lower risk of relapse and remain relapse free for a longer period of time compared with placebo and intermittent treatment strategies. Moreover, 'success rates' in the intermittent treatment conditions are expected to be an overestimate of actual outcome rates. Therefore, continuous treatment remains the 'gold standard' for good clinical practice, particularly as, until now, only a few and rather general valid predictors for relapse in schizophrenia are known and subsequent relapses may contribute to functional deterioration as well as treatment resistance in patients with schizophrenia.

Risperidone long-acting injection and 1-year rehospitalization rate of schizophrenia patients: A retrospective cohort study

AIMS

We wanted to present a picture of patients with schizophrenia receiving risperidone long-acting injection (RLAI) treatment in a real-world setting.

METHODS

This was a retrospective cohort study; 379 patients with schizophrenia were enrolled and treated with different kinds of antipsychotic agents at E-Da Hospital, and received a 12-month follow up. The patients were distributed into three groups: the all-oral antipsychotic, oral risperidone and RLAI groups. The antipsychotic agents and dosages they used were recorded. The rate of rehospitalization, length of hospital stay, emergency room visits and medical expenditures were assessed.

RESULTS

The RLAI group had a significantly higher rate of hospitalization before enrolment (the all-oral antipsychotic group was 32.1%, the oral risperidone group, 35.9%, and the RLAI group, 88.4%, P < 0.0001). After a 1-year follow up, all three groups were similar in rehospitalization rates (the all-oral antipsychotic group was 28.9%, the oral risperidone group, 30.1%, and the RLAI group, 30.2%, P > 0.999), length of hospital stay and number of emergency room visits during follow up. The most commonly used oral antipsychotics were risperidone (0.5-7 mg/day), quetiapine (65-1200 mg/day), and olanzapine (2-25 mg/day).

CONCLUSIONS

Using RLAI reduces the severity of disease in more difficult patients.

Development of a novel 3-month drug releasing risperidone microspheres

Objective:

The purpose of this study was to develop an ideal microsphere formulation of risperidone that would prolong the drug release for 3 months in vivo and avoid the need for co-administration of oral tablets.

Materials and Methods:

Polycaprolactones (PCL) were used as polymers to prepare microspheres. The research included screening and optimizing of suitable commercial polymers of variable molecular weights: PCL-14000, PCL-45000, PCL-80000 or the blends of these polymers to prepare microspheres with zero-order drug-releasing properties without the lag phase. In the present study, the sustained release risperidone microspheres were prepared by o/w emulsion solvent evaporation technique and the yield was determined. Microspheres were evaluated for their drug content and in vitro drug release. Microspheres prepared using a blend of PCL-45000 and PCL-80000 at a ratio of 1:1 resulted in the release of the drug in a time frame of 90 days, demonstrated zero-order drug release without lag time and burst release. This formulation was considered optimized formulation. Optimized formulation was characterized for solid state of the drug using differential scanning calorimetry, surface morphology using scanning electron microscopy and in vivo drug release in rats.

Results:

The surface of the optimized formulation was smooth, and the drug changed its physical form in the presence of blends of polymers and upon fabrication of microspheres. The optimized formulation also released the drug in vivo for a period of 90 days.

Conclusions:

From our study, it was concluded that these optimized microspheres showed great potential for a better depot preparation than the marketed Risperdal Consta™ and, therefore, could further improve patient compliance.

Profile of paliperidone palmitate once-monthly long-acting injectable in the management of schizophrenia: long-term safety, efficacy, and patient acceptability - a review

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Short-term studies focused on once-monthly paliperidone palmitate (PP) at doses of 25 mg eq, 50 mg eq, 75 mg eq, 100 mg eq, or 150 mg eq have shown its efficacy and tolerability in the treatment of schizophrenia patients. However, few open-label and long-term studies are available regarding this new pharmacological formulation. Thus, our main aim was to review the scientific evidence on efficacy, safety, tolerability, and preference of PP in these populations.

METHOD

Electronic searches were conducted by using PubMed and ISI Web of Knowledge databases. All relevant studies published from 2009 until January 2015 were included without any language restriction if patients met diagnostic criteria for schizophrenia, and adequate information on efficacy, safety, and tolerability of once-monthly PP was available.

RESULTS

Nineteen studies were identified irrespective of the study design and duration of the follow-up period. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials found that schizophrenia patients receiving PP showed a significant improvement in psychotic symptoms and similar adverse events compared to placebo and suggested that all doses of PP were efficacious and well tolerated. Other studies demonstrated noninferiority of PP compared to risperidone long-acting injectable in recently diagnosed schizophrenia patients, chronically ill patients, as well as in acute and nonacute symptomatic schizophrenia patients, and a similar proportion of treatment-emergent adverse events between both groups were also noted.

CONCLUSION

Several studies have demonstrated that schizophrenia patients treated with PP show higher rates of improvement of psychotic symptoms compared to placebo, and similar efficacy and tolerability outcomes were noted when comparing PP to risperidone long-acting injectable or oral, paliperidone extended release.

Treatment of early episode in patients with schizophrenia: the role of long acting antipsychotics

The use of long-acting injectable antipsychotics (LAIs) in schizophrenia is usually restricted to patients in long-term treatment, who prefer them to oral antipsychotics, and to patients with multiple relapses who have a history of non-adherence. However, preliminary evidence from patients in the early phases of the disease suggest that second generation LAIs may be superior to second generation oral medications with regard to the control of negative symptoms and psychosocial functioning. Moreover, several studies have found that psychiatrists are generally reluctant to prescribe LAI antipsychotics and under-estimate their acceptability by patients. Key elements to take into account when offering a LAI in the early course of schizophrenia should include their potential superiority in allowing early detection of non-adherence and in reducing the number of rehospitalisations and relapses.

A qualitative study of experiences with and perceptions regarding long-acting injectable antipsychotics: Part I-patient perspectives

OBJECTIVE

Despite the well-acknowledged problem of poor adherence to antipsychotic (AP) medication, long-acting injectables (LAIs) that could improve adherence are underused in Canada. Attitudes concerning LAIs among patients and psychiatrists may contribute to this underuse. Our objective was to investigate perceptions of and attitudes toward LAIs among patients in Canada.

METHOD

Focus groups were conducted with 34 patients with a diagnosis of schizophrenia spectrum psychoses in 4 Canadian provinces. The focus groups inquired about experiences with and attitudes toward LAI APs. The sessions were audiotaped and transcribed verbatim, and transcripts were coded using a combination of deductive and inductive methods.

RESULTS

Four themes emerged: awareness of and knowledge about LAIs; perceptions about LAIs; cost and convenience considerations; and issues arising from the coercive context under which LAIs were often prescribed. Nine patients had never heard about LAIs, and some others reported not having understood what was discussed with them regarding LAIs. Patients had typically heard about LAIs in either a context of coercion or of medication nonadherence. Patients had positive and negative perceptions concerning LAIs. The positive perceptions centred on relapse prevention and reduced effort in ensuring adherence, and the negative perceptions centred on financial costs and the inconvenience of appointments to receive injections.

CONCLUSION

To enhance LAI usage, some of the issues that need to be addressed are the inadequacy of information given to patients, the element of coercion involved in LAI introduction, the pragmatic barriers to LAI uptake by patients, and negative subjective perceptions about LAIs.

Long-acting injectable antipsychotics: recommendations for clinicians

A major source of limitation to the real effectiveness of antipsychotics is the high rate of patient nonadherence or, more frequently, partial adherence. Using long-acting injectable (LAI) formulations is likely to reduce the impact of such adherence problems. Conversely, the use of LAIs in Canada remains low relative to many other jurisdictions. Based on effectiveness data from randomized control trials and other, less rigorous, studies, as well as our 2 qualitative studies exploring numerous issues around the use of LAIs, including their low use, we put forward 10 different recommendations for consideration by clinicians. These are also based on the experience of many clinicians and clinician scientists. These recommendations address mostly clinical challenges associated with the use of LAIs. Their application in clinical settings is illustrated in our report through several case examples highlighting the large variation across patients and different phases of illness. It is recommended that LAIs should be considered as a treatment option for psychotic disorders across all phases, including the first 2 to 5 critical years.