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Fišerová A, Pátková Ž, Schwambergová D, Jelínková L, Havlíček J. The Context Matters: Women's Experiences of Their Partner's Odor in Intimate and Sexual Encounters. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2024; 53:2853-2862. [PMID: 39141160 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-024-02925-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2023] [Revised: 04/03/2024] [Accepted: 06/03/2024] [Indexed: 08/15/2024]
Abstract
Research shows that male body odor plays an important role in women's mate choice and that olfactory abilities are associated with women's sexual functioning. What remains unclear is what types of partner's odor actually shape women's experience during intimate activities. This study therefore explored women's experience associated with the partner's various odors and investigated how they affect women's intimate and sexual encounters. We performed semi-structured individual interviews with 20 single women and 20 women in a long-term relationship. Thematic analysis revealed four key natural odor types of the partner: body odor, sweat, genital odor, and semen odor. Further, we have identified three main types of fragrance odor (cologne, shower gel, and laundry agents) and investigated their perception in both intimate (hugging, kissing, cuddling, lying side by side) and sexual (intercourse, oral sex, ejaculation) contexts. Both partner's natural odor and fragrance affected women's emotional state (ranging from pleasant to unpleasant) and behavioral response (ranging from approach to avoidance of partner). Women's odor perception was frequently context-dependent, so that even mostly negatively perceived odors (e.g., semen, genital odor) were often accepted as part of sexual encounter. Finally, women's perception was negatively modified by partner's specific sweat (after workday, workout, or when the partner is ill) during intimate encounters. Our results highlight the complexity and interindividual variability of partner's odor perception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Fišerová
- Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 7, Prague, 128 00, Czech Republic.
| | - Žaneta Pátková
- Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 7, Prague, 128 00, Czech Republic
| | - Dagmar Schwambergová
- Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 7, Prague, 128 00, Czech Republic
| | - Lucie Jelínková
- Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 7, Prague, 128 00, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Havlíček
- Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 7, Prague, 128 00, Czech Republic
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2
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Hu L, Chen X, Li S, Lei X, Yang Y, Wei J. Attachment and sleep quality in adults: A multilevel meta-analysis of actor and partner effect. Sleep Med 2024; 118:43-58. [PMID: 38608415 DOI: 10.1016/j.sleep.2024.03.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2023] [Revised: 02/14/2024] [Accepted: 03/23/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024]
Abstract
Within the context of sleep, attachment is hypothesized to play a central role in regulating bedtime affect and arousal. While previous studies have suggested a link between attachment and sleep quality, a meta-analysis specifically examining this association in adults has been lacking. To address this gap, we conducted a series of multilevel meta-analyses of 28 studies on this topic. Our results indicated a correlation between attachment anxiety and an individual's own sleep quality (r = -0.16, p < 0.001), as well as their partner's sleep quality (r = -0.10, p < 0.05). There was also a negative correlation between attachment avoidance and an individual's sleep quality (r = -0.15, p < 0.001) as well as their partner's sleep quality (r = -0.16, p < 0.01). Additionally, the relationships were moderated by several variables, including age, sleep measurement, and gender. Further analysis indicated that attachment anxiety was associated with poorer subjective sleep quality (PSQI) (r = -0.23, p < 0.001), longer sleep latency (r = -0.10, p < 0.05), increased wakefulness after sleep onset (r = -0.09, p < 0.05), and greater daytime sleepiness (r = -0.20, p < 0.01). Attachment avoidance was associated with poorer self-reported sleep quality (PSQI) (r = -0.16, p < 0.001), longer time to fall asleep (r = -0.15, p < 0.05), and increased daytime sleepiness (r = -0.15, p < 0.05). In summary, the findings of the current study supported the association between attachment insecurity and poorer sleep quality in both individuals and their partners. These findings hold important implications for future interventions aimed at improving sleep quality by addressing attachment-related concerns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang Hu
- Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Tiansheng Road, Beibei, Chongqing, China
| | - Xu Chen
- Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Tiansheng Road, Beibei, Chongqing, China.
| | - Song Li
- Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Tiansheng Road, Beibei, Chongqing, China
| | - Xu Lei
- Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Tiansheng Road, Beibei, Chongqing, China
| | - Yan Yang
- Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Tiansheng Road, Beibei, Chongqing, China
| | - Jiahao Wei
- Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications, China
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3
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Murray SL, Pascuzzi GS. Pursuing Safety in Social Connection: A Flexibly Fluid Perspective on Risk Regulation in Relationships. Annu Rev Psychol 2024; 75:379-404. [PMID: 37585668 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-psych-011123-024815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/18/2023]
Abstract
People are fundamentally motivated to be included in social connections that feel safe, connections where they are consistently cared for and protected, not hurt or exploited. Romantic relationships have long played a crucial role in satisfying this fundamental need. This article reconceptualizes the risk-regulation model to argue that people draw on experiences from inside and outside their romantic relationships to satisfy their fundamental need to feel safe depending on others. We first review the direct relational cues (i.e., a partner's affectionate touch, responsive versus unresponsive behavior, and relative power) and indirect cues (i.e., bodily sensations, collective value in the eyes of others, and living conditions) that signal the current safety of social connection and motivate people to connect to others or protect themselves against them. We then review how people's chronic capacity to trust in others controls their sensitivity and reactivity to the safety cues. The article concludes with future research directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra L Murray
- Department of Psychology, The State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, USA; ,
| | - Gabriela S Pascuzzi
- Department of Psychology, The State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, USA; ,
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4
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Cecchetto C, Leleu A, Calce RP, Arnhardt S, Parma V, de Groot JHB, Freiherr J, Gentili C, Zou L, Thunell E, Fischmeister FPS, Rekow D, Dal Bò E. Consistent social odor representation across 7 languages: the Social Odor Scale translation and validation. Chem Senses 2024; 49:bjae035. [PMID: 39311704 DOI: 10.1093/chemse/bjae035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/12/2024] Open
Abstract
The Social Odor Scale (SOS) is a 12-item questionnaire initially developed and validated in Italian and German to investigate self-reported awareness of social odors, which are odors emanating from the human body that convey diverse information and evoke various emotional responses. The scale includes a total score and 3 subscales representing social odors in the respective categories: romantic partner, familiar, and strangers. Here, we aimed to (i) replicate the validation of the Italian and German versions of the SOS, (ii) translate and validate the SOS into multiple additional languages (French, English, Dutch, Swedish, Chinese), and (iii) explore whether the factor structure of each translated version aligns with the original versions. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) supported the scale's structure, yielding a good fit across all languages. Notable differences in SOS mean scores were observed among the different languages: Swedish participants exhibited lower social odor awareness compared to the other groups, whereas Chinese participants reported higher social odor awareness compared to Dutch and Swedish participants. Furthermore, SOS scores correlated with respondents' geographical location, with higher (i.e. northern) latitudes linked to lower social odor awareness. These results corroborate the SOS as a valid and reliable instrument, especially for the SOS total score and the Familiar and Partner factors, emphasizing the influence of individual and geographic factors on social odor awareness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cinzia Cecchetto
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Arnaud Leleu
- Development of Olfactory Communication and Cognition Lab, Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, Université de Bourgogne, CNRS, INRAe, Institut Agro, Dijon, France
| | - Roberta P Calce
- Institute of Research in Psychology (IPSY) and Institute of Neuroscience (IoNS), Université Catholique de Louvain, 1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Sally Arnhardt
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Schwabachanlage 6, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Valentina Parma
- Monell Chemical Senses Center, 3500 Market Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, United States
| | - Jasper H B de Groot
- Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Jessica Freiherr
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Schwabachanlage 6, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
- Sensory Analytics and Technologies, Fraunhofer Institute for Process Engineering and Packaging IVV, Giggenhauser Strasse 35, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Claudio Gentili
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Laiquan Zou
- Chemical Senses and Mental Health Lab, Department of Psychology, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Evelina Thunell
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Nobels väg 9, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Florian Ph S Fischmeister
- Developmental and Interventional Neuroimaging Lab, Department of Biomedical Imaging and Image-guided Therapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Diane Rekow
- Development of Olfactory Communication and Cognition Lab, Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, Université de Bourgogne, CNRS, INRAe, Institut Agro, Dijon, France
- Biological Psychology and Neuropsychology, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Elisa Dal Bò
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
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D'Aniello B, Pinelli C, Scandurra A, Di Lucrezia A, Aria M, Semin GR. When are puppies receptive to emotion-induced human chemosignals? The cases of fear and happiness. Anim Cogn 2023:10.1007/s10071-023-01771-4. [PMID: 37010698 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-023-01771-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2022] [Revised: 03/25/2023] [Accepted: 03/28/2023] [Indexed: 04/04/2023]
Abstract
We report an observational, double-blind, experimental study that examines the effects of human emotional odors on puppies between 3 and 6 months and adult dogs (one year and upwards). Both groups were exposed to control, human fear, and happiness odors in a between subjects' design. The duration of all behaviors directed to the apparatus, the door, the owner, a stranger, and stress behaviors was recorded. A discriminant analysis showed that the fear odor activates consistent behavior patterns for both puppies and adult dogs. However, no behavioral differences between the control and happiness odor conditions were found in the case of puppies. In contrast, adult dogs reveal distinctive patterns for all three odor conditions. We argue that responses to human fear chemosignals systematically influence the behaviors displayed by puppies and adult dogs, which could be genetically prefigured. In contrast, the effects of happiness odors constitute cues that require learning during early socialization processes, which yield consistent patterns only in adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Biagio D'Aniello
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cinthia, 80126, Naples, Italy
| | - Claudia Pinelli
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences & Technologies, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", 81100, Caserta, Italy
| | - Anna Scandurra
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cinthia, 80126, Naples, Italy
| | - Alfredo Di Lucrezia
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cinthia, 80126, Naples, Italy
| | - Massimo Aria
- Department of Economics and Statistics, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cinthia, 80126, Naples, Italy
| | - Gün R Semin
- William James Center for Research, ISPA-Instituto Universitario, 1149-041, Lisbon, Portugal.
- Faculty of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands.
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Gaeta G, Wilson DA. Reciprocal relationships between sleep and smell. Front Neural Circuits 2022; 16:1076354. [PMID: 36619661 PMCID: PMC9813672 DOI: 10.3389/fncir.2022.1076354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2022] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite major anatomical differences with other mammalian sensory systems, olfaction shares with those systems a modulation by sleep/wake states. Sleep modulates odor sensitivity and serves as an important regulator of both perceptual and associative odor memory. In addition, however, olfaction also has an important modulatory impact on sleep. Odors can affect the latency to sleep onset, as well as the quality and duration of sleep. Olfactory modulation of sleep may be mediated by direct synaptic interaction between the olfactory system and sleep control nuclei, and/or indirectly through odor modulation of arousal and respiration. This reciprocal interaction between sleep and olfaction presents novel opportunities for sleep related modulation of memory and perception, as well as development of non-pharmacological olfactory treatments of simple sleep disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuliano Gaeta
- Givaudan UK Limited, Health and Well-Being Centre of Excellence, Ashford, United Kingdom,Giuliano Gaeta,
| | - Donald A. Wilson
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, NY, United States,Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, NYU School of Medicine, New York University, New York, NY, United States,*Correspondence: Donald A. Wilson,
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7
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Sabiniewicz A, Zimmermann P, Ozturk GA, Warr J, Hummel T. Effects of odors on sleep quality in 139 healthy participants. Sci Rep 2022; 12:17165. [PMID: 36229501 PMCID: PMC9562345 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-21371-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2022] [Accepted: 09/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The present study aimed to systematically examine whether laurinal, orange odor, and a specifically designed "perfume" influence sleep quality. During sleep, healthy participants (n = 139) were presented with odor or no odor through nose clips for fourteen consecutive nights (phase one). We collected physiological parameters together with subjective reports. Later on, longer lasting effects of this manipulation were examined for the following fourteen nights (phase two) without exposition to odors. Additionally, olfactory, cognitive and non-cognitive measures were conducted before phase one, between both phases and after phase two. One-way analyses of variance for repeated measures with nights and condition (1 vs 2) as the within-subject factor and odor condition (0, 1, 2 or 3) together with odor pleasantness rating as between-subject factor, was employed to analyse data. Overall, the present results demonstrated that the odor condition in comparison to control had no consistent effect on sleep in healthy participants which can be possibly explained by exposure to odors via nose clips. However, the analyses indicated that the individual pleasantness of odors enhanced the positive assessment of sleep quality. Altogether, the present results indicate that the subjective perception of an odor's hedonic value appears to be crucial for sleep quality, not the odors themselves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Sabiniewicz
- Interdisciplinary Center "Smell & Taste", Department of Otorhinolaryngology, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany.
| | - Pia Zimmermann
- Interdisciplinary Center "Smell & Taste", Department of Otorhinolaryngology, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Guliz Akin Ozturk
- Interdisciplinary Center "Smell & Taste", Department of Otorhinolaryngology, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany
- Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey
| | | | - Thomas Hummel
- Interdisciplinary Center "Smell & Taste", Department of Otorhinolaryngology, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany
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Does the smell of alcohol make it harder to resist? The impact of olfactory cues on inhibitory control and attentional bias. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2022; 239:2109-2118. [PMID: 35618859 PMCID: PMC9205803 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-022-06073-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND It is well known that, owing to associative processing, olfactory cues can impact memory, emotion and behaviour. Research also points to a link between the smells of particular substances and craving. Yet, to date, little research has investigated how smell may impact other cognitive processes that are known to drive alcohol consumption. AIM To assess how exposure to alcohol-related (vodka) relative to neutral (citrus) olfactory cues impacts inhibitory control and attentional bias. METHOD Participants took part in a go/no-go (Study 1) and Stroop task (Study 2) while wearing masks that were pre-treated with vodka or citrus oil of equivalent intensity. STUDY 1 RESULTS: Response error rates were higher in participants in the alcohol-related (versus neutral) olfactory condition, with no interaction between olfactory and visual cue. STUDY 2 RESULTS: Responses to alcohol-related versus neutral words were similar, while performance appeared significantly impaired among participants wearing alcohol (relative to citrus) infused masks. Conclusion The smell of alcohol may impair signal detection performance on the go/no-go and Stroop task. As inhibitory control and attentional processes are known to be associated with decisions to drink or exercise restraint, these results may have implications for our understanding of alcohol consumption and for tailoring interventions.
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9
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The social odor scale: Development and initial validation of a new scale for the assessment of social odor awareness. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0260587. [PMID: 34905551 PMCID: PMC8670672 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0260587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The degree of attention individuals pay to olfactory cues (called odor awareness) influences the role of odors in everyday life. Particularly, odors produced by the human body (i.e., social odors) are able to carry a wide variety of information and to elicit a broad spectrum of emotional reactions, making them essential in interpersonal relationships. Hence, despite the assessment of awareness toward social odors is crucial, a proper tool is still lacking. Here, we designed and initially validated the Social Odor Scale (SOS), a 12-item scale designed to measure the individual differences in awareness towards different social odors. In Study 1, an exploratory factor analysis (EFA; KMO test: MSA = 0.78; Bartlett's test: χ2(78) = 631.34, p < 0.001; Chi-squared test: χ2(42) = 71.84, p = 0.003) suggests that the three factors structure was the model that best fit with the Italian version of the scale. The confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) supports a second-order model with one higher-order factor representing social odor awareness in general and three lower-order factors representing familiar, romantic partner, and stranger social odors. The final version of the scale presented a good fit (RMSEA = 0.012, SRMR = 0.069, CFI = 0.998, TLI = 0.997). In Study 2, CFA was performed in the German version of the scale confirming the validity of scale structure. Study 3 and 4 revealed that SOS total score and its subscales were positively correlated with other validated olfactory scales, but not with olfactory abilities. Moreover, SOS was found to be related to the gender of the participants: women reported to be more aware to social odors and, specifically, to familiar social odors than men. Overall, the results indicated that SOS is a valid and reliable instrument to assess awareness toward social odors in everyday life.
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Bode A, Kuula L. Romantic Love and Sleep Variations: Potential Proximate Mechanisms and Evolutionary Functions. BIOLOGY 2021; 10:923. [PMID: 34571801 PMCID: PMC8468029 DOI: 10.3390/biology10090923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Revised: 09/07/2021] [Accepted: 09/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This article provides a narrative review of what is known about romantic love and sleep variations and provides possible explanations for the association. Romantic love and sleep are described using a comprehensive, unifying framework advocated by Tinbergen. We summarise the findings of studies investigating the relationship between romantic love and sleep. Sleep variations are associated with romantic love in adolescents and young adults. We then detail some proximate mechanisms that may contribute to sleep variations in people experiencing romantic love before considering potential evolutionary functions of sleep variations in people experiencing romantic love. The relationship between symptoms of psychopathology and sleep variations in people experiencing romantic love is described. With the current state of knowledge, it is not possible to determine whether sleep variations associated with romantic love are adaptations or by-products of romantic love. We conclude by proposing areas for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Bode
- School of Archaeology and Anthropology, ANU College of Arts and Social Sciences, The Australian National University, Canberra ACT 0200, Australia
| | - Liisa Kuula
- SleepWell Research Program, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, 00100 Helsinki, Finland
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11
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Blomkvist A, Hofer M. Olfactory impairment and close social relationships. A narrative review. Chem Senses 2021; 46:6342176. [PMID: 34351415 PMCID: PMC8385889 DOI: 10.1093/chemse/bjab037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Olfactory impairment is one of the more unique symptoms of COVID-19 infection and has therefore enjoyed increased public attention in recent months. Olfactory impairment has various implications and consequences ranging from difficulty detecting dangerous pathogens to hindering social functioning and social behaviors. We provide an overview of how olfactory impairment can impact 3 types of close social relationships: family relationships, friendships, and romantic relationships. Evidence is divided into several categories representing potential mechanisms by which olfactory impairment can impact close social relationships: bonding disruptions, decreased social support, missed group-eating experiences, hygiene concerns, and altered sexual behaviors. We conclude with a discussion of emerging future research questions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marlise Hofer
- University of Victoria, Department of Psychology.,University of British Columbia, Department of Psychology
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12
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Barry ES. Sleep Consolidation, Sleep Problems, and Co-Sleeping: Rethinking Normal Infant Sleep as Species-Typical. The Journal of Genetic Psychology 2021; 182:183-204. [PMID: 33783334 DOI: 10.1080/00221325.2021.1905599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Infants evolved in the context of close contact (including co-sleeping). Evolutionary context is rarely considered in psychological infant sleep research, and Western sleep researchers make assumptions about what optimal "normal" infant sleep is and how to achieve early, deep, infant sleep consolidation and avoid infant sleep problems. However, an evolutionary and anthropological view of infant sleep as species-typical recognizes that human evolution likely prepared the infant brain for optimal development within its evolutionary context - co-sleeping. Thus, "normal" infant sleep, sleep consolidation, and sleep problems should all be understood within the framework of co-sleeping infants, not the historically new-phenomenon of solitary-sleeping infants. Much work needs to be done in order to understand "normal" infant sleep as species-typical and how adaptive infants are to environments that stray from their evolutionary norm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elaine S Barry
- Human Development & Family Studies, Penn State Fayette, The Eberly Campus, Lemont Furnace, PA, USA
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Hofer MK, Chen FS, Schaller M. What Your Nose Knows: Affective, Cognitive, and Behavioral Responses to the Scent of Another Person. CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2020. [DOI: 10.1177/0963721420964175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
People readily perceive and react to the body odors of other people, which creates a wide range of implications for affective, cognitive, and behavioral responses. In this article, we provide an overview of recent research in this area. We summarize the process by which people associate body odors with different kinds of interpersonally relevant information, briefly review two lines of research on responses to strangers’ body odors (research on olfactory cues and emotions, research on olfactory cues and impression formation), and review new research on the psychological consequences of smelling loved ones’ odors—including consequences for stress reduction and sleep enhancement. We conclude with a discussion of emerging research questions and methodological considerations that may help guide future inquiry into the various ways that the odors of other people influence one’s emotions, cognitions, relationships, and health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlise K. Hofer
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia
- Department of Psychology, University of Victoria
| | | | - Mark Schaller
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia
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