Ambivalent Sexism and Tolerance of Violence Against Women in India

We examined associations between sexist beliefs and tolerance of violence against women in India using a nationally representative probability sample of adults (n = 133,398). Research consistently indicates that hostile sexism fosters tolerance of violence against women. However, benevolent sexism is sometimes associated with higher tolerance and sometimes with lower tolerance of violence. We proposed that this inconsistency could be resolved by considering the source of violence: Is violence perpetrated by outsiders or intimate partners? Results of a multigroup structural equation model showed that endorsement of hostile sexism was related to greater tolerance of violence regardless of the source. In contrast, endorsement of benevolent sexism was associated with lower tolerance of violence from outsiders but was simultaneously associated with higher tolerance of spousal violence. These opposing processes indicate that although benevolent sexism promises women protection from violence, the very same ideology legitimizes spousal violence, thereby reinforcing men's power within intimate relationships.

Both Hostile and Benevolent Sexism Predict Men's Infidelity

Infidelity has destructive effects on romantic relationships. Several idiographic characteristics or experiences in an intimate relationship have been linked to unfaithfulness. Yet, relatively little research has been paid to investigate how sexist beliefs might sabotage relationships by incurring infidelity. The present research examined the association between men's ambivalent sexism - hostile sexism and benevolent sexism - and men's infidelity as well as women's perception of the likelihood of men's infidelity. The results showed that men's hostile sexism and benevolent sexism predicted their increased infidelity (Studies 1 and 2). In addition, the indirect association between ambivalent sexism (both hostile sexism and benevolent sexism) and infidelity was through the importance placed on power in one's intimate relationship in general (Study 2). Importantly, women were unaware of benevolently sexist men's increased infidelity, such that women rated benevolently sexist men as having a lower likelihood of engaging in infidelity than hostilely sexist men and believed benevolently sexist men's infidelity level was similar to nonsexist men (Study 3). Therefore, these findings contribute to the psychology of infidelity by revealing that ambivalent sexism, both hostile sexism and benevolent sexism, are significant predictors. Implications of the findings are discussed.

Benevolent and hostile sexism in a shifting global context

The theory of and research on ambivalent sexism - which encompasses both attitudes that are overtly negative (hostile sexism) and those that seem subjectively positive but are actually harmful (benevolent sexism) - have made substantial contributions to understanding how sexism operates and the consequences it has for women. It is now clear that sexism takes different forms, some of which can be disguised as protection and flattery. However, all forms of sexism have negative effects on how women are perceived and treated by others as well as on women themselves. Some of these findings have implications for understanding other social inequalities, such as ableism, ageism, racism and classism. In this Review, we summarize what is known about the predictors of ambivalent sexism and its effects. Although we focus on women, we also consider some effects on men, in particular those that indirectly influence women. Throughout the Review we point to societal shifts that are likely to influence how sexism is manifested, experienced and understood. We conclude by discussing the broader implications of these changes and specifying areas of enquiry that need to be addressed to continue making progress in understanding the mechanisms that underlie social inequalities.

Personal Relative Deprivation Increases Men's (but Not Women's) Hostile Sexism: The Mediating Role of Sense of Control

Hostile sexism is a blatant and explicit form of sexism consisting of antagonistic attitudes toward women. We hypothesized that men's personal relative deprivation, a subjectively perceived disadvantage, would predict their hostile sexism toward women. In addition, we expected that, if this effect occurs, a sense of control would act as a mediator. Five studies ( N = 1352) confirmed these hypotheses. Study 1 showed that personal relative deprivation predicted hostile sexism only for men, but not for women among Chinese college students. In addition, we observed the effect of personal relative deprivation only on hostile sexism, but not on benevolent sexism. Study 2, which employed participants from the United States, directly replicated the findings of Study 1. Studies 3 and 4 further showed that a sense of control acted as a mediator in this process. As such, increased hostile sexism attitude (Study 3) and hostile sexism behavior (Study 4) predicted by personal relative deprivation could result from a reduced sense of control. Study 5 further provided causal evidence that a temporarily induced state of personal relative deprivation resulted in a higher level of hostile sexism via a reduced sense of control. We discuss theoretical and practical implications for relative deprivation, gender inequality, and interventions.

Attachment security schemas to attenuate the appeal of benevolent sexism: The effect of the need to belong and relationship security

Previous research has repeatedly shown a positive association between the need for relationship security and the appeal of benevolent sexism. Possibly, no studies to date had investigated the role of the need to belong with respect to a preference for the ideal partner to endorse benevolently sexist attitudes. Attachment security is considered to attenuate the need for relationship security and to divert the focus from the need to belong. Study 1 therefore investigated potential associations among attachment anxiety, the need to belong, and the appeal of benevolent sexism. It also examined whether the association between the need to belong and a preference for the ideal partner to hold benevolently sexist attitudes is moderated by attachment anxiety. In Study 2, we used a causal design to confirm the findings from Study 1 through the activation of attachment security schema. A moderated regression analysis showed significant interactive effects between the need to belong and attachment anxiety-that is, a positive association between the need to belong and the appeal of benevolent sexism was found only among people high in attachment anxiety. Secure-base scripts attenuated the need to belong as well as the appeal of benevolent sexism. The present findings suggest the importance of attachment schemas in influencing preference for specific partner attitudes through the need to belong and relationship security.

Counting on you: benevolent sexism increases women's financial risk-taking

The present research examined whether and how benevolent sexism, a subjectively positive but sexist ideology, would influence women's financial risk-taking and we proposed that benevolent sexism would increase women's financial risk-taking through economic dependency. Three studies converged to support our proposition. Specifically, Studies 1 and 2 (n = 387) showed that benevolent sexism was positively associated with women's financial risk-taking; such that the more benevolent sexism women endorsed, the more financial risks they tended to take. Using an experimental design, Study 3 (n = 126) established the causal link between benevolent sexism and financial risk-taking for women, and also demonstrated the mediating effect of economic dependency. These findings highlight the role of social ideology in influencing women's financial risk-taking. Implications were discussed.

Individuals' number of children is associated with benevolent sexism

Is having children related to benevolent sexism? Two theoretical accounts-benevolent sexism as role justification and benevolent sexism as a mating strategy-suggest the possibility of a positive and bidirectional association. Gender disparities in childrearing could prompt inequality-justifying endorsement of benevolent sexism and/or endorsing benevolent sexism could promote traditional gender roles that facilitate having more children. We assessed the bidirectional associations between individuals' number of children and their endorsement of benevolent sexism over a two-year period in a large national panel sample of New Zealanders (N = 6,017). Zero-inflated structural equation modeling indicated that having a greater number of children was associated with stronger endorsement of benevolent sexism two years later, but no evidence emerged for the reverse direction. This study illustrated ways to tentatively test predictions of theoretical accounts on sexism and identified new, though small, evidence for the role justification perspective.

Curvilinear Sexism and Its Links to Men's Perceived Mate Value

We tested the novel hypothesis that men lower in status-linked variables-that is, subjective social status and perceived mate value-are relatively disinclined to offset their high hostile sexism with high benevolent sexism. Findings revealed that mate value, but not social status, moderates the hostile-benevolent sexism link among men: Whereas men high in perceived mate value endorse hostile and benevolent sexism linearly across the attitude range, men low in mate value show curvilinear sexism, characterized by declining benevolence as hostility increases above the midpoint. Study 1 (N = 15,205) establishes the curvilinear sexism effect and shows that it is stronger among men than women. Studies 2 (N = 328) and 3 (N = 471) show that the curve is stronger among men low versus high in perceived mate value, and especially if they lack a serious relationship partner (Study 3). Discussion considers the relevance of these findings for understanding misogyny.