1
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Dillmann J, Evertz J, Krasotkina A, Clerc O, Pascalis O, Schwarzer G. Older infants' social learning behavior under uncertainty is modulated by the interaction of face and speech processing. INFANCY 2024; 29:56-71. [PMID: 37975614 DOI: 10.1111/infa.12566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Revised: 09/29/2023] [Accepted: 10/06/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
The origin of face or language influences infants' perceptual processing and social learning behavior. However, it remains unclear how infants' social learning behavior is affected when both information are provided simultaneously. Hence, the current study investigated whether and how infants' social learning in terms of gaze following is influenced by face race and language origin of an interaction partner in an uncertain situation. Our sample consisted of 91 Caucasian infants from German speaking families. They were divided into 2 age groups: Younger infants were 5- to 8-month-old (n = 46) and the older infants 11- to 20-month-old (n = 45). We used a modified online version of the gaze following paradigm by Xiao and colleagues by varying face race (Caucasian, and Asian faces) and language (German and French) of a female actor. We recorded infants looking behavior via webcam and coded it offline. Our results revealed that older but not younger infants were biased to follow the gaze of own-race adults speaking their native language. Our findings show that older infants are clearly influenced by adults' ethnicity and language in social learning situations of uncertainty.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Dillmann
- Department of Developmental Psychology, Justus-Liebig-University, Giessen, Germany
- Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior (CMBB), Marburg, Germany
| | - Judith Evertz
- Department of Developmental Psychology, Justus-Liebig-University, Giessen, Germany
| | - Anna Krasotkina
- Department of Psychology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Olivier Clerc
- LPNC - Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble, France
| | | | - Gudrun Schwarzer
- Department of Developmental Psychology, Justus-Liebig-University, Giessen, Germany
- Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior (CMBB), Marburg, Germany
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2
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Hwang HG, Filippi CA, Morales S, Fox NA, Woodward A. Children's social wariness toward a different-race stranger relates to individual differences in temperament. Dev Sci 2023; 26:e13390. [PMID: 36960937 PMCID: PMC10518028 DOI: 10.1111/desc.13390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2022] [Revised: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/25/2023]
Abstract
When children first meet a stranger, there is great variation in how much they will approach and engage with the stranger. While individual differences in this type of behavior-called social wariness-are well-documented in temperament research, surprisingly little attention has been paid to the social groups (such as race) of the stranger and how these characteristics might influence children's social wariness. In contrast, research on children's social bias and interracial friendships rarely examines individual differences in temperament and how temperament might influence cross-group interactions. The current study bridges the gap across these different fields of research by examining whether the racial group of an unfamiliar peer or adult moderates the association between temperament and the social wariness that children display. Utilizing a longitudinal dataset that collected multiple measurements of children's temperament and behaviors (including parent-reported shyness and social wariness toward unfamiliar adults and peers) across early childhood, we found that 2- to 7-year-old children with high parent-reported shyness showed greater social wariness toward a different-race stranger compared to a same-race stranger, whereas children with low parent-reported shyness did not. These results point to the importance of considering racial group membership in temperament research and the potential role that temperament might play in children's cross-race interactions. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Previous research on temperament has not considered how the race of strangers could influence children's social wariness. We find evidence that 2- to 7-year-old children with high parent-reported shyness show greater social wariness toward a different-race stranger compared to a same-race stranger. These results point to the importance of considering racial group membership in temperament research. Our findings also suggest temperament may play a role in children's cross-race interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyesung G Hwang
- Department of Psychology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Santa Cruz, California, USA
| | - Courtney A Filippi
- Department of Human Development and Quantitative Methodology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, USA
| | - Santiago Morales
- Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Nathan A Fox
- Department of Human Development and Quantitative Methodology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, USA
| | - Amanda Woodward
- Department of Psychology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
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3
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Fogiel AZ, Hermes J, Rakoczy H, Diesendruck G. Infants' biased individuation of in-group members. Cognition 2023; 239:105561. [PMID: 37454528 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2023.105561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2022] [Revised: 07/03/2023] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
Adults tend to construe members of their group as "unique individuals" more than members of other groups. This study investigated whether infants exhibit this tendency, even in regard to unfamiliar arbitrary groups. Ninety-six White 1-year-olds were assigned to an Ingroup, Outgroup, or No-Group condition, based on whether or not they shared two preferences (food and shirt color) with women appearing on video sequences. In the critical trial, infants saw two women (Ingroup, Outgroup, or No-Group) - one at a time - appearing from behind a curtain. The curtain opened to reveal only one woman. Infants in the Ingroup condition looked longer at this display than infants in the other two conditions. This suggests that infants in the Ingroup condition had a stronger expectation than those in the other two conditions that there would be two women behind the curtain. In other words, infants individuated in-group members more than out-group members.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adi Zehavi Fogiel
- Department of Psychology, Gonda Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan 5290002, Israel
| | - Jonas Hermes
- Department of Developmental Psychology, University of Goettingen, 37073 Goettingen, Germany
| | - Hannes Rakoczy
- Department of Developmental Psychology, University of Goettingen, 37073 Goettingen, Germany
| | - Gil Diesendruck
- Department of Psychology, Gonda Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan 5290002, Israel.
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4
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Bauer T, Hall C, Bursalıoğlu A, Guy MW. Community diversity and the other-race effect in infancy. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1214075. [PMID: 37767215 PMCID: PMC10520555 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1214075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The other-race effect (ORE) is characterized by processing advantages for faces of one's own race over faces of another race and is observed at ~9 months of age. Environmental exposure to other races has an impact on the development of the ORE. In the current study, we examined the effects of community racial diversity on the ORE in 9- to 12-month-olds from across the United States. We hypothesized that community racial diversity would influence the amount of experience that infants have with individuals of other races and be an important factor in predicting the ORE across broad regions of the United States. We predicted that infants from more diverse communities would demonstrate successful processing of own- and other-race faces, while infants from less diverse communities would demonstrate successful processing of own-race but not other-race faces. This would indicate that the ORE is exhibited more strongly in infants from less diverse communities than in infants from more diverse communities. Participants completed familiarization and visual paired comparison (VPC) trials with own- and other-race faces in an online study. Our results showed that although the ORE was present, the effect was driven by community members who were the racial majority. Recognition biases were not observed in community racial or ethnic minority participants, potentially due to increased exposure to racial out-group members, which mitigated the development of the ORE in this subset of participants. This study has far-reaching implications in the study of infant face perception, child development, and social justice, as the ORE develops at a young age, and may lead to a complex pattern of racial biases contributing to systemic barriers in society.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Maggie W. Guy
- Department of Psychology, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
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5
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Farrell J, Conte S, Barry-Anwar R, Scott LS. Face race and sex impact visual fixation strategies for upright and inverted faces in 3- to 6-year-old children. Dev Psychobiol 2023; 65:e22362. [PMID: 36811376 PMCID: PMC10928691 DOI: 10.1002/dev.22362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Revised: 09/23/2022] [Accepted: 11/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Everyday face experience tends to be biased, such that infants and young children interact more often with own-race and female faces leading to differential processing of faces within these groups relative to others. In the present study, visual fixation strategies were recorded using eye tracking to determine the extent to which face race and sex/gender impact a key index of face processing in 3- to 6-year-old children (n = 47). Children viewed male and female upright and inverted White and Asian faces while visual fixations were recorded. Face orientation was found to have robust effects on children's visual fixations, such that children exhibited shorter first fixation and average fixation durations and a greater number of fixations for inverted compared to upright face trials. First fixations to the eye region were also greater for upright compared to inverted faces. Fewer fixations and longer duration fixations were found for trials with male compared to female faces and for upright compared to inverted unfamiliar-race faces, but not familiar-race faces. These findings demonstrate evidence of differential fixation strategies toward different types of faces in 3- to 6-year-old children, illustrating the importance of experience in the development of visual attention to faces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Farrell
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Stefania Conte
- Department of Psychology, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, USA
| | - Ryan Barry-Anwar
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Lisa S. Scott
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
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6
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Oxytocin attenuates racial categorization in 14-month-old infants. Infant Behav Dev 2023; 71:101824. [PMID: 36863244 DOI: 10.1016/j.infbeh.2023.101824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2022] [Revised: 02/11/2023] [Accepted: 02/12/2023] [Indexed: 03/04/2023]
Abstract
Intergroup bias - the preferential attitudes one holds towards one's social group - is a ubiquitous socio-cognitive phenomenon. In fact, studies show that already in the first months of life, infants manifest a preference for members of their own social group. This points to the possibility of inborn mechanisms involved in social group cognition. Here we assess the effect of a biological activation of infants' affiliative motivation on their social categorization capacity. In a first visit to the lab, mothers self-administered either Oxytocin (OT) or placebo (PL) via a nasal spray and then engaged in a face-to-face interaction with their 14-month-old infants, a procedure previously shown to increase OT levels in infants. Infants then performed a racial categorization task presented on an eye-tracker. Mothers and infants returned a week later and repeated the procedure while self-administering the complementary substance (i.e., PL or OT, respectively). In total, 24 infants completed the two visits. We found that whereas infants in the PL condition on the first visit exhibited racial categorization, infants in the OT condition in their first visit did not. Moreover, these patterns remained a week later despite the change in substance. Thus, OT inhibited racial categorization when infants first encountered the to-be-categorized faces. These findings highlight the role of affiliative motivation in social categorization, and suggest that the neurobiology of affiliation may provide insights on mechanisms that may be involved in the downstream prejudicial consequences of intergroup bias.
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7
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Choi Y, Luo Y. Understanding preferences in infancy. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. COGNITIVE SCIENCE 2023:e1643. [PMID: 36658758 DOI: 10.1002/wcs.1643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Revised: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
A preference is defined as a dispositional state that helps explain why a person chooses one option over another. Preference understanding is a significant part of interpreting and predicting others' behavior, which can also help to guide social encounters, for instance, to initiate interactions and even form relationships based on shared preferences. Cognitive developmental research in the past several decades has revealed that infants have relatively sophisticated understandings about others' preferences, as part of investigations into how young children make sense of others' behavior in terms of mental states such as intentions, dispositions including preferences, and epistemic states. In recent years, research on early psychological knowledge expands to including infant understanding of social situations. As such, infants are also found to use their preference understandings in their social life. They treat favorably others who share their own preferences, and they prefer prosocial and similar others (e.g., those who speak their language). In reviewing these results, we point out future directions for research and conclude with further suggestions and recommendations. This article is categorized under: Cognitive Biology > Cognitive Development Psychology > Development and Aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youjung Choi
- School of Psychological and Behavioral Sciences, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois, USA
| | - Yuyan Luo
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri at Columbia, Columbia, Missouri, USA
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8
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Greenberg DM, Warrier V, Abu-Akel A, Allison C, Gajos KZ, Reinecke K, Rentfrow PJ, Radecki MA, Baron-Cohen S. Sex and age differences in "theory of mind" across 57 countries using the English version of the "Reading the Mind in the Eyes" Test. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2022385119. [PMID: 36584298 PMCID: PMC9910622 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2022385119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The "Reading the Mind in the Eyes" Test (Eyes Test) is a widely used assessment of "theory of mind." The NIMH Research Domain Criteria recommends it as one of two tests for "understanding mental states." Previous studies have demonstrated an on-average female advantage on the Eyes Test. However, it is unknown whether this female advantage exists across the lifespan and across a large number of countries. Thus, we tested sex and age differences using the English version of the Eyes Test in adolescents and adults across 57 countries. We also tested for associations with sociodemographic and cognitive/personality factors. We leveraged one discovery dataset (N = 305,726) and three validation datasets (Ns = 642; 5,284; and 1,087). The results show that: i) there is a replicable on-average female advantage in performance on the Eyes Test; ii) performance increases through adolescence and shallowly declines across adulthood; iii) the on-average female advantage is evident across the lifespan; iv) there is a significant on-average female advantage in 36 out of 57 countries; v) there is a significant on-average female advantage on translated (non-English) versions of the Eyes Test in 12 out of 16 countries, as confirmed by a systematic review; vi) D-scores, or empathizing-systemizing, predict Eyes Test performance above and beyond sex differences; and vii) the female advantage is negatively linked to "prosperity" and "autonomy," and positively linked to "collectivism," as confirmed by exploratory country-level analyses. We conclude that the on-average female advantage on the Eyes Test is observed across ages and most countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M. Greenberg
- Interdisciplinary Department of Social Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan5290002, Israel
- Department of Music, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan5290002, Israel
- Autism Research Centre, Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, CambridgeCB2 8AH, United Kingdom
| | - Varun Warrier
- Autism Research Centre, Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, CambridgeCB2 8AH, United Kingdom
| | - Ahmad Abu-Akel
- Institut de Psychologie, Université de Lausanne, LausanneCH-1015, Switzerland
- School of Psychological Sciences, University of Haifa, Haifa3498838, Israel
| | - Carrie Allison
- Autism Research Centre, Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, CambridgeCB2 8AH, United Kingdom
| | - Krzysztof Z. Gajos
- Harvard Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, United States of America
| | - Katharina Reinecke
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-2355, United States of America
| | - P. Jason Rentfrow
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, CambridgeCB2 3EB, United Kingdom
| | - Marcin A. Radecki
- Autism Research Centre, Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, CambridgeCB2 8AH, United Kingdom
- Social and Affective Neuroscience Group, IMT School for Advanced Studies Lucca, Lucca55100, Italy
| | - Simon Baron-Cohen
- Autism Research Centre, Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, CambridgeCB2 8AH, United Kingdom
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9
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Roth KC, Reynolds GD. Neural correlates of subordinate-level categorization of own- and other-race faces in infancy. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2022; 230:103733. [DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2022.103733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Revised: 07/30/2022] [Accepted: 08/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
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10
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Lee J, Penrod SD. Three‐level meta‐analysis of the other‐race bias in facial identification. APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/acp.3997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jungwon Lee
- Department of Psychology Hallym University Chuncheon South Korea
| | - Steven D. Penrod
- Department of Psychology John Jay College of Criminal Justice New York USA
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11
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Visual examination of own- and other-race face identities and implicit racial bias. CURRENT PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s12144-022-03580-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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12
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Damon F, Quinn PC, Méary D, Pascalis O. Asymmetrical responding to male versus female other-race categories in 9- to 12-month-old infants. Br J Psychol 2022; 114 Suppl 1:71-93. [PMID: 35808935 DOI: 10.1111/bjop.12582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Revised: 06/08/2022] [Accepted: 06/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Faces can be categorized along various dimensions including gender or race, an ability developing in infancy. Infant categorization studies have focused on facial attributes in isolation, but the interaction between these attributes remains poorly understood. Experiment 1 examined gender categorization of other-race faces in 9- and 12-month-old White infants. Nine- and 12-month-olds were familiarized with Asian male or female faces, and tested with a novel exemplar from the familiarized category paired with a novel exemplar from a novel category. Both age groups showed novel category preferences for novel Asian female faces after familiarization with Asian male faces, but showed no novel category preference for novel Asian male faces after familiarization with Asian female faces. This categorization asymmetry was not due to a spontaneous preference hindering novel category reaction (Experiment 2), and both age groups displayed difficulty discriminating among male, but not female, other-race faces (Experiment 3). These results indicate that category formation for male other-race faces is mediated by categorical perception. Overall, the findings suggest that even by 12 months of age, infants are not fully able to form gender category representations of other-race faces, responding categorically to male, but not female, other-race faces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabrice Damon
- Center for Taste, Smell & Feeding Behavior, Development of Olfactory Communication & Cognition Laboratory, Université de Bourgogne, CNRS, Inrae, Institut Agro Dijon, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Paul C Quinn
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USA
| | - David Méary
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, LPNC, Grenoble, France.,LPNC, CNRS, Grenoble, France
| | - Olivier Pascalis
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, LPNC, Grenoble, France.,LPNC, CNRS, Grenoble, France
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13
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Zhou X, Mondloch CJ, Chien SHL, Moulson MC. Multi-cultural cities reduce disadvantages in recognizing naturalistic images of other-race faces: evidence from a novel face learning task. Sci Rep 2022; 12:8950. [PMID: 35624118 PMCID: PMC9142532 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-11550-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
People often find it more difficult to recognize other- than own-race faces. This other-race effect is robust across numerous ethnic groups. Yet, it remains unclear how this effect changes in people who live in a multiracial environment, and in immigrants whose lifetime perceptual experience changes over time. In the present study, we developed a novel face recognition test that approximates face recognition in the real world. We tested five groups of White and East Asian adults (n = 120) living in racially homogeneous versus heterogeneous cities and East Asians who immigrated to a multiracial city between infancy and adulthood. Multiracial cities reduce the other-race effect. The magnitude of the other-race effect changes as a function of experience, mirroring the racial diversity in perceivers' living environment. Our study highlights the challenge of forming reliable face representations across naturalistic facial variability and suggests a facilitative role of multiracial environments in eliminating the other-race effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaomei Zhou
- Department of Psychology, Toronto Metropolitan University, 350 Victoria St, Toronto, M5B 2K3, Canada.
| | | | | | - Margaret C Moulson
- Department of Psychology, Toronto Metropolitan University, 350 Victoria St, Toronto, M5B 2K3, Canada
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14
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Human face and gaze perception is highly context specific and involves bottom-up and top-down neural processing. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 132:304-323. [PMID: 34861296 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.11.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Revised: 11/24/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
This review summarizes human perception and processing of face and gaze signals. Face and gaze signals are important means of non-verbal social communication. The review highlights that: (1) some evidence is available suggesting that the perception and processing of facial information starts in the prenatal period; (2) the perception and processing of face identity, expression and gaze direction is highly context specific, the effect of race and culture being a case in point. Culture affects by means of experiential shaping and social categorization the way in which information on face and gaze is collected and perceived; (3) face and gaze processing occurs in the so-called 'social brain'. Accumulating evidence suggests that the processing of facial identity, facial emotional expression and gaze involves two parallel and interacting pathways: a fast and crude subcortical route and a slower cortical pathway. The flow of information is bi-directional and includes bottom-up and top-down processing. The cortical networks particularly include the fusiform gyrus, superior temporal sulcus (STS), intraparietal sulcus, temporoparietal junction and medial prefrontal cortex.
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15
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Bell SB, Farr R, Ofosu E, Hehman E, DeWall CN. Implicit bias predicts less willingness and less frequent adoption of Black children more than explicit bias. The Journal of Social Psychology 2021; 163:554-565. [PMID: 34749593 DOI: 10.1080/00224545.2021.1975619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
In the United States, prospective adoptive parents often express preferences related to race. In two studies, we examined whether implicit racial bias against Black people may contribute to disparities in much less willingness to adopt Black children. The first study (N = 510) assessed individuals' implicit racial bias and their willingness to adopt a Black child. The second study (N = 2,001,652) used U.S. state-level implicit racial bias to predict adoption rates of Black foster children in each U.S. state. Greater implicit racial bias predicted less willingness to adopt Black children and less frequent adoptions of Black foster children. Implicit bias contributed to these disparities above and beyond explicit bias, with implicit bias having a 43% larger effect size than explicit bias on willingness to adopt a Black child. These are the first findings to demonstrate the role implicit bias plays in explaining large disparities between Americans' willingness to adopt Black and White children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Beth Bell
- The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma, USA
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16
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Waxman SR. Racial Awareness and Bias Begin Early: Developmental Entry Points, Challenges, and a Call to Action. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2021; 16:893-902. [PMID: 34498529 DOI: 10.1177/17456916211026968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Overt expressions of racial intolerance have surged precipitously. The dramatic uptick in hate crimes and hate speech is not lost on young children. But how, and how early, do children become aware of racial bias? And when do their own views of themselves and others become infused with racial bias? This article opens with a brief overview of the existing experimental evidence documenting developmental entry points of racial bias in infants and young children and how it unfolds. The article then goes on to identify gaps in the extant research and outlines three steps to narrow them. By bringing together what we know and what remains unknown, the goal is to provide a springboard, motivating a more comprehensive psychological-science framework that illuminates early steps in the acquisition of racial bias. If we are to interrupt race bias at its inception and diminish its effects, then we must build strong cross-disciplinary bridges that span the psychological and related social sciences to shed light on the pressing issues facing our nation's young children and their families.
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17
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Rizzo MT, Green ER, Dunham Y, Bruneau E, Rhodes M. Beliefs about social norms and racial inequalities predict variation in the early development of racial bias. Dev Sci 2021; 25:e13170. [PMID: 34423885 DOI: 10.1111/desc.13170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Revised: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Racism remains a pervasive force around the world with widespread and well documented harmful consequences for members of marginalized racial groups. The psychological biases that maintain structural and interpersonal racism begin to emerge in early childhood, but with considerable individual variation-some children develop more racial bias than others. The present study (N = 116; 4-year-old children) provides novel insights into the developmental mechanisms underlying the emergence of racial bias by longitudinally documenting how two psychological processes-normative beliefs about interracial friendships and explanatory beliefs about racial inequalities-developmentally predict the emergence of pro-White/anti-Black racial bias during early childhood. In a 6-month, three-wave, longitudinal study, we found that 4-year-old children's beliefs that their parents and peers do not value interracial friendships predicted increased racial bias in and across time and that children's endorsement of essentialist over extrinsic explanations for racial inequalities predicted the developmental trajectory of racial bias over time. These findings suggest that children's foundational beliefs about the social world developmentally predict the emergence of racial bias in early childhood and speak to the importance of early and persistent intervention efforts targeting children's normative beliefs about interracial friendships and explanatory beliefs about racial inequalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael T Rizzo
- Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, New York, USA.,Beyond Conflict Innovation Lab, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Emily R Green
- Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, New York, USA
| | | | - Emile Bruneau
- Beyond Conflict Innovation Lab, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Marjorie Rhodes
- Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, New York, USA
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18
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Marcolin F, Vezzetti E, Monaci M. Face perception foundations for pattern recognition algorithms. Neurocomputing 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neucom.2021.02.074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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19
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Ferera M, Pun A, Baron AS, Diesendruck G. The effect of familiarity on infants' social categorization capacity. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0247710. [PMID: 33661945 PMCID: PMC7932097 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0247710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2020] [Accepted: 01/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies indicate that a preference for people from one’s own race emerges early in development. Arguably, one potential process contributing to such a bias has to do with the increased discriminability of own- vs. other-race faces–a process commonly attributed to perceptual narrowing of unfamiliar groups’ faces, and analogous to the conceptual homogenization of out-groups. The present studies addressed two implications of perceptual narrowing of other-race faces for infants’ social categorization capacity. In Experiment 1, White 11-month-olds’ (N = 81) looking time at a Black vs. White face was measured under three between-subjects conditions: a baseline “preference” (i.e., without familiarization), after familiarization to Black faces, or after familiarization to White faces. Compared to infants’ a priori looking preferences as revealed in the baseline condition, only when familiarized to Black faces did infants look longer at the "not-familiarized-category" face at test. According to the standard categorization paradigm used, such longer looking time at the novel (i.e., "not-familiarized-category") exemplar at test, indicated that categorization of the familiarized faces had ensued. This is consistent with the idea that prior to their first birthday, infants already tend to represent own-race faces as individuals and other-race faces as a category. If this is the case, then infants might also be less likely to form subordinate categories within other-race than own-race categories. In Experiment 2, infants (N = 34) distinguished between an arbitrary (shirt-color) based sub-categories only when shirt-wearers were White, but not when they were Black. These findings confirm that perceptual narrowing of other-race faces blurs distinctions among members of unfamiliar categories. Consequently, infants: a) readily categorize other-race faces as being of the same kind, and b) find it hard to distinguish between their sub-categories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matar Ferera
- Department of Psychology, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
- Gonda Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
- * E-mail:
| | - Anthea Pun
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Andrew Scott Baron
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Gil Diesendruck
- Department of Psychology, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
- Gonda Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
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20
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Windisch S, Wiedlitzka S, Olaghere A. PROTOCOL: Online interventions for reducing hate speech and cyberhate: A systematic review. CAMPBELL SYSTEMATIC REVIEWS 2021; 17:e1133. [PMID: 37050974 PMCID: PMC8356355 DOI: 10.1002/cl2.1133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Steven Windisch
- Department of Criminal JusticeTemple UniversityPhiladelphiaPennsylvania
| | - Susann Wiedlitzka
- School of Social SciencesThe University of AucklandAucklandNew Zealand
| | - Ajima Olaghere
- Department of Criminal JusticeTemple UniversityPhiladelphiaPennsylvania
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21
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The left-side bias is not unique to own-race face processing. Atten Percept Psychophys 2021; 83:1562-1570. [PMID: 33629262 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-021-02264-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Humans show a clear left-side bias in face processing. A chimeric face constructed with the left side (from the viewer's perspective) of a face and its mirror image is usually rated as more resemblant to the original face than a chimeric face constructed with the right side of the same face. Previous studies have characterized the left-side bias mainly with own-race faces, but it remains unclear whether this effect is race specific or if it reflects an universal visual expertise. One hundred and five Chinese students completed two versions of a chimeric face-identification task. The results revealed a significant left-side bias for both own-race (Chinese) and other-race (Caucasian) faces, suggesting that the left-side bias reflects an universal visual expertise in face processing.
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22
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Quinn PC, Lee K, Pascalis O. Beyond perceptual development: Infant responding to social categories. ADVANCES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIOR 2020; 58:35-61. [PMID: 32169198 DOI: 10.1016/bs.acdb.2020.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
A body of research is reviewed that has investigated how infants respond to social category information in faces based on differential experience. Whereas some aspects of behavioral performance (visual preference, discrimination, and scanning) are consistent with traditional models of perceptual development (induction, maintenance, and attunement), other aspects (category formation, association with valence, and selective learning) suggest the need for an account that links perceptual with social-emotional processing. We also consider how responding to social categories in infancy may anticipate subsequent responding to these categories in childhood and adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul C Quinn
- University of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States.
| | - Kang Lee
- University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
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23
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Zeki S, Chén OY. The Bayesian‐Laplacian brain. Eur J Neurosci 2020; 51:1441-1462. [DOI: 10.1111/ejn.14540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2019] [Revised: 07/22/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Semir Zeki
- Laboratory of Neurobiology University College London London UK
| | - Oliver Y. Chén
- Laboratory of Neurobiology University College London London UK
- Department of Psychology Yale University New Haven CT USA
- Department of Engineering Science University of Oxford Oxford UK
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24
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Abstract
Social categorization is a universal mechanism for making sense of a vast social world with roots in perceptual, conceptual, and social systems. These systems emerge strikingly early in life and undergo important developmental changes across childhood. The development of social categorization entails identifying which ways of classifying people are culturally meaningful, how these categories might be used to predict, explain, and evaluate the behavior of other people, and how one's own identity relates to these systems of categorization and representation. Social categorization can help children simplify and understand their social environment but has detrimental consequences in the forms of stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. Thus, understanding how social categorization develops is a central problem for the cognitive, social, and developmental sciences. This review details the multiple developmental processes that underlie this core psychological capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marjorie Rhodes
- Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY 10003, USA
| | - Andrew Baron
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
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25
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Yang X, Dunham Y. Hard to disrupt: Categorization and enumeration by gender and race from mixed displays. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2019.103893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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26
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Simpson EA, Maylott SE, Leonard K, Lazo RJ, Jakobsen KV. Face detection in infants and adults: Effects of orientation and color. J Exp Child Psychol 2019; 186:17-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2019.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2018] [Revised: 05/06/2019] [Accepted: 05/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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27
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Mileva M, Young AW, Kramer RS, Burton AM. Understanding facial impressions between and within identities. Cognition 2019; 190:184-198. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2019.04.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2018] [Revised: 04/24/2019] [Accepted: 04/25/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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28
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Marquis AR, Sugden NA. Meta-analytic review of infants' preferential attention to familiar and unfamiliar face types based on gender and race. DEVELOPMENTAL REVIEW 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.dr.2019.100868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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29
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Zhou X, Elshiekh A, Moulson MC. Lifetime perceptual experience shapes face memory for own- and other-race faces. VISUAL COGNITION 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/13506285.2019.1638478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaomei Zhou
- Department of Psychology, Ryerson University, Toronto, Canada
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30
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Bagnis A, Celeghin A, Mosso CO, Tamietto M. Toward an integrative science of social vision in intergroup bias. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2019; 102:318-326. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2018] [Revised: 03/12/2019] [Accepted: 04/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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31
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Lucas HD, Creery JD, Hu X, Paller KA. Grappling With Implicit Social Bias: A Perspective From Memory Research. Neuroscience 2019; 406:684-697. [PMID: 30742963 PMCID: PMC6511463 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2019.01.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2018] [Revised: 01/06/2019] [Accepted: 01/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
There is now widespread consensus that social biases often influence actions independently of the actor's intention or awareness. The notion that we are sometimes blind to the origins of our thoughts, attitudes, and behaviors also features prominently in research into domain-general human memory systems, which has a long history of distinguishing between implicit and explicit repercussions of past experience. A shared challenge across these fields of study is thus to identify techniques for effectively managing the contents of our memory stores, particularly those aspects into which we have limited metacognitive insight. In the present review, we examine recent developments in the cognitive neuroscience of human memory that speak to this challenge as it applies to the social domain. One area of progress pertains to the role of individuation, the process of attending to and representing in memory unique characteristics of individuals, which can limit the influence of generalizations based on social categories. A second body of work concerns breakthroughs in understanding memory consolidation, which determines the fate of newly encoded memories. We discuss the promise of each of these developments for identifying ways to become better stewards of our social minds. More generally, we suggest that, as with other forms of learning and memory, intentional practice and rehearsal may be critical in learning to minimize unwanted biases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather D Lucas
- Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA.
| | - Jessica D Creery
- Department of Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience Program, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Xiaoqing Hu
- Department of Psychology, The State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
| | - Ken A Paller
- Department of Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience Program, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA.
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32
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Singh L, Quinn PC, Xiao NG, Lee K. Monolingual but not bilingual infants demonstrate racial bias in social cue use. Dev Sci 2019; 22:e12809. [DOI: 10.1111/desc.12809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2018] [Revised: 02/01/2019] [Accepted: 02/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Leher Singh
- Department of Psychology National University of Singapore Singapore
| | - Paul C. Quinn
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences University of Delaware Newark Delaware
| | - Naiqi G. Xiao
- Department of Psychology Princeton University Princeton New Jersey
| | - Kang Lee
- Department of Psychology University of Toronto Toronto ON Canada
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33
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Hudson CC, Shamblaw AL, Wilson GA, Roes MM, Sabbagh MA, Harkness KL. Theory of Mind, Excessive Reassurance-Seeking, and Stress Generation in Depression: A Social-Cognitive-Interpersonal Integration. JOURNAL OF SOCIAL AND CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY 2018. [DOI: 10.1521/jscp.2018.37.9.725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Introduction: According to the interpersonal model of depression, individuals with depression engage in excessive reassurance-seeking (ERS) about others’ beliefs regarding their self-worth, which can ultimately result in interpersonal rejection. We present the novel hypothesis that maladaptive ERS behaviors in depression may be driven by difficulties with “theory of mind”—the foundational ability to decode and reason about others’ mental states. Method: Participants included 31 young adults in a current episode of a unipolar depressive disorder, and 91 never-depressed adults. Theory of mind was assessed with standard, objective laboratory tasks. Stressful life events were assessed with a gold-standard contextual interview and independent rating system. Results: Consistent with hypotheses, in the depressed group only, lower accuracy of theory of mind decoding was associated with greater ERS, which was significantly associated with exposure to greater interpersonal, but not non-interpersonal, stress. Surprisingly, higher accuracy of theory of mind reasoning was associated with greater ERS. Discussion: The intriguing dissociation is discussed in terms of expanding the interpersonal model of depression to include the foundational social cognitive processes that underlie effective social communication.
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34
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Tsang T, Ogren M, Peng Y, Nguyen B, Johnson KL, Johnson SP. Infant perception of sex differences in biological motion displays. J Exp Child Psychol 2018; 173:338-350. [PMID: 29807312 PMCID: PMC5986598 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2018.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2018] [Revised: 04/09/2018] [Accepted: 04/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
We examined mechanisms underlying infants' ability to categorize human biological motion stimuli from sex-typed walk motions, focusing on how visual attention to dynamic information in point-light displays (PLDs) contributes to infants' social category formation. We tested for categorization of PLDs produced by women and men by habituating infants to a series of female or male walk motions and then recording posthabituation preferences for new PLDs from the familiar or novel category (Experiment 1). We also tested for intrinsic preferences for female or male walk motions (Experiment 2). We found that infant boys were better able to categorize PLDs than were girls and that male PLDs were preferred overall. Neither of these effects was found to change with development across the observed age range (∼4-18 months). We conclude that infants' categorization of walk motions in PLDs is constrained by intrinsic preferences for higher motion speeds and higher spans of motion and, relatedly, by differences in walk motions produced by men and women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tawny Tsang
- University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Marissa Ogren
- University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Yujia Peng
- University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Bryan Nguyen
- University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Kerri L Johnson
- University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Scott P Johnson
- University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
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35
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Ferera M, Baron AS, Diesendruck G. Collaborative and competitive motivations uniquely impact infants' racial categorization. EVOL HUM BEHAV 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2018.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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36
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Liu S, Quinn PC, Xiao NG, Wu Z, Liu G, Lee K. Relations between scanning and recognition of own- and other-race faces in 6- and 9-month-old infants. Psych J 2018; 7:92-102. [PMID: 29719136 DOI: 10.1002/pchj.211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2017] [Revised: 02/26/2018] [Accepted: 03/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Infants typically see more own-race faces than other-race faces. Existing evidence shows that this difference in face race experience has profound consequences for face processing: as early as 6 months of age, infants scan own- and other-race faces differently and display superior recognition for own- relative to other-race faces. However, it is unclear whether scanning of own-race faces is related to the own-race recognition advantage in infants. To bridge this gap in the literature, the current study used eye tracking to investigate the relation between own-race face scanning and recognition in 6- and 9-month-old Asian infants (N = 82). The infants were familiarized with dynamic own- and other-race faces, and then their face recognition was tested with static face images. Both age groups recognized own- but not other-race faces. Also, regardless of race, the more infants scanned the eyes of the novel versus familiar faces at test, the better their face-recognition performance. In addition, both 6- and 9-month-olds fixated significantly longer on the nose of own-race faces, and greater fixation on the nose during test trials correlated positively with individual novelty preference scores in the own- but not other-race condition. The results suggest that some aspects of the relation between recognition and scanning are independent of differential experience with face race, whereas other aspects are affected by such experience. More broadly, the findings imply that scanning and recognition may become linked during infancy at least in part through the influence of perceptual experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaoying Liu
- Department of Psychology, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Paul C Quinn
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USA
| | - Naiqi G Xiao
- Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, USA
| | - Zhijun Wu
- Department of Psychology, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Guangxi Liu
- Xiasha Street Community Health Service Center, Hangzhou, China
| | - Kang Lee
- Dr. Eric Jackman Institute of Child Study, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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37
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Xiao NG, Wu R, Quinn PC, Liu S, Tummeltshammer KS, Kirkham NZ, Ge L, Pascalis O, Lee K. Infants Rely More on Gaze Cues From Own-Race Than Other-Race Adults for Learning Under Uncertainty. Child Dev 2018; 89:e229-e244. [PMID: 28397243 PMCID: PMC5634912 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.12798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Differential experience leads infants to have perceptual processing advantages for own- over other-race faces, but whether this experience has downstream consequences is unknown. Three experiments examined whether 7-month-olds (range = 5.9-8.5 months; N = 96) use gaze from own- versus other-race adults to anticipate events. When gaze predicted an event's occurrence with 100% reliability, 7-month-olds followed both adults equally; with 25% (chance) reliability, neither was followed. However, with 50% (uncertain) reliability, infants followed own- over other-race gaze. Differential face race experience may thus affect how infants use social cues from own- versus other-race adults for learning. Such findings suggest that infants integrate online statistical reliability information with prior knowledge of own versus other race to guide social interaction and learning.
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38
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The development of the own-race advantage in school-age children: A morphing face paradigm. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0195020. [PMID: 29634731 PMCID: PMC5892883 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0195020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2017] [Accepted: 03/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies examining the other-race effect in school-age children mostly focused on recognition memory performance. Here we investigated perceptual discriminability for Asian-like versus Caucasian-like morph faces in school-age Taiwanese children and adults. One-hundred-and-two 5- to 12-year-old children and twenty-three adults performed a sequential same/different face matching task, where they viewed an Asian- or a Caucasian-parent face followed by either the same parent face or a different morphed face (containing 15%, 30%, 45%, or 60% contribution from the other parent face) and judged if the two faces looked the same. We computed the d’ as the sensitivity index for each age groups. We also analyzed the group mean rejection rates as a function of the morph level and fitted with a cumulative normal distribution function. Results showed that the adults and the oldest 11-12-year-old children exhibited a greater sensitivity (d’) and a smaller discrimination threshold (μ) in the Asian-parent condition than those in the Caucasian-parent condition, indicating the presence of an own-race advantage. On the contrary, 5- to 10-year-old children showed an equal sensitivity and similar discrimination thresholds for both conditions, indicating an absence of the own-race advantage. Moreover, a gradual development in enhancing the discriminability for the Asian-parent condition was observed from age 5 to 12; however, the progression in the Caucasian-parent condition was less apparent. In sum, our findings suggest that expertise in face processing may take the entire childhood to develop, and supports the perceptual learning view of the other-race effect—the own-race advantage seen in adulthood likely reflects a result of prolonged learning specific to faces most commonly seen in one’s visual environment such as own-race faces.
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39
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Quinn PC, Lee K, Pascalis O. Perception of Face Race by Infants: Five Developmental Changes. CHILD DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVES 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/cdep.12286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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40
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Smith LB, Jayaraman S, Clerkin E, Yu C. The Developing Infant Creates a Curriculum for Statistical Learning. Trends Cogn Sci 2018. [PMID: 29519675 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2018.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
New efforts are using head cameras and eye-trackers worn by infants to capture everyday visual environments from the point of view of the infant learner. From this vantage point, the training sets for statistical learning develop as the sensorimotor abilities of the infant develop, yielding a series of ordered datasets for visual learning that differ in content and structure between timepoints but are highly selective at each timepoint. These changing environments may constitute a developmentally ordered curriculum that optimizes learning across many domains. Future advances in computational models will be necessary to connect the developmentally changing content and statistics of infant experience to the internal machinery that does the learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda B Smith
- Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, 1101 East 10th Street, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA.
| | - Swapnaa Jayaraman
- Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, 1101 East 10th Street, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
| | - Elizabeth Clerkin
- Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, 1101 East 10th Street, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
| | - Chen Yu
- Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, 1101 East 10th Street, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
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41
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Are We Face Experts? Trends Cogn Sci 2018; 22:100-110. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2017.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2017] [Revised: 11/20/2017] [Accepted: 11/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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42
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Abstract
The fact that the face is a source of diverse social signals allows us to use face and person perception as a model system for asking important psychological questions about how our brains are organised. A key issue concerns whether we rely primarily on some form of generic representation of the common physical source of these social signals (the face) to interpret them, or instead create multiple representations by assigning different aspects of the task to different specialist components. Variants of the specialist components hypothesis have formed the dominant theoretical perspective on face perception for more than three decades, but despite this dominance of formally and informally expressed theories, the underlying principles and extent of any division of labour remain uncertain. Here, I discuss three important sources of constraint: first, the evolved structure of the brain; second, the need to optimise responses to different everyday tasks; and third, the statistical structure of faces in the perceiver’s environment. I show how these constraints interact to determine the underlying functional organisation of face and person perception.
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43
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Qian MK, Quinn PC, Heyman GD, Pascalis O, Fu G, Lee K. A Long-Term Effect of Perceptual Individuation Training on Reducing Implicit Racial Bias in Preschool Children. Child Dev 2017; 90:e290-e305. [PMID: 29023649 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.12971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
This study tracked the long-term effect of perceptual individuation training on reducing 5-year-old Chinese children's (N = 95, Mage = 5.64 years) implicit pro-Asian/anti-Black racial bias. Initial training to individuate other-race Black faces, followed by supplementary training occurring 1 week later, resulted in a long-term reduction of pro-Asian/anti-Black bias (70 days). In contrast, training Chinese children to recognize White or Asian faces had no effect on pro-Asian/anti-Black bias. Theoretically, the finding that individuation training can have a long-term effect on reducing implicit racial bias in preschoolers suggests that a developmentally early causal linkage between perceptual and social processing of faces is not a transitory phenomenon. Practically, the data point to an effective intervention method for reducing implicit racism in young children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miao K Qian
- Hangzhou Normal University.,University of Toronto
| | | | - Gail D Heyman
- University of California, San Diego.,Zhejiang Normal University
| | | | | | - Kang Lee
- University of Toronto.,Zhejiang Normal University
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