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Thieulent CJ, Carossino M, Balasuriya UBR, Graves K, Bailey E, Eberth J, Canisso IF, Andrews FM, Keowen ML, Go YY. Development of a TaqMan® Allelic Discrimination qPCR Assay for Rapid Detection of Equine CXCL16 Allelic Variants Associated With the Establishment of Long-Term Equine Arteritis Virus Carrier State in Stallions. Front Genet 2022; 13:871875. [PMID: 35495124 PMCID: PMC9043104 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2022.871875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Equine arteritis virus (EAV) is the causative agent of equine viral arteritis (EVA), a respiratory, systemic, and reproductive disease of equids. Following natural infection, up to 70% of the infected stallions can remain persistently infected over 1 year (long-term persistent infection [LTPI]) and shed EAV in their semen. Thus, the LTP-infected stallions play a pivotal role in maintaining and perpetuating EAV in the equine population. Previous studies identified equine C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 16 (CXCL16) as a critical host cell factor determining LTPI in the stallion’s reproductive tract. Two alleles (CXCL16S and CXCL16r) were identified in the equine population and correlated with the susceptibility or resistance of a CD3+ T cell subpopulation in peripheral blood to in vitro EAV infection, respectively. Interestingly, CXCL16S has been linked to the establishment of LTPI in stallions, and thus, genotyping stallions based on CXCL16S/r would allow identification of those at the highest risk of establishing LTPI. Thus, we developed a TaqMan® allelic discrimination qPCR assay for the genotyping of the equine CXCL16 gene based on the identification of a single nucleotide polymorphism in position 1,073 based on NCBI gene ID: 100061442 (or position 527 based on Ensembl: ENSECAG00000018406.2) located in exon 2. One hundred and sixty horses from four breeds were screened for the CD3+ T cell susceptibility phenotype to EAV infection by flow cytometry and subsequently sequenced to determine CXCL16 allelic composition. Genotyping by Sanger sequencing determined that all horses with the resistant CD3+ T cell phenotype were homozygous for CXCL16r while horses with the susceptible CD3+ T cell phenotype carried at least one CXCL16S allele or homozygous for CXCL16S. In addition, genotypification with the TaqMan® allelic discrimination qPCR assay showed perfect agreement with Sanger sequencing and flow cytometric analysis. In conclusion, the new TaqMan® allelic discrimination genotyping qPCR assay can be used to screen prepubertal colts for the presence of the CXCL16 genotype. It is highly recommended that colts that carry the susceptible genotype (CXCL16 S/S or CXCL16S/r) are vaccinated against EAV after 6 months of age to prevent the establishment of LTPI carriers following possible natural infection with EAV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Come J. Thieulent
- Louisiana Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory and Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, United States
| | - Mariano Carossino
- Louisiana Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory and Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, United States
| | - Udeni B. R. Balasuriya
- Louisiana Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory and Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, United States
| | - Kathryn Graves
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
| | - Ernest Bailey
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
| | - John Eberth
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
| | - Igor F. Canisso
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States
| | - Frank M. Andrews
- Equine Health Studies Program, Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, United States
| | - Michael L. Keowen
- Equine Health Studies Program, Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, United States
| | - Yun Young Go
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China
- *Correspondence: Yun Young Go,
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Serological investigation of equine viral arteritis in donkeys in eastern and south-eastern Anatolia regions of Turkey. ACTA VET BRNO 2020. [DOI: 10.2754/avb201988040385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Equine arteritis virus is classified in the Arteriviridae family and causes reproductive and respiratory disorders. The host spectrum includes many species of the Equidae family. Horses, donkeys and mules are the most sensitive species. The infection was serologically investigated in adult donkeys on small private family type enterprises in eastern and south-eastern Anatolia in this study. A total of 1,532 samples were collected from 28 different locations in 6 different provinces in these two regions. The number of donkeys sampled from each farm was between 1 and 3. Serum samples were tested by indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). As a result of sero-controls, 53 animals were positive (3.45%). The presence of infection was determined in all the provinces; Elazığ (7%, 17/241), Tunceli (2.4%, 3/122), Van (2.9%, 10/342), Bitlis (4.6%, 5/107), Şırnak (2.7%, 12/440) and Siirt (2.1%, 6/280). Seropositivity was detected in 22 of the 28 locations. In this study, data were obtained from a significant number of animals for the first time in these regions. Although the values were not high, the findings revealed the presence of infection in the majority of the investigated sites. Despite the fact that the incidence was not high in donkeys probably due to restricted management conditions, the incidence may increase over time and may pose a risk for thoroughbred horses unless necessary measures are taken.
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Carossino M, Dini P, Kalbfleisch TS, Loynachan AT, Canisso IF, Cook RF, Timoney PJ, Balasuriya UBR. Equine arteritis virus long-term persistence is orchestrated by CD8+ T lymphocyte transcription factors, inhibitory receptors, and the CXCL16/CXCR6 axis. PLoS Pathog 2019; 15:e1007950. [PMID: 31356622 PMCID: PMC6692045 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2018] [Revised: 08/13/2019] [Accepted: 06/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Equine arteritis virus (EAV) has the unique ability to establish long-term persistent infection in the reproductive tract of stallions and be sexually transmitted. Previous studies showed that long-term persistent infection is associated with a specific allele of the CXCL16 gene (CXCL16S) and that persistence is maintained despite the presence of local inflammatory and humoral and mucosal antibody responses. Here, we performed transcriptomic analysis of the ampullae, the primary site of EAV persistence in long-term EAV carrier stallions, to understand the molecular signatures of viral persistence. We demonstrated that the local CD8+ T lymphocyte response is predominantly orchestrated by the transcription factors eomesodermin (EOMES) and nuclear factor of activated T-cells cytoplasmic 2 (NFATC2), which is likely modulated by the upregulation of inhibitory receptors. Most importantly, EAV persistence is associated with an enhanced expression of CXCL16 and CXCR6 by infiltrating lymphocytes, providing evidence of the implication of this chemokine axis in the pathogenesis of persistent EAV infection in the stallion reproductive tract. Furthermore, we have established a link between the CXCL16 genotype and the gene expression profile in the ampullae of the stallion reproductive tract. Specifically, CXCL16 acts as a "hub" gene likely driving a specific transcriptional network. The findings herein are novel and strongly suggest that RNA viruses such as EAV could exploit the CXCL16/CXCR6 axis in order to modulate local inflammatory and immune responses in the male reproductive tract by inducing a dysfunctional CD8+ T lymphocyte response and unique lymphocyte homing in the reproductive tract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariano Carossino
- Louisiana Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory and Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, United States of America
| | - Pouya Dini
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States of America
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Theodore S. Kalbfleisch
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, School of Medicine, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, United States of America
| | - Alan T. Loynachan
- University of Kentucky Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States of America
| | - Igor F. Canisso
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Medicine, and Department of Comparative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States of America
| | - R. Frank Cook
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States of America
| | - Peter J. Timoney
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States of America
| | - Udeni B. R. Balasuriya
- Louisiana Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory and Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Downregulation of MicroRNA eca-mir-128 in Seminal Exosomes and Enhanced Expression of CXCL16 in the Stallion Reproductive Tract Are Associated with Long-Term Persistence of Equine Arteritis Virus. J Virol 2018; 92:JVI.00015-18. [PMID: 29444949 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00015-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2018] [Accepted: 02/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Equine arteritis virus (EAV) can establish long-term persistent infection in the reproductive tract of stallions and is shed in the semen. Previous studies showed that long-term persistence is associated with a specific allele of the CXCL16 gene (CXCL16S) and that persistent infection is maintained despite the presence of a local inflammatory and humoral and mucosal antibody responses. In this study, we demonstrated that equine seminal exosomes (SEs) are enriched in a small subset of microRNAs (miRNAs). Most importantly, we demonstrated that long-term EAV persistence is associated with the downregulation of an SE-associated miRNA (eca-mir-128) and with an enhanced expression of CXCL16 in the reproductive tract, a putative target of eca-mir-128. The findings presented here suggest that SE eca-mir-128 is implicated in the regulation of the CXCL16/CXCR6 axis in the reproductive tract of persistently infected stallions, a chemokine axis strongly implicated in EAV persistence. This is a novel finding and warrants further investigation to identify its specific mechanism in modulating the CXCL16/CXCR6 axis in the reproductive tract of the EAV long-term carrier stallion.IMPORTANCE Equine arteritis virus (EAV) has the ability to establish long-term persistent infection in the stallion reproductive tract and to be shed in semen, which jeopardizes its worldwide control. Currently, the molecular mechanisms of viral persistence are being unraveled, and these are essential for the development of effective therapeutics to eliminate persistent infection. Recently, it has been determined that long-term persistence is associated with a specific allele of the CXCL16 gene (CXCL16S) and is maintained despite induction of local inflammatory, humoral, and mucosal antibody responses. This study demonstrated that long-term persistence is associated with the downregulation of seminal exosome miRNA eca-mir-128 and enhanced expression of its putative target, CXCL16, in the reproductive tract. For the first time, this study suggests complex interactions between eca-mir-128 and cellular elements at the site of EAV persistence and implicates this miRNA in the regulation of the CXCL16/CXCR6 axis in the reproductive tract during long-term persistence.
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Balasuriya UB, Carossino M. Reproductive effects of arteriviruses: equine arteritis virus and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus infections. Curr Opin Virol 2017; 27:57-70. [PMID: 29172072 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2017.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2017] [Accepted: 11/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Equine arteritis virus (EAV) and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) are the most economically important members of the family Arteriviridae. EAV and PRRSV cause reproductive and respiratory disease in equids and swine, respectively and constitute a significant economic burden to equine and swine industries around the world. Furthermore, they both cause abortion in pregnant animals and establish persistent infection in their natural hosts, which fosters viral shedding in semen leading to sexual transmission. The primary focus of this article is to provide an update on the effects of these two viruses on the reproductive tract of their natural hosts and provide a comparative analysis of clinical signs, virus-host interactions, mechanisms of viral pathogenesis and viral persistence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Udeni Br Balasuriya
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA.
| | - Mariano Carossino
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
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Optimization and application of a DNA-launched infectious clone of equine arteritis virus. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2017; 102:413-423. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-017-8610-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2017] [Revised: 10/25/2017] [Accepted: 10/27/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Equine Arteritis Virus Elicits a Mucosal Antibody Response in the Reproductive Tract of Persistently Infected Stallions. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2017; 24:CVI.00215-17. [PMID: 28814389 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.00215-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2017] [Accepted: 08/12/2017] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Equine arteritis virus (EAV) has the ability to establish persistent infection in the reproductive tract of the stallion (carrier) and is continuously shed in its semen. We have recently demonstrated that EAV persists within stromal cells and a subset of lymphocytes in the stallion accessory sex glands in the presence of a significant local inflammatory response. In the present study, we demonstrated that EAV elicits a mucosal antibody response in the reproductive tract during persistent infection with homing of plasma cells into accessory sex glands. The EAV-specific immunoglobulin isotypes in seminal plasma included IgA, IgG1, IgG3/5, and IgG4/7. Interestingly, seminal plasma IgG1 and IgG4/7 possessed virus-neutralizing activity, while seminal plasma IgA and IgG3/5 did not. However, virus-neutralizing IgG1 and IgG4/7 in seminal plasma were not effective in preventing viral infectivity. In addition, the serological response was primarily mediated by virus-specific IgM and IgG1, while virus-specific serum IgA, IgG3/5, IgG4/7, and IgG6 isotype responses were not detected. This is the first report characterizing the immunoglobulin isotypes in equine serum and seminal plasma in response to EAV infection. The findings presented herein suggest that while a broader immunoglobulin isotype diversity is elicited in seminal plasma, EAV has the ability to persist in the reproductive tract, in spite of local mucosal antibody and inflammatory responses. This study provides further evidence that EAV employs complex immune evasion mechanisms during persistence in the reproductive tract that warrant further investigation.
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Equine Arteritis Virus Has Specific Tropism for Stromal Cells and CD8 + T and CD21 + B Lymphocytes but Not for Glandular Epithelium at the Primary Site of Persistent Infection in the Stallion Reproductive Tract. J Virol 2017; 91:JVI.00418-17. [PMID: 28424285 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00418-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2017] [Accepted: 04/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Equine arteritis virus (EAV) has a global impact on the equine industry as the causative agent of equine viral arteritis (EVA), a respiratory, systemic, and reproductive disease of equids. A distinctive feature of EAV infection is that it establishes long-term persistent infection in 10 to 70% of infected stallions (carriers). In these stallions, EAV is detectable only in the reproductive tract, and viral persistence occurs despite the presence of high serum neutralizing antibody titers. Carrier stallions constitute the natural reservoir of the virus as they continuously shed EAV in their semen. Although the accessory sex glands have been implicated as the primary sites of EAV persistence, the viral host cell tropism and whether viral replication in carrier stallions occurs in the presence or absence of host inflammatory responses remain unknown. In this study, dual immunohistochemical and immunofluorescence techniques were employed to unequivocally demonstrate that the ampulla is the main EAV tissue reservoir rather than immunologically privileged tissues (i.e., testes). Furthermore, we demonstrate that EAV has specific tropism for stromal cells (fibrocytes and possibly tissue macrophages) and CD8+ T and CD21+ B lymphocytes but not glandular epithelium. Persistent EAV infection is associated with moderate, multifocal lymphoplasmacytic ampullitis comprising clusters of B (CD21+) lymphocytes and significant infiltration of T (CD3+, CD4+, CD8+, and CD25+) lymphocytes, tissue macrophages, and dendritic cells (Iba-1+ and CD83+), with a small number of tissue macrophages expressing CD163 and CD204 scavenger receptors. This study suggests that EAV employs complex immune evasion mechanisms that warrant further investigation.IMPORTANCE The major challenge for the worldwide control of EAV is that this virus has the distinctive ability to establish persistent infection in the stallion's reproductive tract as a mechanism to ensure its maintenance in equid populations. Therefore, the precise identification of tissue and cellular tropism of EAV is critical for understanding the molecular basis of viral persistence and for development of improved prophylactic or treatment strategies. This study significantly enhances our understanding of the EAV carrier state in stallions by unequivocally identifying the ampullae as the primary sites of viral persistence, combined with the fact that persistence involves continuous viral replication in fibrocytes (possibly including tissue macrophages) and T and B lymphocytes in the presence of detectable inflammatory responses, suggesting the involvement of complex viral mechanisms of immune evasion. Therefore, EAV persistence provides a powerful new natural animal model to study RNA virus persistence in the male reproductive tract.
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Sarkar S, Bailey E, Go YY, Cook RF, Kalbfleisch T, Eberth J, Chelvarajan RL, Shuck KM, Artiushin S, Timoney PJ, Balasuriya UBR. Allelic Variation in CXCL16 Determines CD3+ T Lymphocyte Susceptibility to Equine Arteritis Virus Infection and Establishment of Long-Term Carrier State in the Stallion. PLoS Genet 2016; 12:e1006467. [PMID: 27930647 PMCID: PMC5145142 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1006467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2016] [Accepted: 11/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Equine arteritis virus (EAV) is the causative agent of equine viral arteritis (EVA), a respiratory, systemic, and reproductive disease of horses and other equid species. Following natural infection, 10-70% of the infected stallions can become persistently infected and continue to shed EAV in their semen for periods ranging from several months to life. Recently, we reported that some stallions possess a subpopulation(s) of CD3+ T lymphocytes that are susceptible to in vitro EAV infection and that this phenotypic trait is associated with long-term carrier status following exposure to the virus. In contrast, stallions not possessing the CD3+ T lymphocyte susceptible phenotype are at less risk of becoming long-term virus carriers. A genome wide association study (GWAS) using the Illumina Equine SNP50 chip revealed that the ability of EAV to infect CD3+ T lymphocytes and establish long-term carrier status in stallions correlated with a region within equine chromosome 11. Here we identified the gene and mutations responsible for these phenotypes. Specifically, the work implicated three allelic variants of the equine orthologue of CXCL16 (EqCXCL16) that differ by four non-synonymous nucleotide substitutions (XM_00154756; c.715 A → T, c.801 G → C, c.804 T → A/G, c.810 G → A) within exon 1. This resulted in four amino acid changes with EqCXCL16S (XP_001504806.1) having Phe, His, Ile and Lys as compared to EqCXL16R having Tyr, Asp, Phe, and Glu at 40, 49, 50, and 52, respectively. Two alleles (EqCXCL16Sa, EqCXCL16Sb) encoded identical protein products that correlated strongly with long-term EAV persistence in stallions (P<0.000001) and are required for in vitro CD3+ T lymphocyte susceptibility to EAV infection. The third (EqCXCL16R) was associated with in vitro CD3+ T lymphocyte resistance to EAV infection and a significantly lower probability for establishment of the long-term carrier state (viral persistence) in the male reproductive tract. EqCXCL16Sa and EqCXCL16Sb exert a dominant mode of inheritance. Most importantly, the protein isoform EqCXCL16S but not EqCXCL16R can function as an EAV cellular receptor. Although both molecules have equal chemoattractant potential, EqCXCL16S has significantly higher scavenger receptor and adhesion properties compared to EqCXCL16R.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanjay Sarkar
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Ernest Bailey
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
- * E-mail: (UBRB); (EB)
| | - Yun Young Go
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - R. Frank Cook
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Ted Kalbfleisch
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, School of Medicine, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - John Eberth
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - R. Lakshman Chelvarajan
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Kathleen M. Shuck
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Sergey Artiushin
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Peter J. Timoney
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Udeni B. R. Balasuriya
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
- * E-mail: (UBRB); (EB)
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Balasuriya UBR, Carossino M, Timoney PJ. Equine viral arteritis: A respiratory and reproductive disease of significant economic importance to the equine industry. EQUINE VET EDUC 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/eve.12672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- U. B. R. Balasuriya
- Department of Veterinary Science; Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center; College of Agriculture, Food and Environment; University of Kentucky; Lexington USA
| | - M. Carossino
- Department of Veterinary Science; Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center; College of Agriculture, Food and Environment; University of Kentucky; Lexington USA
| | - P. J. Timoney
- Department of Veterinary Science; Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center; College of Agriculture, Food and Environment; University of Kentucky; Lexington USA
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Carossino M, Loynachan AT, James MacLachlan N, Drew C, Shuck KM, Timoney PJ, Del Piero F, Balasuriya UBR. Detection of equine arteritis virus by two chromogenic RNA in situ hybridization assays (conventional and RNAscope(®)) and assessment of their performance in tissues from aborted equine fetuses. Arch Virol 2016; 161:3125-36. [PMID: 27541817 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-016-3014-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2016] [Accepted: 08/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Equine arteritis virus (EAV) is the causative agent of equine viral arteritis, a respiratory and reproductive disease of equids. EAV infection can induce abortion in pregnant mares, fulminant bronchointerstitial pneumonia in foals, and persistent infection in stallions. Here, we developed two RNA in situ hybridization (ISH) assays (conventional and RNAscope(®) ISH) for the detection of viral RNA in formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissues and evaluated and compared their performance with nucleocapsid-specific immunohistochemistry (IHC) and virus isolation (VI; gold standard) techniques. The distribution and cellular localization of EAV RNA and antigen were similar in tissues from aborted equine fetuses. Evaluation of 80 FFPE tissues collected from 16 aborted fetuses showed that the conventional RNA ISH assay had a significantly lower sensitivity than the RNAscope(®) and IHC assays, whereas there was no difference between the latter two assays. The use of oligonucleotide probes along with a signal amplification system (RNAscope(®)) can enhance detection of EAV RNA in FFPE tissues, with sensitivity comparable to that of IHC. Most importantly, these assays provide important tools with which to investigate the mechanisms of EAV pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariano Carossino
- 108 Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Alan T Loynachan
- University of Kentucky Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - N James MacLachlan
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Clifton Drew
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Kathleen M Shuck
- 108 Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Peter J Timoney
- 108 Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Fabio Del Piero
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - Udeni B R Balasuriya
- 108 Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA. ubalasuriya.@uky.edu
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12
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Mondal SP, Cook RF, Chelvarajan RL, Henney PJ, Timoney PJ, Balasuriya UBR. Development and characterization of a synthetic infectious cDNA clone of the virulent Bucyrus strain of equine arteritis virus expressing mCherry (red fluorescent protein). Arch Virol 2016; 161:821-32. [PMID: 26711457 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-015-2633-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2015] [Accepted: 09/28/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Strains of equine arteritis virus (EAV) differ in their virulence phenotypes, causing anywhere from subclinical infections to severe disease in horses. Here, we describe the in silico design and de novo synthesis of a full-length infectious cDNA clone of the horse-adapted virulent Bucyrus strain (VBS) of EAV encoding mCherry along with in vitro characterization of the progeny virions (EAV sVBSmCherry) in terms of host-cell tropism, replicative capacity and stability of the mCherry coding sequences following sequential passage in cell culture. The relative stability of the mCherry sequence during sequential cell culture passage coupled with a comparable host-cell range phenotype (equine endothelial cells, CD3(+) T cells and CD14(+) monocytes) to parental EAV VBS suggest that EAV-sVBSmCherry-derived virus could become a valuable research tool for identification of host-cell tropism determinants and for characterization of the viral proteins involved in virus attachment and entry into different subpopulations of peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Furthermore, this study demonstrates that advances in nucleic acid synthesis technology permit synthesis of complex viral genomes with overlapping genes like those of arteriviruses, thereby circumventing the need for complicated molecular cloning techniques. In summary, de novo nucleic acid synthesis technology facilitates innovative viral vector design without the tedium and risks posed by more-conventional laboratory techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shankar P Mondal
- 108 Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, College of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40546-0099, USA
| | - R Frank Cook
- 108 Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, College of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40546-0099, USA
| | - R Lakshman Chelvarajan
- 108 Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, College of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40546-0099, USA
| | - Pamela J Henney
- 108 Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, College of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40546-0099, USA
| | - Peter J Timoney
- 108 Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, College of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40546-0099, USA
| | - Udeni B R Balasuriya
- 108 Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, College of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40546-0099, USA.
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Pfahl K, Chung C, Singleton MD, Shuck KM, Go YY, Zhang J, Campos J, Adams E, Adams DS, Timoney PJ, Balasuriya UBR. Further evaluation and validation of a commercially available competitive ELISA (cELISA) for the detection of antibodies specific to equine arteritis virus (EAV). Vet Rec 2016; 178:95. [DOI: 10.1136/vr.103362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- K. Pfahl
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research; Department of Veterinary Science; University of Kentucky; Lexington KY 40512 USA
- University of Kentucky Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory; Lexington KY 40512 USA
| | - C. Chung
- VMRD (Veterinary Medical Research and Development) Inc.; Pullman WA 99163 USA
| | - M. D. Singleton
- Department of Biostatistics; University of Kentucky; Lexington KY 40512 USA
| | - K. M. Shuck
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research; Department of Veterinary Science; University of Kentucky; Lexington KY 40512 USA
| | - Y. Y. Go
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research; Department of Veterinary Science; University of Kentucky; Lexington KY 40512 USA
- Virus Research and Testing Group; Division of Drug Discovery Research; Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology; Daejeon Korea
| | - J. Zhang
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research; Department of Veterinary Science; University of Kentucky; Lexington KY 40512 USA
- Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine; College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University; 1600 South 16th St Ames IA 50011 USA
| | - J. Campos
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research; Department of Veterinary Science; University of Kentucky; Lexington KY 40512 USA
| | - E. Adams
- VMRD (Veterinary Medical Research and Development) Inc.; Pullman WA 99163 USA
| | - D. S. Adams
- VMRD (Veterinary Medical Research and Development) Inc.; Pullman WA 99163 USA
| | - P. J. Timoney
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research; Department of Veterinary Science; University of Kentucky; Lexington KY 40512 USA
| | - U. B. R. Balasuriya
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research; Department of Veterinary Science; University of Kentucky; Lexington KY 40512 USA
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Equine Arteritis Virus Uses Equine CXCL16 as an Entry Receptor. J Virol 2016; 90:3366-84. [PMID: 26764004 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02455-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2015] [Accepted: 01/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Previous studies in our laboratory have identified equine CXCL16 (EqCXCL16) to be a candidate molecule and possible cell entry receptor for equine arteritis virus (EAV). In horses, the CXCL16 gene is located on equine chromosome 11 (ECA11) and encodes a glycosylated, type I transmembrane protein with 247 amino acids. Stable transfection of HEK-293T cells with plasmid DNA carrying EqCXCL16 (HEK-EqCXCL16 cells) increased the proportion of the cell population permissive to EAV infection from <3% to almost 100%. The increase in permissiveness was blocked either by transfection of HEK-EqCXCL16 cells with small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) directed against EqCXCL16 or by pretreatment with guinea pig polyclonal antibody against EqCXCL16 protein (Gp anti-EqCXCL16 pAb). Furthermore, using a virus overlay protein-binding assay (VOPBA) in combination with far-Western blotting, gradient-purified EAV particles were shown to bind directly to the EqCXCL16 protein in vitro. The binding of biotinylated virulent EAV strain Bucyrus at 4°C was significantly higher in HEK-EqCXCL16 cells than nontransfected HEK-293T cells. Finally, the results demonstrated that EAV preferentially infects subpopulations of horse CD14(+) monocytes expressing EqCXCL16 and that infection of these cells is significantly reduced by pretreatment with Gp anti-EqCXCL16 pAb. The collective data from this study provide confirmatory evidence that the transmembrane form of EqCXCL16 likely plays a major role in EAV host cell entry processes, possibly acting as a primary receptor molecule for this virus. IMPORTANCE Outbreaks of EVA can be a source of significant economic loss for the equine industry from high rates of abortion in pregnant mares, death in young foals, establishment of the carrier state in stallions, and trade restrictions imposed by various countries. Similar to other arteriviruses, EAV primarily targets cells of the monocyte/macrophage lineage, which, when infected, are believed to play a critical role in EVA pathogenesis. To this point, however, the host-specified molecules involved in EAV binding and entry into monocytes/macrophages have not been identified. Identification of the cellular receptors for EAV may provide insights to design antivirals and better prophylactic reagents. In this study, we have demonstrated that EqCXCL16 acts as an EAV entry receptor in EAV-susceptible cells, equine monocytes. These findings represent a significant advance in our understanding of the fundamental mechanisms associated with the entry of EAV into susceptible cells.
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Balasuriya UBR, Zhang J, Go YY, MacLachlan NJ. Experiences with infectious cDNA clones of equine arteritis virus: lessons learned and insights gained. Virology 2014; 462-463:388-403. [PMID: 24913633 PMCID: PMC7172799 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2014.04.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2014] [Revised: 04/16/2014] [Accepted: 04/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The advent of recombinant DNA technology, development of infectious cDNA clones of RNA viruses, and reverse genetic technologies have revolutionized how viruses are studied. Genetic manipulation of full-length cDNA clones has become an especially important and widely used tool to study the biology, pathogenesis, and virulence determinants of both positive and negative stranded RNA viruses. The first full-length infectious cDNA clone of equine arteritis virus (EAV) was developed in 1996 and was also the first full-length infectious cDNA clone constructed from a member of the order Nidovirales. This clone was extensively used to characterize the molecular biology of EAV and other Nidoviruses. The objective of this review is to summarize the characterization of the virulence (or attenuation) phenotype of the recombinant viruses derived from several infectious cDNA clones of EAV in horses, as well as their application for characterization of the molecular basis of viral neutralization, persistence, and cellular tropism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Udeni B R Balasuriya
- 108 Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, USA.
| | - Jianqiang Zhang
- Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Yun Young Go
- Virus Research and Testing Group, Division of Drug Discovery Research, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology, Daejeon 305-343, South Korea
| | - N James MacLachlan
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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Equine arteritis virus does not induce interferon production in equine endothelial cells: identification of nonstructural protein 1 as a main interferon antagonist. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2014; 2014:420658. [PMID: 24967365 PMCID: PMC4055586 DOI: 10.1155/2014/420658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2013] [Revised: 04/07/2014] [Accepted: 04/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of equine arteritis virus (EAV) on type I interferon (IFN) production. Equine endothelial cells (EECs) were infected with the virulent Bucyrus strain (VBS) of EAV and expression of IFN-β was measured at mRNA and protein levels by quantitative real-time RT-PCR and IFN bioassay using vesicular stomatitis virus expressing the green fluorescence protein (VSV-GFP), respectively. Quantitative RT-PCR results showed that IFN-β mRNA levels in EECs infected with EAV VBS were not increased compared to those in mock-infected cells. Consistent with quantitative RT-PCR, Sendai virus- (SeV-) induced type I IFN production was inhibited by EAV infection. Using an IFN-β promoter-luciferase reporter assay, we subsequently demonstrated that EAV nsps 1, 2, and 11 had the capability to inhibit type I IFN activation. Of these three nsps, nsp1 exhibited the strongest inhibitory effect. Taken together, these data demonstrate that EAV has the ability to suppress the type I IFN production in EECs and nsp1 may play a critical role to subvert the equine innate immune response.
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Vairo S, Favoreel H, Scagliarini A, Nauwynck H. Identification of target cells of a European equine arteritis virus strain in experimentally infected ponies. Vet Microbiol 2013; 167:235-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2013.07.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2013] [Revised: 07/16/2013] [Accepted: 07/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Balasuriya UBR, Go YY, MacLachlan NJ. Equine arteritis virus. Vet Microbiol 2013; 167:93-122. [PMID: 23891306 PMCID: PMC7126873 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2013.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2013] [Revised: 06/22/2013] [Accepted: 06/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Equine arteritis virus (EAV) is the causative agent of equine viral arteritis (EVA), a respiratory and reproductive disease of equids. There has been significant recent progress in understanding the molecular biology of EAV and the pathogenesis of its infection in horses. In particular, the use of contemporary genomic techniques, along with the development and reverse genetic manipulation of infectious cDNA clones of several strains of EAV, has generated significant novel information regarding the basic molecular biology of the virus. Therefore, the objective of this review is to summarize current understanding of EAV virion architecture, replication, evolution, molecular epidemiology and genetic variation, pathogenesis including the influence of host genetics on disease susceptibility, host immune response, and potential vaccination and treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Udeni B R Balasuriya
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, USA.
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20
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Bażanów BA, Jackulak NA, Frącka AB, Staroniewicz ZM. Abortogenic viruses in horses. EQUINE VET EDUC 2013. [DOI: 10.1111/eve.12084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- B. A. Bażanów
- Department of Microbiology; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences; Poland
| | - N. A. Jackulak
- Department of Microbiology; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences; Poland
| | - A. B. Frącka
- Department of Microbiology; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences; Poland
| | - Z. M. Staroniewicz
- Department of Microbiology; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences; Poland
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21
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Zhang J, Go YY, Huang CM, Meade BJ, Lu Z, Snijder EJ, Timoney PJ, Balasuriya UBR. Development and characterization of an infectious cDNA clone of the modified live virus vaccine strain of equine arteritis virus. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2012; 19:1312-21. [PMID: 22739697 PMCID: PMC3416077 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.00302-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2012] [Accepted: 06/20/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
A stable full-length cDNA clone of the modified live virus (MLV) vaccine strain of equine arteritis virus (EAV) was developed. RNA transcripts generated from this plasmid (pEAVrMLV) were infectious upon transfection into mammalian cells, and the resultant recombinant virus (rMLV) had 100% nucleotide identity to the parental MLV vaccine strain of EAV. A single silent nucleotide substitution was introduced into the nucleocapsid gene (pEAVrMLVB), enabling the cloned vaccine virus (rMLVB) to be distinguished from parental MLV vaccine as well as other field and laboratory strains of EAV by using an allelic discrimination real-time reverse transcription (RT)-PCR assay. In vitro studies revealed that the cloned vaccine virus rMLVB and the parental MLV vaccine virus had identical growth kinetics and plaque morphologies in equine endothelial cells. In vivo studies confirmed that the cloned vaccine virus was very safe and induced high titers of neutralizing antibodies against EAV in experimentally immunized horses. When challenged with the heterologous EAV KY84 strain, the rMLVB vaccine virus protected immunized horses in regard to reducing the magnitude and duration of viremia and virus shedding but did not suppress the development of signs of EVA, although these were reduced in clinical severity. The vaccine clone pEAVrMLVB could be further manipulated to improve the vaccine efficacy as well as to develop a marker vaccine for serological differentiation of EAV naturally infected from vaccinated animals.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibodies, Neutralizing/blood
- Antibodies, Viral/blood
- Cells, Cultured
- DNA, Complementary/genetics
- Endothelial Cells/virology
- Equartevirus/classification
- Equartevirus/genetics
- Equartevirus/growth & development
- Genotype
- Horses
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Nucleocapsid/genetics
- Point Mutation
- RNA, Viral/genetics
- Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Sequence Analysis, DNA
- Sequence Homology, Nucleic Acid
- Transcription, Genetic
- Vaccines, Attenuated/administration & dosage
- Vaccines, Attenuated/genetics
- Vaccines, Attenuated/immunology
- Viral Plaque Assay
- Viral Vaccines/administration & dosage
- Viral Vaccines/genetics
- Viral Vaccines/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianqiang Zhang
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Yun Young Go
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Chengjin M. Huang
- Fort Dodge Animal Health Inc., Fort Dodge, Iowa, USA (now Pfizer Animal Health Inc., VMRD, Kalamazoo, Michigan, USA)
| | - Barry J. Meade
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Zhengchun Lu
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Eric J. Snijder
- Molecular Virology Laboratory, Department of Medical Microbiology, Center of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Peter J. Timoney
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Udeni B. R. Balasuriya
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
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Vairo S, Vandekerckhove A, Steukers L, Glorieux S, Van den Broeck W, Nauwynck H. Clinical and virological outcome of an infection with the Belgian equine arteritis virus strain 08P178. Vet Microbiol 2012; 157:333-44. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2012.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2011] [Revised: 01/10/2012] [Accepted: 01/12/2012] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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23
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Go YY, Zhang J, Timoney PJ, Cook RF, Horohov DW, Balasuriya UBR. Complex interactions between the major and minor envelope proteins of equine arteritis virus determine its tropism for equine CD3+ T lymphocytes and CD14+ monocytes. J Virol 2010; 84:4898-911. [PMID: 20219931 PMCID: PMC2863813 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02743-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2009] [Accepted: 03/01/2010] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Extensive cell culture passage of the virulent Bucyrus (VB) strain of equine arteritis virus (EAV) to produce the modified live virus (MLV) vaccine strain has altered its tropism for equine CD3(+) T lymphocytes and CD14(+) monocytes. The VB strain primarily infects CD14(+) monocytes and a small subpopulation of CD3(+) T lymphocytes (predominantly CD4(+) T lymphocytes), as determined by dual-color flow cytometry. In contrast, the MLV vaccine strain has a significantly reduced ability to infect CD14(+) monocytes and has lost its capability to infect CD3(+) T lymphocytes. Using a panel of five recombinant chimeric viruses, we demonstrated that interactions among the GP2, GP3, GP4, GP5, and M envelope proteins play a major role in determining the CD14(+) monocyte tropism while the tropism for CD3(+) T lymphocytes is determined by the GP2, GP4, GP5, and M envelope proteins but not the GP3 protein. The data clearly suggest that there are intricate interactions among these envelope proteins that affect the binding of EAV to different cell receptors on CD3(+) T lymphocytes and CD14(+) monocytes. This study shows, for the first time, that CD3(+) T lymphocytes may play an important role in the pathogenesis of equine viral arteritis when horses are infected with the virulent strains of EAV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun Young Go
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40546-0099
| | - Jianqiang Zhang
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40546-0099
| | - Peter J. Timoney
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40546-0099
| | - R. Frank Cook
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40546-0099
| | - David W. Horohov
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40546-0099
| | - Udeni B. R. Balasuriya
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40546-0099
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Zhang J, Go YY, MacLachlan NJ, Meade BJ, Timoney PJ, Balasuriya UBR. Amino acid substitutions in the structural or nonstructural proteins of a vaccine strain of equine arteritis virus are associated with its attenuation. Virology 2008; 378:355-62. [PMID: 18619638 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2008.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2008] [Revised: 05/05/2008] [Accepted: 06/05/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Comparative sequence analysis of a series of strains of equine arteritis virus (EAV) of defined virulence for horses, ranging from the horse-adapted virulent Bucyrus (VB) strain to a fully attenuated vaccine strain derived from it, identified 13 amino acid substitutions associated with attenuation. These include 4 substitutions in the replicase proteins and 9 in the structural proteins. Using reverse genetic techniques, these amino acid substitutions were introduced into a virulent infectious cDNA clone pEAVrVBS derived from the VB strain of EAV. Inoculation of horses with the recombinant viruses clearly demonstrated that changes in either the replicase (nsp1, nsp2 and nsp7) or structural proteins (GP2, GP4, GP5 and M) resulted in attenuation of the virulent VB strain. The recombinant virus with substitutions in the structural proteins was more attenuated than the recombinant virus with substitutions only in the replicase proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianqiang Zhang
- Department of Veterinary Science, Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, USA
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25
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Holyoak GR, Balasuriya UBR, Broaddus CC, Timoney PJ. Equine viral arteritis: current status and prevention. Theriogenology 2008; 70:403-14. [PMID: 18502495 DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2008.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Recently, there has been increased interest in equine viral arteritis (EVA) among veterinarians and horse owners. Outbreaks of the disease were identified initially in New Mexico, USA in 2006, and in the Normandy region of France in the summer of 2007. Both occurrences were associated with AI of cool-shipped semen. Each was linked to respiratory illness, neonatal death, abortion, development of carrier stallions, and cancellation of equestrian events. In light of the increased interest, this paper will present a brief case history, followed by a review addressing common concerns regarding EVA, current status, and control and prevention strategies, including vaccination, and recommended bio-security measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- G R Holyoak
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA.
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26
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Go YY, Wong SJ, Branscum AJ, Demarest VL, Shuck KM, Vickers ML, Zhang J, McCollum WH, Timoney PJ, Balasuriya UBR. Development of a fluorescent-microsphere immunoassay for detection of antibodies specific to equine arteritis virus and comparison with the virus neutralization test. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2008; 15:76-87. [PMID: 18032597 PMCID: PMC2223870 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.00388-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2007] [Revised: 10/23/2007] [Accepted: 11/05/2007] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The development and validation of a microsphere immunoassay (MIA) to detect equine antibodies to the major structural proteins of equine arteritis virus (EAV) are described. The assay development process was based on the cloning and expression of genes for full-length individual major structural proteins (GP5 amino acids 1 to 255 [GP5(1-255)], M(1-162), and N(1-110)), as well as partial sequences of these structural proteins (GP5(1-116), GP5(75-112), GP5(55-98), M(88-162), and N(1-69)) that constituted putative antigenic regions. Purified recombinant viral proteins expressed in Escherichia coli were covalently bound to fluorescent polystyrene microspheres and analyzed with the Luminex xMap 100 instrument. Of the eight recombinant proteins, the highest concordance with the virus neutralization test (VNT) results was obtained with the partial GP5(55-98) protein. The MIA was validated by testing a total of 2,500 equine serum samples previously characterized by the VNT. With the use of an optimal median fluorescence intensity cutoff value of 992, the sensitivity and specificity of the assay were 92.6% and 92.9%, respectively. The GP5(55-98) MIA and VNT outcomes correlated significantly (r = 0.84; P < 0.0001). Although the GP5(55-98) MIA is less sensitive than the standard VNT, it has the potential to provide a rapid, convenient, and more economical test for screening equine sera for the presence of antibodies to EAV, with the VNT then being used as a confirmatory assay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun Young Go
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40546, USA
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27
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Behling-Kelly E, Czuprynski CJ. Endothelial cells as active participants in veterinary infections and inflammatory disorders. Anim Health Res Rev 2007; 8:47-58. [PMID: 17692142 DOI: 10.1017/s1466252307001296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
AbstractEndothelial cells were once viewed as relatively inert cells lining the vasculature. They are now recognized as active and responsive regulators of coagulation, platelet adhesion, fluid homeostasis, wound healing, leukocyte extravasation and vascular tone. Endothelial cells play a key role in the host response to infectious agents by regulating leukocyte trafficking, producing inflammatory cytokines and presenting antigen in association with major histocompatibility class II (MHC II) molecules. A number of infectious agents have a tropism for endothelial cells. Infection of endothelial cells can promote thrombosis, vascular leakage, and increased adherence and emigration of leukocytes. Furthermore, activation of a systemic inflammatory response, in the absence of direct endothelial cell infection, can also lead to endothelial cell dysfunction. The purpose of this review is to highlight the interactions between endothelial cells and infectious or inflammatory agents that contribute to coagulation disturbances, vasculitis and edema. A select group of viral and bacterial pathogens will be used as examples to demonstrate how endothelial cell dysfunction contributes to the pathogenesis of infectious and inflammatory disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Behling-Kelly
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, University of Wisconsin, School of Veterinary Medicine, 2015 Linden Drive, Madsion, WI 53706, USA
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28
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Balasuriya UBR, Snijder EJ, Heidner HW, Zhang J, Zevenhoven-Dobbe JC, Boone JD, McCollum WH, Timoney PJ, MacLachlan NJ. Development and characterization of an infectious cDNA clone of the virulent Bucyrus strain of Equine arteritis virus. J Gen Virol 2007; 88:918-924. [PMID: 17325365 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.82415-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Strains of Equine arteritis virus (EAV) differ in the severity of the disease that they induce in horses. Infectious cDNA clones are potentially useful for identification of genetic determinants of EAV virulence; to date, two clones have been derived from a cell culture-adapted variant of the original (Bucyrus) isolate of EAV, and it has previously been shown that recombinant virus derived from one of these (rEAV030) is attenuated in horses. A complete cDNA copy of the genome of the virulent Bucyrus strain of EAV has now been assembled into a plasmid vector. In contrast to rEAV030, recombinant progeny virus derived from this clone caused severe disease in horses, characterized by pyrexia, oedema, leukopenia, high-titre viraemia and substantial nasal shedding of virus. The availability of infectious cDNA clones that produce recombinant viruses of different virulence to horses will facilitate characterization of the virulence determinants of EAV through reverse genetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Udeni B R Balasuriya
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Eric J Snijder
- Molecular Virology Laboratory, Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Hans W Heidner
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
| | - Jianqiang Zhang
- Department of Veterinary Science, Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, USA
| | - Jessika C Zevenhoven-Dobbe
- Molecular Virology Laboratory, Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Josh D Boone
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - William H McCollum
- Department of Veterinary Science, Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, USA
| | - Peter J Timoney
- Department of Veterinary Science, Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, USA
| | - N James MacLachlan
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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Echeverría MG, Díaz S, Metz GE, Serena MS, Panei CJ, Nosetto E. Genetic typing of equine arteritis virus isolates from Argentina. Virus Genes 2007; 35:313-20. [PMID: 17294142 DOI: 10.1007/s11262-007-0081-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2006] [Accepted: 01/17/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
We report the nucleotide sequence and genetic diversity of four Equine Arteritis Virus (EAV) ORF 5 and 6 from Argentina isolates, obtained from asymptomatic virus-shedding stallions. Nucleic acid recovered from the isolates were amplified by RT-PCR and sequenced. Nucleotide and deduced amino acid sequences from the Argentine isolates were compared with 17 sequences available from the GenBank. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the Argentine isolates grouped together in a definite cluster near European strains. Despite the greater genetic variability among ORF 5 from different isolates and strains of EAV, phylogenetic trees based on ORF 5 and 6 are similar. Both trees showed that virus sequences from America and Europe segregate into distinct clades based on sequence analysis of either ORF 5 or 6. This study constitutes the first characterization of Argentine EAV isolates.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Gabriela Echeverría
- Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, National University of La Plata, 60 and 118, CC 296, 1900 La Plata, Argentina.
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Abstract
EVA is an important if uncommon disease of horses. Potential economic losses attributable to EVA include direct losses from abortion, pneumonia in neonates, and febrile disease in performance horses. Indirect losses are those associated with national and international trade/animal movement regulations, particularly those pertaining to persistently infected carrier stallions and their semen. However, EAV infection and EVA are readily prevented through serological and virological screening of horses, coupled with sound management practices that include appropriate quarantine and strategic vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stanley Perlman
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Iowa, 52242 Iowa City, IA USA
| | - Kathryn V. Holmes
- Department of Microbiology, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center at Fitzsimons, 80045-8333 Aurora, CO USA
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Balasuriya UBR, MacLachlan NJ. The immune response to equine arteritis virus: potential lessons for other arteriviruses. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2004; 102:107-29. [PMID: 15507299 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2004.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The members of the family Arteriviridae, genus Arterivirus, include equine arteritis virus (EAV), porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), lactate dehydrogenase-elevating virus (LDV) of mice, and simian hemorrhagic fever virus (SHFV). PRRSV is the newest member of the family (first isolated in North America and Europe in the early 1990s), whereas the other three viruses were recognized earlier (EAV in 1953, LDV in 1960, and SHFV in 1964). Although arterivirus infections are strictly species-specific, the causative agents share many biological and molecular properties, including their virion morphology, replication strategy, unique properties of their structural proteins, and their ability to establish distinctive persistent infections in their natural hosts. The arteriviruses are each antigenically distinct and cause different disease syndromes in their natural hosts. Similarly, the mechanism(s) responsible for the prolonged and/or persistent infections that characterize infections with each arterivirus in their natural hosts are remarkably different. The objective of this review is to compare and contrast the immune response to EAV with that to the other three arteriviruses, and emphasize the potential relevance of apparent similarities and differences in the neutralization characteristics of each virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Udeni B R Balasuriya
- Equine Viral Disease Laboratory, Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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Moore BD, Balasuriya UBR, Watson JL, Bosio CM, MacKay RJ, MacLachlan NJ. Virulent and avirulent strains of equine arteritis virus induce different quantities of TNF-alpha and other proinflammatory cytokines in alveolar and blood-derived equine macrophages. Virology 2003; 314:662-70. [PMID: 14554093 DOI: 10.1016/s0042-6822(03)00506-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Equine arteritis virus (EAV) infects endothelial cells (ECs) and macrophages in horses, and many of the clinical manifestations of equine viral arteritis (EVA) reflect vascular injury. To further evaluate the potential role of EAV-induced, macrophage-derived cytokines in the pathogenesis of EVA, we infected cultured equine alveolar macrophages (AMphi), blood monocyte-derived macrophages (BMphi), and pulmonary artery ECs with either a virulent (KY84) or an avirulent (CA95) strain of EAV. EAV infection of equine AMphi, BMphi, and ECs resulted in their activation with increased transcription of genes encoding proinflammatory mediators, including interleukin (IL)-1beta, IL-6, IL-8, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha. Furthermore, the virulent KY84 strain of EAV induced significantly higher levels of mRNA encoding proinflammatory cytokines in infected AMphi and BMphi than did the avirulent CA95 strain. Treatment of equine ECs with the culture supernatants of EAV-infected AMphi and BMphi also resulted in EC activation with cell surface expression of E-selectin, whereas infection of ECs with purified EAV alone caused only minimal expression of E-selectin. The presence of TNF-alpha in the culture supernatants of EAV-infected equine AMphi, BMphi, and ECs was confirmed by bioassay, and the virulent KY84 strain of EAV induced significantly more TNF-alpha in all cell types than did the avirulent CA95 strain. Thus, the data indicate that EAV-induced, macrophage-derived cytokines may contribute to the pathogenesis of EVA in horses, and that the magnitude of the cytokine response of equine AMphi, BMphi, and ECs to EAV infection reflects the virulence of the infecting virus strain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian D Moore
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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Szeredi L, Hornyák A, Dénes B, Rusvai M. Equine Viral Arteritis in a Newborn Foal: Parallel Detection of the Virus by Immunohistochemistry, Polymerase Chain Reaction and Virus Isolation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003; 50:270-4. [PMID: 14628997 DOI: 10.1046/j.1439-0450.2003.00684.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
A 4-days-old foal died after a short course of respiratory syndrome and fever. Large areas of the alveoli, bronchioles and bronchi were partly or completely filled by hyaline membranes. Pronounced oedema and mild interstitial pneumonia were present and, in the small muscular arteries, fibrinoid necrosis and vasculitis or perivasculitis could be seen. Vasculitis was found in several other organs, and it was most severe in the thymus. The virus was detected in the lung, kidney and spleen using virus isolation and in the lung and spleen using polymerase chain reaction. The virus was also detected in several organs and cell types using both N protein-specific monoclonal antibody and horseradish peroxidase-labelled equine arteritis virus-specific equine IgG.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Szeredi
- Central Veterinary Institute, Budapest, Hungary.
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35
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Moore BD, Balasuriya UBR, Nurton JP, McCollum WH, Timoney PJ, Guthrie AJ, MacLachlan NJ. Differentiation of strains of equine arteritis virus of differing virulence to horses by growth in equine endothelial cells. Am J Vet Res 2003; 64:779-84. [PMID: 12828265 DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.2003.64.779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To compare growth characteristics of strains of equine arteritis virus (EAV) of differing virulence to horses in rabbit kidney (RK)-13 cells and equine endothelial cells (EECs) cultured from the pulmonary artery of a foal. SAMPLE POPULATION 13 strains of EAV, including 11 field isolates of differing virulence to horses; the highly virulent, horse-adapted Bucyrus strain; and the modified-live virus (MLV) vaccine derived from it. PROCEDURE The growth characteristics of the 13 strains were compared in EECs and RK-13 cells. Viral nucleoprotein expression, cytopathogenicity, and plaque size were compared to determine whether growth characteristics of the 13 strains were predictive of their virulence to horses. RESULTS Cytopathogenicity, viral nucleoprotein expression, and plaque size induced by all 13 viruses were similar in RK-13 cells, whereas virulent strains of EAV caused significantly larger plaques in EECs than did the avirulent strains of EAV. Paradoxically, the highly attenuated MLV vaccine and 1 field isolate of EAV caused plaques in EECs that were larger than those caused by any of the other viruses, and sequence analysis confirmed the field isolate of EAV to be indistinguishable from the MLV vaccine. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE With the notable exception of the MLV vaccine, growth of the various strains of EAV in EECs was predictive of their individual virulence to horses. Thus, EECs provide a relevant and useful model to further characterize determinants of virulence and attenuation amongst strains of EAV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian D Moore
- Bernard and Gloria Salick Equine Viral Disease Laboratory, Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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36
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Moore BD, Balasuriya UBR, Hedges JF, MacLachlan NJ. Growth characteristics of a highly virulent, a moderately virulent, and an avirulent strain of equine arteritis virus in primary equine endothelial cells are predictive of their virulence to horses. Virology 2002; 298:39-44. [PMID: 12093171 DOI: 10.1006/viro.2002.1466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Equine viral arteritis (EVA) is an endotheliotropic viral disease of horses caused by equine arteritis virus (EAV). Although there is only one serotype of EAV, there is marked variation in the virulence of different strains of the virus. The replication and cytopathogenicity of three well-characterized strains of EAV of different virulence to horses were compared in rabbit kidney (RK-13) and primary equine pulmonary artery endothelial cells (ECs). Viral protein expression, plaque size, and cytopathogenicity of all three viruses were similar in RK-13 cells, whereas two virulent strains of EAV were readily distinguished from an avirulent strain by their plaque morphology and cytopathogenicity in primary equine ECs. Furthermore, EAV nucleocapsid protein was detected by flow cytometric analysis significantly later in ECs infected with the avirulent than those infected with the virulent strains of EAV. Primary equine ECs provide a convenient and relevant model for in vitro characterization of the pathogenesis of EVA and the virulence determinants of EAV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian D Moore
- Bernard and Gloria Salick Equine Viral Disease Laboratory, Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis, California 95616, USA
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37
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Starik E, Ginter A, Coppe P. ELISA and direct immunofluorescence test to detect equine arteritis virus (EAV) using a monoclonal antibody directed to the EAV-N protein. JOURNAL OF VETERINARY MEDICINE. B, INFECTIOUS DISEASES AND VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH 2001; 48:1-9. [PMID: 11254093 DOI: 10.1046/j.1439-0450.2001.00420.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
A monoclonal antibody (mAb) directed against the equine arteritis virus (EAV) nucleocapsid (N) protein was used for indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) using viral antigen from different sources. The same mAb was labelled with fluorescein isothiocyanate for direct immunofluorescence tests (DIFTs). The N-specific mAb appeared to be suitable for the detection in both ELISA and DIFT of different EAV strains and field isolates from semen and tissue samples after passage in lines of RK-13, Vero and fetal equine kidney cells. The ELISA described is an easy and fast method which can be used in most cases to replace the microneutralization test to prove the EAV specificity of the cytopathic effect of cell cultures. The DIFT, however, is more sensitive than both the ELISA and the microneutralization test because EAV antigen can be detected even in cell cultures without or with very weak cytopathic effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Starik
- Federal Research Centre for Virus Diseases of Animals, Friedrich-Loeffler Institutes, Insel Riems, Germany
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38
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Balasuriya UB, Heidner HW, Hedges JF, Williams JC, Davis NL, Johnston RE, MacLachlan NJ. Expression of the two major envelope proteins of equine arteritis virus as a heterodimer is necessary for induction of neutralizing antibodies in mice immunized with recombinant Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus replicon particles. J Virol 2000; 74:10623-30. [PMID: 11044106 PMCID: PMC110936 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.74.22.10623-10630.2000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2000] [Accepted: 08/15/2000] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
RNA replicon particles derived from a vaccine strain of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEE) were used as a vector for expression of the major envelope proteins (G(L) and M) of equine arteritis virus (EAV), both individually and in heterodimer form (G(L)/M). Open reading frame 5 (ORF5) encodes the G(L) protein, which expresses the known neutralizing determinants of EAV (U. B. R. Balasuriya, J. F. Patton, P. V. Rossitto, P. J. Timoney, W. H. McCollum, and N. J. MacLachlan, Virology 232:114-128, 1997). ORF5 and ORF6 (which encodes the M protein) of EAV were cloned into two different VEE replicon vectors that contained either one or two 26S subgenomic mRNA promoters. These replicon RNAs were packaged into VEE replicon particles by VEE capsid protein and glycoproteins supplied in trans in cells that were coelectroporated with replicon and helper RNAs. The immunogenicity of individual replicon particle preparations (pVR21-G(L), pVR21-M, and pVR100-G(L)/M) in BALB/c mice was determined. All mice developed antibodies against the recombinant proteins with which they were immunized, but only the mice inoculated with replicon particles expressing the G(L)/M heterodimer developed antibodies that neutralize EAV. The data further confirmed that authentic posttranslational modification and conformational maturation of the recombinant G(L) protein occur only in the presence of the M protein and that this interaction is necessary for induction of neutralizing antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- U B Balasuriya
- Bernard and Gloria Salick Equine Viral Disease Laboratory, Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA
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39
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MacLachlan NJ, Conley AJ, Kennedy PC. Bluetongue and equine viral arteritis viruses as models of virus-induced fetal injury and abortion. Anim Reprod Sci 2000; 60-61:643-51. [PMID: 10844231 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-4320(00)00105-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
A number of viruses have the capacity to cross the placenta and infect the fetus to cause, among other potential outcomes, developmental defects (teratogenesis), fetal death and abortion. Bluetongue virus (BTV) infection of fetal ruminants provides an excellent model for the study of virus-induced teratogenesis. This model has shown that only viruses modified by passage in cell culture, such as modified live virus vaccine strains, readily cross the ruminant placenta, and that the timing of fetal infection determines the outcome. Thus, cerebral malformations only occur after fetal infection at critical stages during development and the precise timing of fetal BTV infection determines the severity of the malformation present at birth. Fetal BTV infection also can result in fetal death, followed by abortion or resorption, growth retardation, or no obvious abnormalities, depending on age of the conceptus at infection. Equine arteritis virus (EAV) infection of the equine fetus causes fetal death and abortion but not teratogenesis. These two fetal viral infections are useful not only for the study of teratogenesis and fetal disease, but also to further characterize and compare the complex process that is responsible for normal induction of parturition in ruminants and horses.
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Affiliation(s)
- N J MacLachlan
- Departments of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis 95616, USA.
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40
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Abstract
Equine viral arteritis (EVA) can cause prominent economic losses for the equine industry. The purpose of this review is to provide the pathologist some familiarity with the clinical history, lesions, pathogenesis, and diagnosis of EVA. EVA is caused by an arterivirus (equine arteritis virus, EAV), and the vascular system is the principal but not unique viral target. EVA has variable presentations, including interstitial pneumonia, panvasculitis with edema, thrombosis and hemorrhage, lymphoid necrosis, renal tubular necrosis, abortion, and inflammation of male accessory genital glands. EAV antigen (EAVAg) can be demonstrated within the cytoplasm of epithelial cells such as alveolar pneumocytes, enterocytes, adrenal cortical cells, trophoblasts, thymus stroma, renal tubular cells, and male accessory genital gland cells. It can be also demonstrated within endothelia, in vascular, myometrial, and cardiac myocytes, macrophages, dendritelike cells of lymphoid organs, and chorionic mesenchymal stromal cells. In young and adult horses, following colonization of macrophages, the virus spreads systemically using circulating monocytes and enters the endothelium and tunica media of blood vessels, histiocytes, and dendritelike cells. Eventually, the virus multiplies within renal tubular cells. Lesions are uncommon in the aborted fetus; if present, they are mild, and EAVAg is frequently not detectable within fetal tissues and placenta. The clinical presentation and lesions of EVA may resemble those of other diseases. Complete pathologic examination associated with immunohistochemistry, virus isolation, and, especially in cases of abortion, serology will guarantee a directed and accurate diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Del Piero
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, New Bolton Center, Kennett Square 19348-1692, USA.
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Balasuriya UB, Snijder EJ, van Dinten LC, Heidner HW, Wilson WD, Hedges JF, Hullinger PJ, MacLachlan NJ. Equine arteritis virus derived from an infectious cDNA clone is attenuated and genetically stable in infected stallions. Virology 1999; 260:201-8. [PMID: 10405372 DOI: 10.1006/viro.1999.9817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Virus derived from an infectious cDNA clone of equine arteritis virus (EAV030H) was intranasally inoculated into two stallions, neither of which subsequently developed clinical manifestations of equine viral arteritis (EVA). Virus was isolated from nasal swabs and mononuclear cells collected from both stallions </=14 days p.i. and from the semen of one stallion only at 7 days p.i. Similarly, viral RNA was detected by RT nested-PCR in nasal swabs and mononuclear cells for </=14 days p.i. and at 7 days p.i. in the semen of the one stallion. Both stallions seroconverted to EAV by 10 days p.i. and maintained high neutralizing antibody titers thereafter. Sequence and restriction digestion analysis demonstrated that the recombinant virus present in nasal swabs, mononuclear cells, and semen from the two stallions was identical to the infectious clone-derived virus that was used to inoculate them. Furthermore analysis of multiple clones derived by RT nested-PCR amplification from several samples indicated that the recombinant EAV030H virus was stable during replication in horses. These studies document for the first time that a recombinant virus derived from an infectious cDNA clone of a member of the order Nidovirales is replication competent in animals, and the genetic stability of the recombinant virus during in vivo replication indicates that it will be useful for the characterization of genetic determinants of virulence and persistence of EAV. The genetic conservation of the cloned recombinant virus during in vivo infection is similar to that which occurs during natural horizontal and vertical transmission of EAV in horses and contrasts with the heterogeneous virus population (quasispecies) that occurs in the semen of carrier stallions.
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Affiliation(s)
- U B Balasuriya
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, One Shields Avenue, Davis, California, 95616, USA
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Hedges JF, Balasuriya UB, Ahmad S, Timoney PJ, McCollum WH, Yilma T, MacLachlan NJ. Detection of antibodies to equine arteritis virus by enzyme linked immunosorbant assays utilizing G(L), M and N proteins expressed from recombinant baculoviruses. J Virol Methods 1998; 76:127-37. [PMID: 9923747 DOI: 10.1016/s0166-0934(98)00131-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Indirect enzyme linked immunosorbant assays (ELISAs) utilizing the three major structural proteins (M, N, and G(L)) of equine arteritis virus (EAV) expressed from recombinant baculoviruses were developed. A large panel of sera collected from uninfected horses, and from animals experimentally and naturally infected with EAV or vaccinated with the modified live virus vaccine against equine viral arteritis, were used to characterize the humoral immune response of horses to the three major EAV structural proteins. The data suggest that the M protein was the major target of the equine antibody response to EAV. The responses of individual animals varied and ELISAs that utilized individual EAV structural proteins were not reliable for detecting antibodies in all sera that contained neutralizing antibodies to EAV. An ELISA based on a cocktail of all three EAV structural proteins, however, was used successfully to detect antibodies in most equine sera that were positive in the standard serum neutralization assay following natural or experimental EAV infection (100% specificity, 92.3% sensitivity). In contrast, this ELISA did not reliably detect antibodies in the sera of vaccinated horses. EAV frequently causes a persistent infection in stallions and all sera from carrier stallions evaluated in this study had obvious reactivity with the N protein, whereas seropositive non-carrier stallions, mares and geldings did not respond consistently to the N protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- J F Hedges
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis 95616, USA
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43
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MacLachlan NJ, Balasuriya UB, Hedges JF, Schweidler TM, McCollum WH, Timoney PJ, Hullinger PJ, Patton JF. Serologic response of horses to the structural proteins of equine arteritis virus. J Vet Diagn Invest 1998; 10:229-36. [PMID: 9683071 DOI: 10.1177/104063879801000302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Equine arteritis virus (EAV) is the causative agent of equine viral arteritis, an apparently emerging disease of equids. In this study, the antibody response of horses to the structural proteins of EAV was evaluated using gradient-purified EAV virions and baculovirus-expressed recombinant EAV structural proteins (G(L), G(S), M, N) as antigens in a Western immunoblotting assay. Thirty-three sera from horses that previously had been naturally or experimentally infected with EAV were evaluated, including samples from mares, geldings, and both persistently and nonpersistently infected stallions. Sera also were evaluated from 4 horses that had been vaccinated with the commercial modified live EAV vaccine. The data suggest that the serologic response of individual horses to EAV may vary with the infecting virus strain and duration of infection. The M protein was most consistently recognized by the various serum samples, whereas the response to the N and G(L) proteins was variable and the G(S) protein was bound by only 1 serum sample. The immunoblotting assay definitively established the protein specificity of the humoral response of horses to EAV; however, it clearly is less sensitive than the standard serum neutralization (SN) test--2 of the 37 sera that were seropositive by the SN test failed to react in the immunoblot assay with any EAV structural protein. Furthermore, the G(L) protein expresses the known neutralization determinants of EAV, yet only 22 of the 37 sera that had SN antibodies bound the G(L) protein in the immunoblotting assay. Information from this study will assist ongoing efforts to develop improved methods for the serologic diagnosis of EAV infection of horses.
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Affiliation(s)
- N J MacLachlan
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis 95616, USA
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