An investigation of the relationship between psychopathic traits and malingering on the psychopathic personality inventory

Psychometric validation of the Italian Self-Report Symptoms inventory (SRSI): Factor structure, construct validity, and diagnostic accuracy

The Self-Report Symptom Inventory (SRSI) is a novel tool designed to detect symptom overreporting and other forms of noncredible responding. Unlike existing scales, the SRSI includes genuine and pseudosymptoms scales covering cognitive, affective, motor, pain, and post-traumatic stress disorder domains. The present study aims to investigate the psychometric properties of the Italian Version of the SRSI (SRSI-It), in particular, its factor structure, reliability, convergent and discriminant validity, and diagnostic accuracy. Data from 1180 healthy participants showed a hierarchical structure with higher-order constructs for genuine symptoms and pseudosymptoms, each comprising five subscales. The SRSI-It showed a strong convergent validity with the Structured Inventory of Malingered Symptomatology and discriminant validity through low correlations with the Psychopathic Personality Inventory-Revised. Receiver operating characteristic analysis determined cut scores of 6 (95% specificity) and 9 (98% specificity) for pseudosymptoms, with a Ratio Index score of 0.289 (82% specificity). In summary, the SRSI-It appears to be a promising tool for identifying symptom exaggeration in clinical and forensic contexts, ultimately enhancing the quality and reliability of evaluations in these contexts.

Evaluating the validity of brief prototype-based informant ratings of triarchic psychopathy traits in prisoners

The validity of self-report psychopathy assessment has been questioned, especially in forensic settings where clinical evaluations influence critical decision-making (e.g., institutional placement, parole eligibility). Informant-based assessment offers a potentially valuable supplement to self-report but is challenging to acquire in under-resourced forensic contexts. The current study evaluated, within an incarcerated sample (n = 322), the extent to which brief prototype-based informant ratings of psychopathic traits as described by the triarchic model (boldness, meanness, disinhibition; Patrick et al., 2009) converge with self-report trait scores and show incremental validity in predicting criterion measures. Self/informant convergence was robust for traits of boldness and disinhibition, but weaker for meanness. Informant-rated traits showed incremental predictive validity over self-report traits, both within and across assessment domains. These findings indicate that simple prototype-based informant ratings of the triarchic traits can provide a useful supplement to self-report in assessing psychopathy within forensic-clinical settings.

Behavioral avoidance tasks for eliciting disgust and anxiety in contamination fear: An examination of a test for a combined disgust and fear reaction

While research supports the role of disgust in contamination OCD, there is also an overlap with fear in motivating avoidance. The "heebie-jeebies" is an emotional response associated with fear and disgust that motivates avoidance of contact with skin-transmitted pathogens (e.g., parasites). This motivation aligns with characteristics of contamination OCD. From a screening of undergraduate students (N = 188), contamination fearful (n = 14), high trait-anxious (n = 14), and low trait-anxious (n = 18) groups were created. Participants engaged in disgust, fear, and "heebie-jeebies" behavioral avoidance tasks. Participants rated "heebie-jeebies" emotion, physical sensations, and behavioral urges. Duration or refusal of task was recorded. A significant interaction effect was found for disgust and anxiety. Participants with higher disgust reported higher "heebie-jeebies" emotion at high, but not low, levels of anxiety. Exploratory analyses revealed that many contamination fearful and high trait-anxious participants refused to complete the task. The interaction of disgust and anxiety significantly predicted the probability of refusal. Participants with higher disgust and anxiety were more likely to refuse to complete the task. Results suggest that the "heebie-jeebies" motivates avoidance of skin-transmitted pathogens. Future research is warranted to further investigate the "heebie-jeebies" and how it relates to contamination concerns.

Psychopathy and Intimate Partner Violence

Several studies found that psychopathy is an important predictor of criminal behavior in general and of intimate partner violence in particular. However, these conclusions are often based on scales with less well-established validity, and some inconsistent results have emerged with regard to the contribution of specific psychopathic facets to intimate partner violence. In a sample of 152 batterers from Portugal aged between 22 and 70 years old, we examined whether Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) total scores and the four facets (scored based on a semistructured interview and on file information) predicted the frequency of intimate partner violence. Two separate linear regression analyses were conducted controlling for criminal variables. PCL-R total scores positively predicted intimate partner violence frequency, above and beyond the criminal variables. As for the four facets, only the PCL-R affective facet held a significant effect in predicting intimate partner violence frequency after controlling for criminal variables. These results support the inclusion of psychopathy in risk assessments and treatment of perpetrators of intimate partner violence, particularly with regard to the affective deficits of the construct.

An experiment to assess emotional and physiological arousal and personality correlates while imagining deceit

In order to examine how personality traits, emotional arousal and physiological arousal affect deception confidence, students (N = 102) completed the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire-Revised (EPQ-R) as well as stress and deception tasks while their heart rate variability was measured. Findings indicated psychoticism did not moderate how physiologically aroused participants were while viewing emotionally salient stimuli (video of a road traffic accident) or the thought of enacting deceit, although this came close to significance. However, participants (particularly males) higher in psychoticism reported less subjective distress after imagining enacting deceit than those lower on psychoticism. Extroversion had no impact on physiological arousal when viewing emotionally salient stimuli or thinking about enacting deceit. However, extroverts reported more subjective distress after thinking about enacting deceit than introverts. Also, deception confidence was not correlated to any of these variables. Future research could examine a sample higher in psychoticism and how this trait impacts deception confidence.

Effect of Response Distortion on the Assessment of Divergent Facets of Psychopathy

Recent evidence suggests that the Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI) is composed of two orthogonal factors, one representing traits such as dominance and low anxiety (PPI-I) and a second that reflects more socially deviant aspects of psychopathy (PPI-II). To assess whether response sets differentially affect these factors, the present research reanalyzed data from two dissimulation studies in which college students completed the PPI both honestly and with instructions either to “fake good” (n = 186) or “fake bad” (n = 143). PPI-II scores decreased significantly in the fake-good condition (d = –.86) and increased significantly when faking bad (d = 2.65). PPI-I scores were unaffected by attempts to feign serious psychopathology (d = .10) and actually increased in the fake-good condition (d = .53). These findings significantly qualify previous conclusions about the effect of response distortion on the PPI.

Identifying Careless Responding With the Psychopathic Personality Inventory-Revised Validity Scales

The Psychopathic Personality Inventory-Revised (PPI-R) includes validity scales that assess Deviant Responding (DR), Virtuous Responding, and Inconsistent Responding. We examined the utility of these scales for identifying careless responding using data from two online studies that examined correlates of psychopathy in college students (Sample 1: N = 583; Sample 2: N = 454). Compared with those below the cut scores, those above the cut on the DR scale yielded consistently lower validity coefficients when PPI-R scores were correlated with corresponding scales from the Triarchic Psychopathy Measure. The other three PPI-R validity scales yielded weaker and less consistent results. Participants who completed the studies in an inordinately brief amount of time scored significantly higher on the DR and Virtuous Responding scales than other participants. Based on the findings from the current studies, researchers collecting PPI-R data online should consider identifying and perhaps screening out respondents with elevated scores on the DR scale.

Antisocial features and "faking bad": A critical note

We critically review the literature on antisocial personality features and symptom fabrication (i.e., faking bad; e.g., malingering). A widespread assumption is that these constructs are intimately related. Some studies have, indeed, found that antisocial individuals score higher on instruments detecting faking bad, but others have been unable to replicate this pattern. In addition, studies exploring whether antisocial individuals are especially talented in faking bad have generally come up with null results. The notion of an intrinsic link between antisocial features and faking bad is difficult to test and research in this domain is sensitive to selection bias. We argue that research on faking bad would profit from further theoretical articulation. One topic that deserves scrutiny is how antisocial features affect the cognitive dissonance typically induced by faking bad. We illustrate our points with preliminary data and discuss their implications.

Good Liars Are Neither 'Dark' Nor Self-Deceptive

Deception is a central component of the personality 'Dark Triad' (Machiavellianism, Psychopathy and Narcissism). However, whether individuals exhibiting high scores on Dark Triad measures have a heightened deceptive ability has received little experimental attention. The present study tested whether the ability to lie effectively, and to detect lies told by others, was related to Dark Triad, Lie Acceptability, or Self-Deceptive measures of personality using an interactive group-based deception task. At a group level, lie detection accuracy was correlated with the ability to deceive others—replicating previous work. No evidence was found to suggest that Dark Triad traits confer any advantage either to deceive others, or to detect deception in others. Participants who considered lying to be more acceptable were more skilled at lying, while self-deceptive individuals were generally less credible and less confident when lying. Results are interpreted within a framework in which repeated practice results in enhanced deceptive ability.

Intelligence and Psychopathy Do Not Influence Malingering

This study examined the influence of psychopathy and intelligence on malingering in a simulated malingering design. We hypothesized that participants high in both traits would be more adept at evading detection on performance validity tests (PVTs). College students (N = 92) were first administered the Wechsler Test of Adult Reading, a reading measure that estimates intelligence, and the Psychopathic Personality Inventory-Short Form under standard conditions. They were then asked to imagine as if they had suffered a concussion a year ago and were instructed to fake or exaggerate symptoms in a believable fashion to improve their settlement as part of a lawsuit. Participants were subsequently administered a brief neuropsychological battery that included the Word Memory Test, Rey 15-Item Test with Recognition, Finger-Tapping Test, and Digit Span from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Fourth Edition. Moderated multiple regressions with hierarchical entry were conducted. Intelligence, psychopathy, and the interaction of intelligence and psychopathy were not related to performance on any of the PVTs. In other words, participants who scored higher on intelligence and psychopathy did not perform differently on these measures compared with other participants. Though a null finding, implications of this study are discussed in terms of the broader research and clinical literature on malingering.

Exaggerated intergroup bias in economical decision making games: differential effects of primary and secondary psychopathic traits

Psychopathic personality traits are linked with selfish and non-cooperative responses during economical decision making games. However, the possibility that these responses may vary when responding to members of the in-group and the out-group has not yet been explored. We aimed to examine the effects of primary (selfish, uncaring) and secondary (impulsive, irresponsible) psychopathic personality traits on the responses of non-offending participants to the in-group and the out-group (defined in terms of affiliation to a UK University) across a series of economical decision making games. We asked a total of 60 participants to act as the proposer in both the dictator game and the ultimatum game. We found that across both tasks, those who scored highly for secondary psychopathic traits showed an elevated intergroup bias, making more generous offers toward members of the in-group relative to the out-group. An exaggerated intergroup bias may therefore represent a motivational factor for the antisocial behavior of those with elevated secondary psychopathic traits.

Distinguishing primary and secondary variants of callous-unemotional traits among adolescents in a clinic-referred sample

The current study used model-based cluster analyses to determine if there are 2 distinct variants of adolescents (ages 11-18) high on callous-unemotional (CU) traits that differ on their level of anxiety and history of trauma. The sample (n = 272) consisted of clinic-referred youths who were primarily African American (90%) and who came from low-income families. Consistent with hypotheses, 3 clusters emerged, including a group low on CU traits, as well as 2 groups high on CU traits that differed in their level of anxiety and past trauma. Consistent with past research on incarcerated adults and adolescents, the group high on anxiety (i.e., secondary variant) was more likely to have histories of abuse and had higher levels of impulsivity, externalizing behaviors, aggression, and behavioral activation. In contrast, the group low on anxiety (i.e., primary variant) scored lower on a measure of behavioral inhibition. On measures of impulsivity and externalizing behavior, the higher scores for the secondary cluster were found only for self-report measures, not on parent-report measures. Youths in the primary cluster also were perceived as less credible reporters than youths in the secondary cluster (i.e., secondary variant) or cluster low on CU traits. These reporter and credibility differences suggest that adolescents within the primary variant may underreport their level of behavioral disturbance, which has important assessment implications.

Psychopathy and internalizing psychopathology

There is general consensus in clinical and research literature that the core feature of psychopathy consists of an affective deficit. However, previous studies tend to find weak and inconsistent associations between psychopathy and measures of internalizing psychopathology. In this study we test whether the predominant practice of using questionnaires to assess internalizing psychopathology has influenced the results of previous research. We argue that questionnaires measure general distress rather than specific symptoms of internalizing psychopathology, and that the validity of questionnaires might be impaired by psychopathic traits, such as impression management and lack of affective experience. Combining a questionnaire (Depression Anxiety Stress Scales-21; DASS-21) and a semi-structured interview (Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-R Axis 1 Disorders; SCID-I) for internalizing psychopathology, we test the differential association of both measures with the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) in a sample of 89 male detainees. In accordance with our prediction, we found moderate negative associations between the Interpersonal and Affective facets of the PCL-R and SCID-I, but no significant associations with the DASS-21. We found no evidence that psychopathic traits decrease the validity of the responses on a questionnaire. We conclude that the interpersonal and affective features of psychopathy are negatively related to specific symptoms of internalizing psychopathology, but not with general distress.

Psychopathy and nonverbal indicators of deception in offenders

The current study examined psychopathy and nonverbal indicators of deception in an incarcerated sample. Nonverbal behaviors were coded from videotapes of 45 male offenders telling true and fabricated stories about crimes. Interpersonal features of psychopathy were associated with inflated views of lying ability, verbosity, and increases in blinking, illustrator use, and speech hesitations. While lying, the more psychopathic offenders spoke faster and demonstrated increases in blinking and head movements. Indicators of deception in offenders were somewhat different from those typically observed in non-offender populations. These findings indicate that personality factors may have an impact on nonverbal indicators of deception in criminal justice settings where the detection of deception is of utmost concern.

The detection of malingered post-traumatic stress disorder

The detection of malingered PTSD is made particularly challenging by the subjective nature of PTSD criteria and requires a thorough, systematic approach. The psychiatrist must gather and analyze evidence from the evaluation, clinical records, psychologic testing, third parties, and other sources. Although some individuals may malinger PTSD to avoid criminal sanctions, the most common motivation for malingering PTSD is financial gain. Clinical nuances may help distinguish genuine from malingered PTSD. The psychiatrist should be aware of the differences observed between civilian and combat-related PTSD. Although special effort is required, the psychiatrist bears considerable responsibility to assist society in differentiating true PTSD from malingering.Undetected malingering is not limited simply to fraudulent monetary awards, but can involve misuse of limited mental health resources, leading to negative consequences for the mental health system. As Burkett aptly notes, malingered combat PTSD cases "take time, energy, and financial resources away from treating true combat veterans with PTSD. And real combat vets who truly need help end up in group therapy with phonies, get disgusted, and quit treatment".

Psychopathy factors and risk for aggressive behavior: a test of the "threatened egotism" hypothesis

The primary purpose of this study was to examine psychopathy within a model of aggressive behavior that encompasses narcissism and "threatened egoism." This model was advanced by Baumeister and his colleagues (e.g., R. F. Baumeister, L. Smart, & J. M. Boden, 1996; B. J. Bushman & R. F. Baumeister, 1998). We examined whether the threatened egotism model extends to the construct of psychopathy and whether the two factors underlying psychopathy exhibit different associations with aggression within this model. Self-report data, correctional officer and counselor reports, and disciplinary report information obtained for 98 male inmates provided partial evidence that psychopathic individuals tend to respond aggressively when confronted with an ego threat. Moreover, psychopathic individuals exhibited this pattern of aggression more strongly than did narcissistic individuals. These findings bear potentially useful implications for the understanding and treatment of aggression in forensic populations.

Factors differentiating successful versus unsuccessful malingerers

Relatively little is known about the processes in which "successful" malingerers engage to avoid detection. This study summarizes the response strategies used by participants (N = 540) instructed to feign a specific mental disorder while completing various self-report instruments designed to detect faking. Postexperiment questionnaires indicated that those who were able to appear symptomatic while avoiding being detected as feigning (n = 60) were more likely to endorse a lower rate of legitimate symptoms, to avoid overly unusual or bizarre items, and to base their responses on their own personal experiences.

Further validation of the psychopathic personality inventory among offenders: personality and behavioral correlates

The Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI; Lilienfeld & Andrews, 1996) is a relatively new self-report measure that has shown considerable promise as an index of psychopathic traits in both nonoffender and offender samples. The present study examined the construct validity and predictive utility of the PPI by examining its association with theoretically relevant scales of the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI; Morey, 1991) among 60 male prison inmates, and its ability to predict institutional misbehavior in an expanded sample (n = 89). As expected, correlations with the PAI scales were highest for the Antisocial Features (ANT) and Aggression (AGG) scales (rs = .68 and .57, respectively). The PPI also predicted various forms of nonviolent and physically aggressive disciplinary infractions significantly better than chance (point biserial correlations ranging from .26 to .37).

Assessment of "juvenile psychopathy" and its association with violence: a critical review

Interest in the construct of psychopathy as it applies to children and adolescents has become an area of considerable research interest in the past 5-10 years, in part due to the clinical utility of psychopathy as a predictor of violence among adult offenders. Despite interest in "juvenile psychopathy" in general and its relationship to violence in particular, relatively few studies specifically have examined whether operationalizations of this construct among children and adolescents predict various forms of aggression. This article critically reviews this literature, as well as controversies regarding the assessment of adult psychopathic "traits" among juveniles. Existing evidence indicates a moderate association between measures of psychopathy and various forms of aggression, suggesting that this construct may be relevant for purposes of short-term risk appraisal and management among juveniles. However, due to the enormous developmental changes that occur during adolescence and the absence of longitudinal research on the stability of this construct (and its association with violence), we conclude that reliance on psychopathy measures to make decisions regarding long-term placements for juveniles is contraindicated at this time.